Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MI-588
2012-2013
Objectives of this course and what is
expected of you
Definition:
A Well organized method of converting raw material to end
product
Material removal in the form of chips by applying forces on the work material
with a wedge shaped cutting tool that is harder than the work material under
machining condition. Such forces induce plastic deformation within the work
piece leading to shear deformation along the shear plane and chip formation.
The tool need not be harder than the work piece material
EDM - Copper is used to machine hardened steels.
Types of Energy
USM, AJM, WJM - mechanical energy
ECM - electrochemical dissolution constitutes material removal
Processes
• Mechanical
• Thermoelectric
• Chemical
• Electrochemical
and HYBRIDS
Classification
Energy Mechanism Transfer Energy Processes
Media Source
Mechanical Erosion High Vel. Pneumatic/Hy AJM, USM,
Particles draulic WJM
Electrochemical Ion Electrolyte High Current ECM, ECG
Displacement
Chemical Ablative Reactive Corrosive CHM
Action Environment Agent
Thermoelectric Fusion Hot Gases Ionized IBM, PAM
Material
Electrons High Voltage EDM
Vaporization Radiation Amplified LBM
Light
Ion Stream Ionized PAM
Material
Situations where conventional processes
are not satisfactory or even possible
HARDNESS & FRACTURE PRESSURE, TEMP and FINISH AMPLIFICATION STATIC LOAD
TOUGHNESS FLOW RATE &
ACCURACY
V = V1f = K1K2K3(h3/2/R1/2)f
USM Process Capabilities
• HRC less than 40 – poor MRR
• HRC greater than 60 – Excellent process economy
• Holes as small as 0.076 mm
• Holes as deep as 152 mm (with optimum flushing)
• Aspect Ratio 40:1
• SR – Best #800 (0.25µ)
• Nondirectional Surface
USM Process Capabilities
• Excellent process for machining carbides, ferrites, germanium,
ceramics, glass, tungsten
• Making press tools, dies, wire drawing equipment and other
components made of hard alloys
• Slicing semi-conductors components (e.g. for cutting circular
wafers 1 to 30 mm diameter from germanium and silicon rods
• The automotive applications of machining ceramic engine
components
• The electronics applications vary from machining ceramic
substrates to drilling holes in borosilicate glass for the sensors
• Machining watch bearings and jewels
• Drilling small holes in helicopter power transmission shafts
and gears
• Cutting of thermoplastic or combined natural thermoplastic
tissues
Process Variants
Disadvantages
1. Tool Wear
2. Frequent Tuning
3. Low MRR
4. Uneconomical for soft materials
5. The accuracy of the machined surface is lost if the axis of the tool and horn is
misaligned with the transducer axis
6. Tendency of the holes to break out at the bottom (static load and amplitude)
7. Bottom of the hole can't be machined flat (ineffective slurry circulation, fewer active
grains are present under the tool face)
AJM
Abrasive Jet Machining
AJM (Microblast, Bead Blasting)
• Carrier gas
– Composition – Air, CO2, N2
– Density – Air ~ 1.3 kg/m3
– Velocity – 500 ~ 700 m/s
– Pressure – 2 ~ 10 bar
– Flow rate – 5 ~ 30 lpm
Process Parameters - AJM
• Abrasive Jet
– Velocity – 100 ~ 300 m/s
– Mixing ratio – M=Va / Vg (Volume flow rate)
– Stand-off distance – 0.75 ~ 1 mm (high MRR)
– 12.5 ~ 75 mm (cleaning, frosting)
– Impingement Angle – 600 ~ 900
– Mass ratio – α = (M a / M a + c )
• Nozzle
– Material – WC / sapphire
– Diameter – (Internal) 0.12 ~ 1.25 mm
– Orifice dimensions (rectangular) – 0.07 x 0.5 mm to 0.17 x 3.8 mm
– Life – 30 ~ 300 hours
Machining Chracteristics - AJM
• MRR
• Machining accuracy
• Nozzle life (stray cutting, inaccuracy)
Effect of Process Parameters - AJM
Effect of Process Parameters - AJM
Effect of Process Parameters - AJM
Effect of Process Parameters - AJM
Process Capabilities - AJM
• Quality finish
Materials cut by the abrasive
jet have a smooth, satin-like
finish, similar to a fine
sandblasted finish
• Minimal burr
No heavy burrs are produced
by the AJM. Parts can often be
used directly without deburring
• Narrow slots (0.12 – 0.25
mm)
• Low tolerance 0.12mm
• SR – (0.25 – 1.25 µm) 0.025 wafer thin walls
Process Capabilities - AJM
• Cuts in wood
• Steels – 1.5 mm
• Glass – 6.3 mm
Process Capabilities - AJM
Water
Jewel
Water Jet Machining
Catcher
• Reduce noise levels (mach-3 to sub-
sonic)
• Reservoir for collecting machined
debris
• Small diameter pipe with vacuum
discharge port
• Types – steel/ceramic balls;
impingement disc/catcher plates;
catcher basin for large systems
Water Jet Machining
Catcher
Water Jet Machining
Process Parameters
• Pressure (exit pressure) –
higher the better
• Nozzle Diameter - higher the
better !
• Traverse Rate – lower the
better
• Standoff Distance (3 to 25 mm)
Water Jet Machining
Process Parameters
Water Jet Machining
MRR
Q= CD (p/4)D2v
v = (2p/ρ)1/2
where, CD is orifice coefficient (0.7), p is the pressure, ρ is density of
cutting fluid, D is diameter of nozzle
Water Jet Machining
Application
s
• Food Nickel alloys
• Plastic Titanium
• Foam Tool steels
• Paper Glass !
• Rubber Marble
Brass
Copper
Wood
Rubber
Paper
Plastics
Water Jet Machining
Application
s
Cutting
Slitting
Cable Stripping
Edge finishing
Radiusing
De-burring
Polishing
Water Jet Machining
Advantages
• The water stream makes very little noise.
• Chips or waste is moved out of the way of the cutting process
• No crushing or burning of the work surface
• Minimum material loss because of the narrow cut slit
• No environmental pollution
• Easy automation
• Omni-directional cutting capabilities
• No tool resharpning
Water Jet Machining
Advantages
90
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Material Removal in AWJM
91
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Material Removal in AWJM
92
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Material Removal in AWJM
93
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Cut generated - kerf
Top of the kerf (bt) is wider than the
bottom of the kerf (bb).
bt is equal to the diameter of AWJ
Diameter of AWJ is equal to the
diameter of the focussing tube or the
insert if the stand-off distance (SOD) is
around 1 to 5 mm.
Taper angle of the kerf can be reduced
by increasing the cutting ability of the
AWJ.
94
Material Removal in AWJM
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Surface quality at the top of the kerf is rather good
compared to the bottom part.
At the bottom there is repeated curved line formation.
At the top, the material removal is by low angle impact
of the abrasive particle; where as at the bottom, it is by
plastic failure.
95
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Material Removal in AWJM
Where
u - Constant that depends on the work material
cd - Discharge coefficient of the orifice
do - diameter of the orifice
pw - Pressure of water
w - Density of water
96
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
97
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Exit side of the kerf.
98
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Striation formation.
Surface finish of the kerf.
Tapering of the kerf.
Burr formation on the exit side of the kerf.
99
Abrasive Water Jet Machining
Process variables
Pressure
Nozzle diameter
Standoff distance
Abrasive type and grit number
Workpiece feed rate
An abrasive water jet cuts through 356.6 mm thick slabs of concrete or 76.6-mm-
thick tool steel plates at 38 mm/min in a single pass.
Surface roughness ranges between 3.8 and 6.4 μm (for WJM minus 1)
Tolerance - 0.13 mm.
Repeatability - 0.04 mm.
Straightness – 0.05 mm per axis length.
100
Introduction
Processing of Materials
Secondary
Processing
Thermal
MRR
Damage Machining
Thermal
Process- LBM,
PAM, EBM etc.
Conventional
EDM
Mechanical Unconventional
Process – USM,
AJM etc.
Thermoelectric
Mechanism
EDM
• (2) types of machines
W = 1/2 E I t
where, W - Discharge energy, E - Voltage
I - Current, t - Time
Tool materials: High melting-point
Good electrical conductivity
Cheap and readily shaped
.
ol
ia
D
eD
ol
ia
To
.
hole diameter - tool diameter
ROC =
2
Workpiece Tool
material characteristics
Material
Size
Conductivity Gain
Lift time
EDM
Performance
Type of flushing
Voltage
Viscosity Discharge gap
Current
Pulse-on time
Polarity
Pulse-off time
Electrical
Dielectric parameters
Stepped cavities produced with a square electrode by the EDM process. The
workpiece moves in the two principle horizontal directions (x – y), and its motion is
synchronized with the downward movement of the electrode to produce these
cavities
EDM
• Applications
– Finish geometry for molds ( die sinking)
• Ram
– Punch & dies for blanking, shearing, and progressive die
tooling
• Wire
Die Industry – 50%
Tool Rooms – 30 %
Aerospace – 10%
Automotive – 5%
Others – 5%
Advantages - EDM
• No cutting force
• Burrless
• High aspect ratio
• High accuracy
• Intricate cavities
• Unaffected by hardness
Disadvantages - EDM
• Low material removal
• High consumption of electrodes
• Electrically conductive
• Complex electrodes require time for
fabrication
WEDM
WEDM
• This process is similar to contour cutting with a band
saw
• Slow moving wire travels along a prescribed path,
cutting the work piece with discharge sparks
• Brass, copper, molybdenum steel or tungsten wire
(0.03-0.15-0.3 mm)
• Easily computer controlled
• Gap – 0.025 – 0.05 mm
Equipment - WEDM
• Positioning System
– Adaptive Control CNC (2 axis)
• Wire Drive System
– Deliver fresh wire, constant wire tension
• Power Supply
– Same as conventional EDM
– Less than 20 Amp of current
• Dielectric System
– Low viscosity, high cooling rate, no fire hazard, high MRR
Process Parameters - WEDM
• Pulse current
• Pulse-on time (µs)
• Pulse-off time (µs)
• Wire feed (m/min)
• Wire tension (g)
• Flushing pressure (kg/cm2)
WEDM
• Wire should have sufficient tensile strength
and fracture toughness
• Wire is used once
• Cutting path must contain straight lines
• Slow cutting speed (100 mm/hr in 25 mm steel)
• Wire breakage is a problem
Process Capabilities-WEDM
• Cutting rate – 38-115 mm/hr (25 mm steel)
• Wire Speed – 8-42 mm/sec
• SR – 0.12 – 0.25 µ (0.05 – 12 µ)
• Resolution – 0.001 mm
• Accuracy - ± 0.0025 mm
• Cutting thickness – 200 mm
Process Capabilities-WEDM
Mechanical
Ultrasonic Grinding
Electrical Discharge Grinding (EDG)
I = current
MMR KI K = workpiece material factor
Electrical Discharge Grinding (EDG)
Electrical Discharge Grinding (EDG)
• 0.5 – 200 A
• 40-80 V
• 50-250 kHz
• 0.2 – 0.3 µm
• 2 – 3 times faster than diamond grinding
Electrical Discharge Diamond Grinding (EDDG)
Electrical Discharge Diamond Grinding (EDDG)
Note: MRR = metal removal rate; tolerance = tolerance maintained; surface finish =
surface finish required; damage depth = depth of surface damage; ECM =
electrochemical machining; EDM = electro-discharge machining; CNC = computer
numerical control machining.
Advantages over EDM
• Faster than EDM
• No tool wear at all
• No heat affected zone
• Better finish and accuracy
Disadvantages
• More expensive than conventional machining
• Need more area for installation
• Electrolytes may destroy the equipment
• Not environmentally friendly (sludge and other waste)
• High energy consumption
• Material has to be electrically conductive
Applications
• The most common application of ECM is high accuracy duplication.
Because there is no tool wear, it can be used repeatedly with a high
degree of accuracy
• It is also used to make cavities and holes in various products
• Sinking operations (RAM ECM) are also used as an alternative to
RAM EDM
• It is commonly used on thin walled, easily deformable and brittle
material because they would probably develop cracks with
conventional machining
Applications
(a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top
pieces) with an ultra-high molecular-weight polyethylene insert (bottom
pieces). (b) Cross-section of the ECM process as applies to the metal
implant. Source: Courtesy of Biomet, Inc.
Economics
• The process is economical when a large number of complex
identical products need to be made (at least 50 units)
• The tool and the work piece must be grounded before any
handling is performed
Safety Consideration
• Hydrogen gas emitted is very flammable, so it should be disposed of
properly and fire precautions should be taken
• Different from ECM, the cathode does not necessarily have the shape of
the contour desired in the anode work piece. Three-dimensional shaping
in EMM may involve maskless or through-mask material removal.
• The tool may also be connected to a CNC machine to produce even more
complex shapes with a single tool.
µ-ECM
µ-ECM
• Micro ECM - - - - - the gap is closer to 15-20 microns
• Micro ECM - - - - - the feature sizes to 15-20 microns
• Requires filtration
• Common electrolytes
– NaCl
– NaNO3
Electrochemical Grinding
• Abrasives acts as spacers (maintain IEG)
• EC cylindrical grinding
• EC surface grinding
• EC internal grinding
• EC form grinding
Electrochemical Grinding
• Zone 1 – EC dissolution
• Zone 3 – EC dissolution
Metal removal mechanisms in ECG
Electrochemical Grinding
• DC 4-14 V
• I = 50-3000 A.
• A rule of thumb for estimating metal removal rate for most materials
is 0.16 cm3/min for each 100 A of applied current.
Electrochemical Grinding
• Wheel speed: 25-35 m/s
• Tolerances: 0.005 mm
ECG Advantages
• Hone –
– Composed of abrasive grains that are
bound together with an adhesive
– Irregular shape
– 10 to 50 µm
– Silicon carbide, cubic boron
nitride, diamond etc.
Electrochemical Honing
Electrochemical Honing
0.075-0127 mm
Electrochemical Honing
Electrochemical Honing
– Accuracy - ± 0.012 mm
ECH ensures
• Reduction in roundness errors
• Reduction in taper
• Reduction in waviness
• Production of stress and burr – free
parts
• Machine materials that are sensitive to
heat and distortion
Electrochemical Super finishing
Electrochemical Super finishing
• Undesirable
• Performance of component
• Safety of an operator
• Burr - 3D (length, height, thickness) raised edge or small pieces of
material remaining attached to a workpiece after a modification
process
Electrochemical Deburring (ECDe)
• Compressive burr
• Corner
• Feather burr
• Edge Burr
• Flash Burr
• Entrance/Exit Burr
• Hanging burr
Electrochemical Deburring (ECDe)
• NaCl,
• NaNO2
• NaNO3
Electrochemical Deburring (ECDe)
• Electrode
• Brass, Copper, SS
• Insulated
• Flow of electrolyte?
• Burr Orientation ?
Electrochemical Deburring (ECDe)
Electrochemical Deburring (ECDe)
• 1000- 2000 A
• 7-25 V
• Time 5- 50 seconds
• Hollow (or bit), shaped tube (titanium) covered with thin insulating
coating (uniform coating) on all surfaces except at the tip
• Coating protects electrode from the corrosive effects of the acid and
isolates the electrolytic action to front surface
Shaped-Tube Electrolytic Machining (STEM)
• SR 0.8 to 3.1 µm
• Machine base, fixture etc. are madeup of Ti, SS, Plastics & Ceramics
Process Parameters
• Voltage
• Electrolytic pressure
Hole Diameter (mm) Diameter Tolerance Straightness (mm/mm)
0.5 - 1.0 ± 0.025 – 0.050 0.001 – 0.002
1.0 – 2.0 ± 0.025 – 0.075 0.002 – 0.003
2.0 – 4.0 ± 0.050 – 0.100 0.002 – 0.003
4.0 – 7.0 ± 0.075 – 0.125 0.002 – 0.003
Shaped-Tube Electrolytic Machining (STEM)
Advantages
• No HAZ
• No burrs
• No stresses
• Corrosive electrolyte
• Expensive electrodes
SOURCE : EBOOK NONTRADITIONAL AND HYBRID MACHINING PROCESSES HASSAN EL HOFY (2005)
Electrochemical discharge machining (ECDM)
• ECDM=EDM+ECM
gas bubbles.
– The first step is the microscopic formation of H2 by an electrochemical process:
– The second step is the macroscopic formation of bubbles by accumulation of the dissolved H2
in the vicinity of the electrode:
Bubble Layer
• The bubbles around a gas evolving electrode form a bubble layer
structured in three regions
In the adherence region the bubbles
adhere to the electrode surface and
grow. The typical thickness of this
layer is the mean bubble diameter.
• Typical values of voltage for glass are around 30 V and for ceramics
and composite materials are about 50-80 V needed
(a) Micro-grooves
(b) enlarged micro-grooves
(c) micro-pillar
(d) micro-wall
(e) and (f) micro-pyramid
machined on glass by
ECDM
Process Capabilities
• 2D and 3D Machining
• Electrodes
• Processing cell
• Power supply
• Positioning system
Comparison of EDM, ECM and ECDM
M. Sen, H.S. Shan / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 45 (2005) 137–152
Electrostream Drilling (ESD)
• Poor accuracy
Process Capabilities
• High-aspect ratio holes (40:1 in penetration drilling, 10:1 in dwell
drilling)
• No burrs, No induced residual stress, Negligible damage, No HAZ,
No tool wear
• Multiple hole drilling
• Speed - 1.5 mm/min
• Shallow holes with any angle (750)
• SR - 0.25 – 1.67 µm
• Bell mouth entrance
Electrostream Drilling (ESD)
Process Capabilities
Electrostream Drilling (ESD)
Process Capabilities
Electron Beam Machining
Classification of NTM processes
EBM uses Thermo-electric Energy.
Drilling by electron beam
Number – 25600
Diameter – 0.55mm
Material –
anticorrosion steel
Electron Beam Machining
• High intensity of electron beam energy (109 W/cm2)
Requires Vaccum !
• Electrons with air molecules --- crash
• Electron beam energy decreases with increase in distance in air
EBM
• High-energy focused
electron beam in pulsed
mode is made to impinge
on the workpiece with a
spot size (10 – 100 µm)
• Kinetic energy of the high
velocity electrons is
converted to heat energy
as the electrons strike the
work material (“melt –
vaporisation”)
• The molten material is
expelled from the cutting
zone by the high vapour
pressure at the lower part
EBM
Manufacturing,
Engineering &
Technology,
Fifth Edition, by
Serope
Kalpakjian and
Steven R.
Schmid.
Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process ISBN 0-13-
148965-8. ©
Unlike LBM, this process requires a vacuum, so workpiece size is 2006 Pearson
Education, Inc
limited to the size of the vacuum chamber
Electron gun - a triode
EBM
EBM
• Electromagnetic lens
– Focusses on the desired spot
• Deflection coil
– Manoeuvre EB by small amount, to improve shape of the machined holes
EBM
POWER SUPPLY
• Pulsed DC
• Lens current
• Spot size
• Power density
EBM Process Parameters
l/d ratio of 10
No burr
Any known material (SS, steel, Ti, Al, plastics, ceramics, leathers
EBM Process Capabilities
• Thermal damages are associated with EBM. However, the HAZ is
rather narrow (shorter pulse duration in EBM).
• HAZ (20 to 30 µm)
• No cutting force
• Machining of fragile and brittle materials
• Shallow angle of as less as 20o to 30o
• Produces finer surface finish and narrower cut width than other
thermal cutting processes
EBM Process Capabilities
EBM Applications
– Perforating of sheet
• Need of a vacuum
• High energy required
• Expensive equipment
• Slow for mass production
• Generates hazardous X rays
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
Electron Ion
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
• Ion Beam Milling, Ion Beam Etching, FIB, IB Deposition etc…
• 1852 – Sputtering by Grove ---- deposition of metal on glass walls
of glow discharge tube
– Ejection of atoms from a surface when it is bombarded with
other ions.
or
An ionized/excited atom will eventually return to its ground state, accompanied by the
emission of one or more x-rays/photons.
•An electron ejected from its atomic orbit is
called a secondary electron. It may further
ionize or excite another atom, resulting in the
emission of more x-rays/photons.
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
1 kV (Acceleration)
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
Heated Tungsten Filament
10-4 Torr
1 kV (Acceleration)
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
• Plasma sources generate plasmas.
Ar e Ar 2e
• The perforations in each of the sheets are aligned above one another.
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
- Third grid
• Maintained (at the anode potential)
- Ground Electrodes
• Ground Electrodes are used for extracting positively charged
ions from the source that combine downstream to form a broad
beam.
• Individual electrodes in close proximity to the extraction
electrode can be biased to inhibit back streaming of
neutralizing electrons close to the source or back to the
extraction electrode.
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
Applications
• Ion beams can be used for sputtering or ion beam etching and for ion
beam analysis.
sidewall edge
tip
Ion Beam Machining (IBM)
Advantages
• Low temperature processing reduces handling an stress problems.
• No dimensional changes
• Vacuum is needed
Plasma Arc Cutting/PAM
PAC
PAC
Plasma Arc Cutting/PAM
• Plasma
• Ionized gas that results from heating a material to
extremely high temperature
• Composed of free e- that have disassociated from main
gas atoms, protons and neutrons
• In plasma state, gas becomes responsive to electricity and
magnetism
• Temperature 33000oC (High velocity jet 10,000-14,000oC)
• TIG welder – constricted by passing arc through
4.5mm Ø water cooled copper nozzle
PAC
PAC
PAC
• PAC is a thermal material removal
process that is primarily used for
cutting thick sections of electrically
conductive materials.
• PAC uses a high velocity jet of plasma
to cut through the metal by melting it.
• The high gas flow rate facilitate the
removal of molten metal through the
kerf
• 1000 A at 200 V DC
• Plasma velocity – several hundred m/s
PAC
• Principal
• The number of collisions between atoms increase
• Gases ionize (creation of e- and ions)
• e- collide with atoms, exite them
• De-excitation light is emitted from atoms resulting in more e-
and ions – formation of plasma
Types of Arcs
Non-Transferred Arc
• DC power source – connected
directly across cathode and
nozzle
• Cathode and Nozzle carry same
current
• Plasma is formed as flame
• Heat is lost in useless heating of
nozzle
• Generated arc is between the
electrode and the nozzle and
heat is carried to the work-piece η = 65-75%
by the plasma gas
Types of Arcs
Transferred Arc:
• Cathode is connected directly to
negative DC source
• Anode nozzle is connected to positive
through a suitable resistor to limit the
current through nozzle upto 50 A
• W/P is connected directly to positive of
supply
• Once ignited, a pilot plasma flame is
established b/w cathode and anode.
• Electro-thermal efficiency is 20-30 %
more than non-transferred mode
• Generated arc is between the
electrode and the work-piece
η = 85-90%
Gases Used
Primary Gases:
Gases that are used to create the plasma arc are nitrogen, argon,
hydrogen or mixture of them
Secondary Gases (O2, CO2, Argon-Hydrogen) or Water:
Surrounds the electric arc to aid in confining it and removing the
molten material.
System Components
Torch
Power Supply
Gas Supply
Arc Starting Circuit
Cooling System
www.twi.co.uk/j32k/servlet/ getFile/jk51.html
System Components
A. The Torch:
• The torch is the holder
of the electrode and
nozzle
• Responsible for
forming the arc and
maintain it in a vortex
• Zirconium, Hafnium
and tungsten (!!!)
Groover 626
System Components
B. Power Supply:
• Constant DC current
source
• Speed and cut thickness
are determine by the
amount of output
current
System Components
C. Arc Starting Circuit:
• High frequency generator
circuit that produces high
AC (5,000 to 10,000 volts at
approximately 2 megahertz)
• To start the arc, the AC
ionizes the cutting gas,
which makes it conductive
to allow the DC current to
flow through it
System Components
A. The Torch:
Types of Torches:
Air Plasma Torch
Oxygen-Injected Torch
Water Injected Torch
Dual Gas Torch
Types of Torches
cutting
Process Capabilities- PAC
• Normal applications 3-75mm thick (150 mm)
• Cutting Speed
– S (m/min) = 25.4/t (for 500 A plasma)
• Tolerances ± 0.8 mm for less than 25 mm thick
» ± 3 mm for greater than 25 mm thick
• Taper = 5 -7 o
• SR = 5 µm and above
Other Plasma Uses
• Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)- plasma arc is produced
and aimed at the weld area to weld.
Coherent Light:
Coherent light is uniform in frequency, amplitude, continuity and constant initial
phase difference.
Coherent beam of light is obtained due to stimulated emission of photons from the
atoms jumping from meta-stable state to lower energy state.
Power Density of electric Bulb is 110000 times lesser than 100W laser with a 1 cm diameter
beam at a distance of 1m (127 W/cm2)
Using a lens for focussing at a spot of 0.127mm, the power density increases to more than
800000 W/cm2
Factors: Power Density and Interaction time
E0 E0
Atom hν
Before absorption After absorption
b) Spontaneous Emission:
An excited atom can stay in the higher energy state only for the time of 10-
8 s. After this time, it returns back to the lower energy state by emitting a
E0
Before emission
E1
hν
E0
Atom
After emission
c) Stimulated Emission:
When photon of suitable size (energy) is showered (made to fall) on an
excited atom in the higher energy state, the atom falls back to the ground
state by emitting a photon of energy hν = E1 – E0 which is in phase with
the stimulating (incident) photon.
Thus, it results in the appearance of one additional photon. This process is
called ‘stimulated or induced emission’.
Atom
E1
hν
E0
Before emission
E1
hν hν
hν
Atom E0
After emission
d) Population Inversion and Optical Pumping:
To emit photons which are coherent (in same phase), the number of
atoms in the higher energy state must be greater than that in the ground
state (lower energy).
The process of making population of atoms in the higher energy state
more than that in the lower energy state is known as ‘population
inversion’.
The method by which a population inversion is affected is called
‘optical pumping’. In this process atoms are raised to an excited state by
injecting into system photon of frequency different from the stimulating
frequency.
E2 Excited State
E0 Ground State
Atoms
Atoms
E2 Excited State
hν
E1 Meta Stable State
hν
hν
E0 Ground State
Pumping
E2 E2
E1 E1
Atoms hν’
Atoms hν’
E0 E0 hν’
Rapid fall after 10-8 s After Stimulated Emission
e. Higher precision & less heat affected zone vs. CO2 &
Nd:YAG lasers
i. High efficiency.
B. Non-Ferrous Metals:
i. Mostly less efficient than cutting steel, due to the higher reflectivity,
thermal conductivity & less efficient oxidation reaction
•Non contact
• Good edge quality (square ,clean and no burrs)
• Very narrow HAZ, low heat input
• Very high repeatability and reliability
• Virtually any material can be cut
• Can loose up to 45% of the mark and you can still read it
Developments in Laser Marking
• High beam quality, high efficiency
laser sources give high quality
marks on metals at increased
speeds
•Better “engraving”
performance on metals
•Internal glass marking
Photomask Technique
Advantages
i. Submicron depth control by controlling the
number of pulses used.
ii. High process repeatability.
Marking
Laser Welding
•Established in the early 80’s
•Now used on many production lines
•Used for welds with requirements of low distortion
and high speed.
•Weldments are placed with gap less than 5% of its
thickness
•Shielding gases like argon or He are used to
prevent oxidation
•Low volume applications and subcontract limited
to niche areas such as mould tool repair, jewellery
and dentistry
Welding
Key features of deep penetration laser welding include:
•High energy density – Keyhole welding
• High processing speeds
• Rapid start / stop
• Welds at atmospheric pressures
• No filler required
•Narrow welds
• Very accurate welding possible
• Good weld bead profiles
• No beam wander in magnetic fields
• Little or no contamination
•Weld penetration – 2.5 mm
Welding
Orthodontic Bracket
Other Laser Welding applications
• Temper
• Laser Hardening Laser hardening
• Laser fusing / cladding (depositing a
hardwearing corrosion resistant surface
• Alloying surfaces
• Nitrate
• Treat many different materials
Surface treatments
Special hardening process for titanium
Industrial sectors
Aerospace
Automotive
Marine
Laser Forming
•Potential application in difficult to form
materials
Laser forming of GLARE (metal
composite) as used in the A380
Internal Surfacea
Abrasive Flow Machining
Media Cylinder-1
Flange
Media Cylinder-2
processes and
AFM medium quickly abrades the peaks of the rough micro surface at
the first, after which the valleys become slightly abraded as the peaks
flatten into plateaus. Eventually a smooth and uniform profile is
produced with no trace of the original surface
AFM - ELEMENTS
Medium viscosity
Extrusion Pressure
Medium rheology
Number of cycles
AFM process parameters and the system elements that primarily control them
MEDIA
PROCESS PARAMETERS
MACHINE
IN AFM
Viscosity Extrusion Pressure
Shape
Number of cycle
AFM
Reamed
Type of Surface
Length
Bore Drilled
Geometry
Material
Ductile
WORK PIECE
After AFM
Before AFM
Turbine engine parts Medical implants
Easy to operate
Limitations
Easy to operate
Applications of AFM
Micro Slits
Hybrid AFM - Need
Flexible Magnetic
Abrasive Brushes
)1/4
w
Magnetic Assisted Abrasive Flow Machining
(MAAFM)
453
Magnetorheological Abrasive Flow Finishing (MRAFF)
Flow
Ultrasonic
Flow
polishing Polishing
1 – Work Material
2 – Mask
3 – Shapes (Cavity-through/blind)
carved out of Mask
Chemical Machining (CHM)
Procedure for chemical milling Steps :
1. Relieving of residual stresses (prevent warping)
2. Thorough degreasing and cleaning of surfaces
3. Application of masking material (tapes, paints, plastics etc.)
4. Masking is selectively removed (Cut and Peel, Screen, PCM)
5. Exposed surfaces is etched with etchants
6. Parts thoroughly washed and cleaned (prevent further reactions with
residue etchant)
7. Left-over masking material is removed and the part is cleaned and
inspected
8. Additional finishing operations (if required) are performed on CM parts
9. Sequence (steps 2-8) is repeated to produce stepped cavities and
various contours
Chemical Machining (CHM)
Remove
Prepare Mask Etch
Mask
Chemical Machining (CHM)
E = U/d
Chemical Machining (CHM)
Maskants
• Tough enough to withstand handling
• Adhere well to the workpiece surface
• Scribe easily
• Inert to the chemical reagent used
• Withstand the heat generated by etching
• Removed easily and inexpensively after etching
Chemical Machining (CHM)
Maskants
• Tough enough to withstand handling
• Adhere well to the workpiece surface
• Scribe easily
• Inert to the chemical reagent used
• Withstand the heat generated by etching
• Removed easily and inexpensively after etching
Chemical Machining (CHM)
Maskants
Maskants
1. Cut and Peel
Chemical Machining (CHM)
Maskants
2. Screen Printing
• Screen (fine mesh silk or SS) is used with areas blocked off (stencil) that
are to be etched
• Screen is pressed against the part and maskant is rolled
• Screen is removed and part dried by baking
• High Volume production
• Low Accuracy
• Low etching depth (<1.5mm); Mask thickness is less than 0.05 mm
• Part size limited to 1.2 X 1.2 m
• Flat surfaces with only moderate contours
Chemical Machining (CHM)
3. Photoresist Masks (Photochemical Machining)
Photographic negatives
Light
1. Sharp corners, deep and narrow cavities, severe tapers, folded seams, or
porous workpiece materials should be avoided
• The capital cost of equipment, used for machining large components, is relatively
low.
Limitations
• CHM application
Thinning of parts by
CHM
Chemical Machining (CHM)
Bio-Chemical Machining (BCM)
1. Biochemical machining is a wet etching style fabrication of
part
Bio-Chemical Machining (BCM)
MEMS (micro electro-mechanical system) technologies led to development
copolymer) etc.).
Bio-Chemical Machining (BCM)
Bio-Chemical Machining (BCM)
1. Biodegradable plastic (BIOPOL ): a plastic in which the degradation is
mediated at least partially by a biological system
Temperature
Bio-Chemical Machining (BCM)
Bio-Chemical Machining (BCM)
Steps
• Work pieces, added in container with
BCM solution.
• Constant Temperature
• Oscillation of shaker
• Cleanining and drying of w/p(s)
ASPE
Process Summary
• Temperature, Enzyme Concentration
• Degradation (Machining) Depth
• Machining Time
• Efficient and precise fabrication of nanofluidic chips, nano-
channels
• Arbitrarily shaped grooves can be produced
• No stresses
Bio Machining (BM)
• Workpieces - rinsed with sterile distilled water and 75% ethanol and dried
before use.
• Metals removed and rinsed (sterile distilled water) and dried in oven (50OC)
The ferrous-ferric ion redox couple is the key process responsible for
metal dissolution (biomachining).
Direct / indirect mechanisms.
Direct mechanism - the electrons are transferred from the metal work-
pieces to the microorganisms.
Indirect process - the Fe 2+ is first oxidized by microorganism to Fe3+
to derive energy for its growth. These ferric ions then act as the
oxidizing agent and subsequently catalyze metal dissolution
Bio Machining (BM)