Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Marine Geology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / m a r g e o
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Studies of fine-grained sediment dispersal in the marine environment have documented diversity in the
Received 10 September 2008 behavior of depositional systems on continental margins with different oceanographic conditions and
Received in revised form 14 March 2009 morphologies. Based on the pattern and nature of sediment accumulation for twenty-three case studies, we
Accepted 23 March 2009
propose there are five basic types of dispersal systems, and these are related to river, wave, tide and margin
Communicated by John T. Wells characteristics. Data suggest that the type of dispersal system on any margin can be predicted with
knowledge of sediment load, mean significant wave height, tidal range and continental-shelf width at a river
Keywords: mouth, and from these, a hierarchical decision tree is developed. Analysis of the dispersal-system type of
deltas more than 100 river mouths reveals that proximal-accumulation-dominated (PAD) and marine-dispersal-
rivers dominated (MDD) systems are most abundant. But, estuarine-accumulation-dominated (EAD) systems also
continental margins are anticipated to be numerous globally. Research quantifying marine sediment dynamics in these system
sedimentation types is needed. Although less common, the size and nature of subaqueous-delta-clinoform (SDC) and
canyon-captured (CC) systems also warrant future attention to their study. Strong correlations between
physical characteristics (i.e., significant wave height and tidal range) and the depth and distance to the
nearest maximum shelf depocenter provide evidence that in reality a continuum exists between the system
types. The process-related partitioning of sediment in the five different types of marine dispersal systems has
important implications for understanding the stratigraphic record and the cycling of carbon.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
0025-3227/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2009.03.016
J.P. Walsh, C.A. Nittrouer / Marine Geology 263 (2009) 34–45 35
and tides independently) as well the Q × M:R × D relationship to entered into a spreadsheet of river characteristics (e.g., sediment load,
evaluate marine sediment dispersal in modern systems. Additionally, Table 1, Fig. 1A), using data from Hovius (1998) and Milliman and
shelf width is examined as it is thought to be an important factor Syvitski (1992). The narrowest shelf width at these river mouths was
regulating shelf accommodation space (Walsh and Nittrouer, 2003). estimated by measuring the shortest distance to the 200-m isobath
This paper does not further discuss the ideas of Swift and Thorne from the bathymetry of the British Oceanographic Data Center (1994)
(1991) explicitly, but the findings are relevant to this work. McCave with the provided point-and-click tool. This table was converted into
(1972) provides another perspective regarding the distributions of an ArcView shapefile for integration with wave and tide data. Mean
fine sediments on continental shelves and suggests that there are five tidal range information was obtained from a database of 6507
basic types of shelf mud patterns, which are controlled by sediment locations (Fig. 1B). A near-global distribution of mean significant
availability (or concentration) and the wave and current activity. Both wave height was created by averaging six years of output (February
diffusive (by waves and tides) and advective (by currents) transport 1997 to January 2003) at three-hour intervals from the NOAA
are hypothesized to control mud distribution on margins, and gravity- Wavewatch III model (gray shading in Fig. 2A; Tolman, 2002). To
driven flows are thought to be important for moving sediment down assign wave and tidal information to each system, the nearest value
the continental slope. The present paper builds on these proposed within 40 km of a river mouth was selected. Data beyond this range
ideas. were considered to be inappropriate. This spreadsheet of data is
available upon request. In some cases, wave and/or tidal information
were not available within 40 km, and a 0-m value was assigned
3. Methods
(Fig. 2). For example, several Mediterranean rivers have tidal-range
information, but similar wave data was not available in these areas.
A literature review was conducted to develop a conceptual
Based on available published data (Palanques et al., 2002; Wang and
framework on the nature of sediment accumulation at river mouths
Pinardi, 2002), a significant wave height of 1 m was assumed for the
and the controlling factors. Using marine dispersal systems that have
Po and Ebro Rivers in Table 1. Other rivers without wave and/or tide
been studied in detail (Table 1), the pattern and partitioning of
data were assigned a mean significant wave height and/or tidal range
sediment accumulation was examined to categorize systems into
of 0 m as these systems generally are located in areas with little fetch,
different behavioral types, and specific information was compiled for
with seasonal ice cover, and/or on an inland sea; a revised prediction
the systems. Then, plots of the physical data (e.g., mean significant
can be made with other data.
wave height vs. tidal range) were created to investigate if the
identified types of systems have similar characteristics. In addition,
the shortest distance and shallowest depth to the location of the 4. Results
nearest maximum shelf depocenter (NMSD; i.e., the location of most
rapid fine-sediment accumulation) were measured. These locations A histogram of each variable is provided to illustrate the
are identified from radionuclide accumulation rates, sedimentological distribution of the data (Fig. 2, right). As has been pointed out by
information, and seismic-reflection data, and the data are employed to Milliman and Syvitski (1992), the number of rivers with small
evaluate physical controls on fine-sediment accumulation across drainage areas (and thus, small water and sediment discharge)
different dispersal systems. exceeds that of large systems by at least one order of magnitude;
To use these insights to predict the sedimentation behavior in this is evident in the sediment discharge data of Fig. 2, right). The
other systems, locations of more than 100 large river mouths were sediment-load, shelf-width and tidal-range data have similar trends,
Table 1
Characteristics of dispersal systems previously studied in detail.
River # River Natural sediment Shelf width Tidal range Mean wave Shortest distance Shallowest depth Class References
load (mt y− 1) (km) (m) (m) to NMSD (km) of NMSD (km)
100 Delaware 1 133 1.7 1.2 NA NA EAD Fletcher et al. (1992)
92 Susquehanna 2 405 0.6 0.0 NA NA EAD Langland and Cronin (2000)
6 Mississippi 400 15 0.3 0.9 1 5 PAD See text and Allison and Neill (2002)
15 Nile 120 40 0.2 NA NA NA PAD Summerhayes et al. (1978); Coleman
et al. (1981)
27 Yukon 60 699 0.7 NA NA NA PAD Nelson and Creager (1977); Nelson et al.
(1980)
34 Niger 40 54 0.8 1.1 NA NA PAD Allen (1964)
39 Rhone 31 36 0.4 NA NA NA PAD Aloisi et al. (1975); Got et al. (1985)
56 Ebro 18 37 0.0 NA NA NA PAD Maldonado et al. (1980); Got et al. (1985)
58 Brazos 16 130 0.5 1.1 NA NA PAD Rodriguez et al. (2000)
66 Po Yellow 13 429 0.5 NA 1.5 4 PAD See text and Correggiari et al. (2001)
2 (Huanghe) 1100 1105 1.1 0.7 15 8 PAD See text
1 Amazon 1200 330 4.8 1.1 250 35 SDC See text
3 Ganges–Brahmaputra 1060 321 3.6 0.9 80 20 SDC See text
5 Yangtze 480 557 3.4 1.1 50 7.5 SDC See text and Hori et al. (2001, 2002)
11 Mekong 160 271 2.9 1.0 NA NA SDC Ta et al. (2002a,b)
16 Fly 115 155 3.4 1.4 30 25 SDC See text
18 Purari 80 83 3.4 1.3 NA 30 SDC See text
41 Kikori 30 146 3.4 1.4 NA 25 SDC See text
21 Copper 70 81 3.0 2.3 20 70 MDD See text
46 Eel 24 16 1.9 3.0 15 60 MDD See text
60 Columbia 15 49 2.5 2.9 15 60 MDD See text
19 Sepik 80 3 0.8 0.9 NA NA CC See text
31 Zaire (Congo) 43 39 1.1 1.4 NA NA CC See text
Systems listed in the table are those that were used to develop the hierarchical decision tree in Fig. 6. See Fig. 5 for examples of classifications. The distance to and depth of the nearest
maximum shelf depocenter (NMSD; i.e., the zone of high sediment accumulation) was measured on several margins where the NMSD could be identified with sediment
accumulation rates or seismic reflection data. Where information was not calculated or available a “NA” is indicated.
J.P. Walsh, C.A. Nittrouer / Marine Geology 263 (2009) 34–45 37
Fig. 1. Magnitude of sediment discharge (A), and tidal range and shelf width (B) at many large river mouths. Size and color of symbols are scaled as indicated. Sediment discharge
units are megatons per year (Mt y− 1), and data are adopted from Milliman and Syvitski (1992) and Hovius (1998). Background data are elevations from ETOPO2 (Smith and
Sandwell, 1997; Jakobsson et al., 2000). Rivers are the following: 1 = Amazon, 2 = Yellow (Huanghe), 3 and 4 = Ganges–Brahmaputra, 5 = Yangtze (Changjiang), 6 = Mississippi,
7 = Irrawaddy, 8 = Indus, 9 = Magdalena, 10 = Godavari, 11 = Mekong, 12 = Orinoco, 13 = Red, 14 = Colorado, 15 = Nile, 16 = Fly, 17 = Orange, 18 = Purari, 19 = Sepik, 20 = Parana,
21 = Copper, 22 = Pearl, 23 = Danube, 24 = Krishna, 25 = Choshui, 26 = Mahanadi, 27 = Yukon, 28 = Tigris–Euphrates, 29 = Amur, 30 = Zambezi, 31 = Zaire, 32 = Mackenzie,
33 = Liao He, 34 = Niger, 35 = Daling, 36 = Kaoping, 37 = Limpopo, 38 = Tana, 39 = Rhone, 40 = Tsengwen, 41 = Kikori, 42 = Murray, 43 = Damodar, 44 = Waiapu, 45 = Susitna,
46 = Eel, 47 = Peinan, 48 = Kizil Irmak, 49 = Semani, 50 = Chira, 51 = Fraser, 52 = Hsiukuluan, 53 = Hualien, 54 = Ord, 55 = Rio Grande, 56 = Ebro, 57 = Rufiji, 58 = Brazos, 59 = Ob,
60 = Columbia, 61 = Drini, 62 = Huaihe, 63 = Indigirka, 64 = Haast, 65 = Negro, 66 = Po, 67 = Rio Negro, 68 = Yenisey, 69 = Lena, 70 = Chao Phraya, 71 = Uruguay, 72 = Kuskok-
wim, 73 = Waiapoa, 74 = Rio Colorado, 75 = Pechora, 76 = Colville, 77 = Kolyma, 78 = Sao Francisco, 79 = Severnaya, 80 = St. Lawrence, 81 = Burdekin, 82 = Jana, 83 = Sanaga,
84 = Waiau, 85 = Dnestr, 86 = Vistula, 87 = Mobile, 88 = Garonne, 89 = Dnepr, 90 = Colorado, 91 = Senegal, 92 = Susquehanna, 93 = Loire, 94 = Seine, 95 = Hudson, 96 = Elbe,
97 = Don, 98 = Rhein, 99 = Meuse, 100 = Delaware, 101 = Rio Grande, 102 = Weser, 103 = Apalachicola, 104 = Kemijoki, 105 = Oder.
indicating rivers with relatively small sediment loads, shelf widths, detail is classified using this scheme (Table 1). The example systems in
and tidal ranges are more common in this dataset. In total, twenty five Fig. 5 (right) are not end-members, and it is likely that true end-
of the systems have a shelf width b40 km. A number of systems have members do not exist. Most, if not all, systems probably lose a fraction
no wave data; the remaining data range from 0.7 to 3 m and have a of their load to various segments of a continental margin. The system
mode at 1.1 m. Two scatter plots of these data are created to show types proposed in Fig. 5 are designed to explain how the majority of
distribution of the variables with respect to others and to illustrate sediment supplied by a river is stored in the marine setting. The
how the well-studied systems in Table 1 are distributed (Fig. 3). Note, Delaware and Susquehanna rivers with relatively low sediment loads
neither of the graphs exhibits a simple relationship between the (b2 Mt y− 1) drain into large, unfilled estuaries, which capture the
variables. The only strong relationships observed in the data collected majority of the sediment load (Fig. 3A; Fletcher et al., 1992; Langland
are shown in Fig. 4. and Cronin, 2000); these systems are classified as Estuarine
By comparing sediment accumulation patterns from previous Accumulation Dominated (EAD) (Table 1; Fig. 5). Deltaic systems
studies, we have identified five basic types of fine-grained marine with rapid rates of sediment accumulation very close to their mouth
dispersal systems (Fig. 5). Each system that has been studied in some (e.g., Po and Mississippi rivers) are referred to as Proximal
38 J.P. Walsh, C.A. Nittrouer / Marine Geology 263 (2009) 34–45
Fig. 2. Mean significant wave height for dispersal systems (left) and histograms of the data in this study (right). Note, circles indicate systems where mean significant wave heights
are b 2m, and squares are those systems where mean significant wave heights are N 2m. Also, the large areas of white in the Arctic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and elsewhere are sites
of no data. A scale bar for the mean significant wave height data (gray shading) is provided. The percent occurrence of systems for the specified variables is shown at right.
Accumulation Dominated (PAD). In these cases, the delta-front canyons (e.g., Eel and Columbia rivers). Even during high-stands in sea
(essentially the foreset of a proximal, shallow clinoform; Giosan level, the majority (N50%) of sediment discharged by some rivers is
et al., 2006) lies only kilometers from the distributary mouth. The transported rapidly to the deep sea via a submarine canyon, and such
Yellow (Huanghe) River is most appropriately classified as PAD systems are classified here as canyon captured (CC; e.g., Sepik and
because 90% of the Yellow River sediment load accumulates very close Congo rivers). These systems have narrow shelf widths (Table 1;
to the river mouth in the Bohai Sea (Bornhold et al., 1986). Note, these Fig. 3A).
systems have relatively low mean significant wave height (b2 m) and/ Data from systems studied quantitatively (i.e., to define sediment
or tidal range (b2 m) (Table 1; Figs. 3 and 5). Subaqueous delta accumulation rates and patterns) reveal two important relationships
clinoforms (SDC) are shelf sedimentary deposits displaced from the (Fig. 4). Mean significant wave height is well correlated with the
river sediment source (i.e., part of the deeper prodelta; Giosan et al., depth of NMSD, and a strong non-linear relationship exists between
2006), with notable relief above the transgressive surface (e.g., Fly and tidal range and the distance to the NMSD. Both of these plots have
Amazon rivers). In this case, the foreset region of the SDC is located high correlation coefficients (r2 = 0.82 and 0.76, respectively; Fig. 4),
tens to hundreds of kilometers seaward. These pronounced features suggesting a strong association between the variables.
account for a significant fraction of the sediment budget in several
dispersal systems (Table 1) and are characterized by large sediment 5. Discussion
loads and tidal ranges (Table 1; Figs. 3 and 5). The sediment load
discharged from marine-dispersal-dominated (MDD) rivers is more 5.1. Sediment partitioning and fluvial dispersal systems
efficiently dispersed in the ocean, precluding the development of a
PAD or SDC (i.e., no clinoforms are present). MDD systems have high There is great disparity in how processes affect the partitioning of
mean significant wave heights and/or tidal ranges (both N2 m; fine-grained sediment between different sinks (e.g., estuarine sedi-
Table 1; Figs. 3B and 5). In MDD systems, areas of high sediment ment trapping versus turbidity-current transport to the deep sea;
accumulation can be located in tectonic basins on the shelf, slope or in Heezen et al., 1964; Fletcher et al., 1992; Kineke et al., 2000; Langland
Fig. 3. Scatter plots of shelf width and sediment load (A) and tidal range and mean significant wave height for classified and all systems (B). EAD and CC systems plot in the darker
blue and lighter green patterns of A, respectively. In B, yellow and white shading indicates areas anticipated to be MDD and PAD systems, respectively; however, systems in B that fall
within the hachured pattern are expected to SDC, if their load exceeds 100 Mt y− 1. The small black dots are the unclassified dispersal systems (i.e., those in Fig. 1 but not in Table 1).
J.P. Walsh, C.A. Nittrouer / Marine Geology 263 (2009) 34–45 39
Fig. 4. Scatter plots of mean significant wave height versus depth to nearest maximum shelf depocenter (NMSD) (A) and tidal range versus distance to NMSD (B). These plots use data
from quantitatively studied systems listed in Table 1. Note, the x-axis in A is linear, but is logarithmic in B.
and Cronin, 2000; Walsh and Nittrouer, 2003). A scatter plot of mean 5.1.1. Estuarine-accumulation-dominated (EAD) systems
significant wave height versus mean tidal range is a simple, objective EAD systems are characterized by flocculation and estuarine
way to compare processes affecting coastal and shelf systems (Davis circulation, and these are commonly the most critical processes
and Hayes, 1984), and rivers classified in this study (Table 1) are regulating the nature of sediment accumulation. EADs represent the
plotted in Fig. 3B to illustrate how physical processes may relate to the simplest scenario of marine dispersal, where the load of a system is
dispersal-system classifications. The scatter plot in Fig. 3A can be used sufficiently small that the estuary into which it drains remains
as a similar tool to examine the shelf width and sediment load of a unfilled. Sediments generally are rapidly deposited, and, even if
system. Shown on these plots is an interpretation of where the five resuspended, only a small portion might escape. As a result, regardless
system types are anticipated to plot; this interpretation will be of other characteristics (shelf width, waves, or tides, as indicated in
discussed further. Fig. 3A), most river sediments accumulate within the estuary. The
Fig. 5. Major types of marine river-sediment dispersal systems (left side) and representative examples of each type (except EAD, right side). Examples for the PAD (B), CC (C), MDD
(D) and SDC (E) are the Po, Sepik, Eel and Fly rivers, respectively (right). These example systems do not reflect end-members. The distribution of 100-y sediment accumulation rates
are shown in small figures for each example system. Locations of maximum fine-grained sediment accumulation in each system type (left) and examples (right) are shown in red.
Isobath positions are noted on right. See Table 1 for references.
40 J.P. Walsh, C.A. Nittrouer / Marine Geology 263 (2009) 34–45
Delaware and Susquehanna rivers are two examples of EAD systems, sediment from the Sepik, Eel, Congo, and Ganges–Brahmaputra River
but numerous others are found along the west and east sides of the is transported regularly and rapidly by sediment gravity flows through
Atlantic Ocean and elsewhere. Based on these two systems, the submarine canyons (Heezen et al., 1964; Kudrass et al., 1998;
sediment load criterion for an EAD system is assumed to be b2 Mt y− 1 Mullenbach and Nittrouer, 2000; Puig et al., 2003; Walsh and
(Fig. 3A). However, quantitative knowledge about the sediment Nittrouer, 2003; Puig et al., 2004). All of these systems have shelves
budgets from more systems may shift this boundary. Sediment load narrower than 50 km adjacent to the canyon head. These examples
is not expected to be the sole factor regulating this system type, but it provide good evidence for the impact of shelf width on off-shelf
is used here as a first-order proxy. The size of the receiving estuary, the sediment transport (Walsh and Nittrouer, 2003). In the CC systems
timing of the discharge, and the oceanographic conditions also can be (Sepik and Congo Rivers), a submarine canyon extends essentially into
important. the river mouth; in other cases, a canyon is incised into the
surrounding margin near the discharge location. The Ganges–
5.1.2. Proximal-accumulation-dominated (PAD) systems Brahmaputra system highlights how a canyon may capture a
As in the EAD case, PAD systems are also characterized by significant part (~1/3) of the river sediment budget, although not
flocculation and rapid deposition of fine-grained sediments. In these being immediately adjacent to the river mouth (Goodbred and Kuehl,
cases, however, the sediments supplied by source streams have filled 1999). The Swatch of No Ground (a submarine canyon) is situated
the estuaries and presently enter coastal water bodies experiencing over 200 km from the river mouth, yet sediment is actively
relatively small waves and a low tidal range (Fig. 3B). With diminished transported into and through this canyon because of strong along-
stream-transport capacity from effluent spreading and insufficient shelf transport and the very narrow shelf at the canyon head (Kudrass
bed shear stresses for sediment movement by marine processes, the et al., 1998). Numerous aspects of sedimentary dynamics (e.g., bottom
majority (N50%) of fine-grained sediments flocculate and deposit Ekman veering, internal waves) and their coupling can also impact the
close to (within a few kilometers of) the coastline (e.g., Fisk et al., extent of off-shelf sediment transport.
1954; Scruton, 1960; Frignani and Langone, 1991; Fox et al., 2004;
Frignani et al., 2005; Corbett et al., 2006; Palinkas and Nittrouer, 5.1.4. Marine-dispersal-dominated (MDD) systems
2007). A significant portion of the load also can be advected in the Bottom-boundary layer transport and sediment gravity flows
direction of prevailing currents (e.g., 35–40% for the Po River, Fig. 5; efficiently disperse most river sediments on the continental margin
Frignani et al., 2005). This rapid proximal sediment accumulation surrounding an MDD system. The cartoon of a MDD system implies
forms the depositional bulge where each distributary reaches the one large area of greatest sediment accumulation (Fig. 5, left). But, as
coastline (Fisk et al., 1954). Like the Mississippi delta, these systems depicted for the Eel River system, several isolated foci of sediment
can build to unstable relief onto the surrounding shelf, and thus be accumulation may exist; these distorted bulls-eye patterns may be
prone to mass-failure events (e.g., Coleman and Prior, 1988). Due to related to dominant currents, fluid-mud transport pathways, and
the nature of PAD systems (i.e., sediments accumulate rapidly near structural controls allowing sediment accumulation to be locally
their discharge location), channel migration and switching are elevated at several sites over the same time scale (Fig. 5, right;
common. For this reason, sediment may be discharged by more than Nittrouer and Sternberg, 1981; Jaeger et al., 1998; Alexander and
one distributary channel, and several foci of sediment accumulation Simoneau., 1999; Sommerfield and Nittrouer, 1999; Mullenbach and
can occur on the continental shelf adjacent to each distributary Nittrouer, 2000). MDD systems develop where rivers discharge their
channel (Fig. 5, right). sediment load into an oceanographic environment with moderate to
large waves and/or currents (gray area in Fig. 3B). Because of
5.1.3. Canyon-captured (CC) systems energetic receiving-basin conditions, the majority of the fine-grained
At CC river mouths, the majority of the sediment load moves sediment load cannot accumulate at shallow water depths proximal to
rapidly down a canyon immediately seaward of the river mouth; the river mouth; only a fraction (up to 10%) may be sequestered
sediment gravity flows (e.g., turbidity currents) are the primary among proximal sandy sediments (e.g., the Eel River shelf; Crockett
means of sediment transport to the deep sea in such systems (Heezen and Nittrouer, 2004). The development of fluid muds during flooding
et al., 1964; Kineke et al., 2000; Walsh and Nittrouer, 2003). The can allow deposition of discrete beds at a consistent location on the
proximity of a submarine canyon is the most important factor continental shelf (Wheatcroft et al., 1997; Sommerfield and Nittrouer,
determining the degree to which, the load of a system is lost to a 1999). Nevertheless, a considerable portion of the load is advected
canyon. At river mouths where the shelf is narrow (and steep), across and along the margin (tens to hundreds of kilometers) as a
canyons can be more closely positioned to a fluvial source, or may result of efficient dispersal by bottom and intermediate nepheloid
form the natural extensions of river valleys. As a first approach, the layers (Alexander and Simoneau, 1999; Walsh and Nittrouer, 1999;
minimum gradient for an autosuspending gravity flow (0.7°; Wright Mullenbach and Nittrouer, 2000; Puig et al., 2003, 2004). The impact
et al., 2001) is used to identify margins where this form of transport of the mean significiant wave height and tidal range on the nearest
will dominate. This criterion suggests that shelves b12 km in width maximum shelf depocenter suggests their critical control on MDD
(assuming a shelf break depth of 150 m) are locations where CC development (Fig. 4). These relationships reflect the importance of
systems should be anticipated. The two examples described here, the wave orbitals and tidal currents on the depth and distances,
Sepik and Congo rivers, match this description. Because CC systems respectively, where fine sediment can accumulate. The data suggest
are most likely found in areas with narrow continental shelves that that both waves and tides are important to continental-margin
typically have small tidal ranges, they should plot near the abscissa in sediment dispersal and, specifically, MDD-system functioning.
Fig. 3B. Other types of modern dispersal systems can lose a portion of
their sediment load to the deep sea (e.g., Eel: Mullenbach and 5.1.5. Subaqueous-delta-clinoform (SDC) systems
Nittrouer, 2000; Columbia: Baker and Hickey, 1986; Mississippi: SDC systems are different from EAD and PAD systems in that their
Coleman et al., 1998; Ganges–Brahmaputra: Kuehl et al., 1989), yet coastline is characterized by a “tide-dominated delta” (triangular-
these are not classified as CC systems as the majority (N50%) is not lost shaped) as a result of strong astronomical tidal flow (Coleman and
to a canyon. Wright, 1975; Galloway; 1975), and tidal flows are important in
Many studies of modern dispersal systems have documented the carrying the fine-sediment load greater distances from the shoreline
transport of fluvial sediment through canyons. These incised features (Figs. 3B and 5). In dispersal systems with a SDC, at least two
may extend very close to river mouths, thereby intercepting the shelf important areas (including the SDC) of marine sediment storage are
dispersal pathway of river sediments. A significant portion of the identified (Fig. 5, left). Expansive coastal wetlands and floodplains are
J.P. Walsh, C.A. Nittrouer / Marine Geology 263 (2009) 34–45 41
common to these systems, and a significant fraction of the river most rapidly) may be better regarded as the “wave-current base”
sediment load may be stored in these regularly (marine) or (Walsh et al., 2004).
episodically (freshwater) flooded areas. These characteristics result Large tidal range (N2 m), in particular, is a key trait of SDC systems,
from the broad, low-gradient margins where SDC systems are located. as tidal flows enable the separation between the river mouth and the
In the Amazon and Ganges–Brahmaputra systems, it is estimated that region of high sediment accumulation rates on the subaqueuos delta
about one third of the load is sequestered in the region between the clinoform (Fig. 3B). But, the amount of sediment supplied to the
beginning of tidal influence and the river mouth (Nittrouer et al., margin seaward of a river mouth also is hypothesized to be important
1996; Goodbred and Kuehl, 1998). Coastal areas of the Gulf of Papua (Fig. 3A). SDC systems listed in Table 1 have sediment loads that cover
may store 14% of the load from several large rivers including the Fly, a broad range, 115–1200 Mt y− 1. SDCs have not been found seaward of
Kikori, and Purari Rivers (Walsh and Nittrouer, 2004). The separation any rivers with smaller sediment loads, e.g., Eel, Columbia. Based on
of coastal and shelf sinks (Fig. 5, left) is accomplished through this information, we infer that any river or group of rivers with
energetic tidal flow and wave action (Figs. 3B and 4). The pattern of appropriate physical conditions (i.e., large tidal range and modest
sediment accumulation on a SDC is generally aligned with bathy- wave climate) and a load N100 Mt y− 1 could develop a SDC. The Kikori
metric isobaths, and is parallel to but significantly displaced (tens to River (which discharges 30 Mt y− 1) empties into the northwestern
hundreds of kilometers) from the shoreline (Fig. 5, right). This pattern Gulf of Papua along with the larger Fly and Purari Rivers among others
reflects the impact of waves and tides on the depth and distance of (Walsh et al., 2004), and the combined loads (N300 Mt y− 1; Milliman,
sediment accumulation (Fig. 4). A subaqueous delta clinoform 1995) coalesce to form a SDC in this region. The rationale for needing a
accretes vertically to the depth (known as the rollover point) above large sediment load for SDC development is based on the observation
which fine sediments in the topset region are in disequilibrium with that as the distance to the nearest maximum shelf deposition
the oceanographic conditions (Walsh et al., 2004). Energetic flows increases non-linearly with tidal range (Fig. 4B), the area over
gradually or episodically move sediment seaward. Ultimately, greatest which sediments must accumulate to produce a subaqueous delta
accumulation rates are situated on the more steeply dipping foreset clinoform also increases non-linearly because of effluent spreading.
region, where combined (wave and current) bed shear stresses are For this reason, systems with sediment loads b100 Mt y− 1 but large
diminished, due to deeper water depths (Fig. 2, right; Harris et al., tides (N2 m) are hypothesized to be unable to form a subaqueous delta
1993; Kuehl et al., 1996; Walsh et al., 2004). The rollover point (i.e., the clinoform (Fig. 3A). For the same reason, systems with large loads but
shallow boundary of the foreset region, where sediments accumulate N2 m mean significant wave heights also will not create subaqueous
Fig. 6. The hierarchical decision tree developed in this study. This hierarchical decision tree is designed to predict the marine dispersal system at a river mouth using basic
oceanographic and morphologic characteristics. The tool was constructed by evaluating the factors controlling well-studied dispersal systems (Table 1; Fig. 3).
42 J.P. Walsh, C.A. Nittrouer / Marine Geology 263 (2009) 34–45
delta clinoforms (Fig. 3B). More data are needed to better establish the explain and evaluate which and why some systems behave similarly,
boundaries between SDC and MDD systems, but undoubtedly, and this is accomplished using data that are readily available for many
sediment load is a key factor. Given the available data, a 100 Mt y− 1 dispersal systems. Regional currents undoubtedly also play an
limit is assumed based on the Fly River in the westernmost (updrift) important role in regulating the nature of fine-sediment dispersal
portion of the Gulf of Papua (Fig. 3A). on continental margins, but to the knowledge of the authors, these
data do not exist in a form that can be easily accounted for globally.
5.2. A prediction tool Additionally, this classification highlights the existence of distinctly
different types of dispersal systems, and this is relevant not only to
A reasonable prediction of the sediment dispersal type at any river modern studies but also to interpretation of ancient strata.
mouth can be made with knowledge of tidal range, significant wave
height, sediment supply and shelf width (Fig. 3). A hierarchical 5.3. A continuum of systems
decision tree is developed here to predict the type of marine dispersal
system at any river mouth (Fig. 6). This approach successfully predicts The observed relationships between marine processes and the
all the system classifications listed in Table 1, except the Kikori and depth and distance of the NMSD have significant implications for the
Purari rivers which act as SDC systems as a result of their enhanced proposed classification system (Fig. 4), as they suggest that fine-
load. With the basic information available (sediment load, shelf width, grained sediment dispersal responds over a predictable scale to mean
mean significant wave height and tidal range) for a given system, one significant wave height and tidal range (linear and logarithmic,
can use the decision tree to predict the type of marine dispersal respectively). It is hypothesized that the former relationship is related
system at a river mouth. The predictions for each system with to the wave orbital control on the water depth at which fine sediments
available (or assumed) data are plotted in Fig. 7. The prediction totals can accumulate, and the latter is caused by the distance fine-sediment
for each system are the following: 16 EAD, 39 PAD, 9 CC, 32 MDD, and must be transported to reach these water depths on continental
8 SDC. In these data, PAD and MDD systems are most abundant, but, as shelves, which is a consequence of their shelf width. These relation-
pointed out earlier, this study is heavily biased towards large river ships imply that dispersal systems lie more in a continuum than as
systems. In reality, the number of EAD systems (i.e., those with a load discrete types (e.g., there is no exact boundary between PAD and
b2 Mt y− 1) should be significantly larger than the other classes, while SDC systems). The modeling work of Swenson et al. (2005) nicely
the number of SDC systems would be modified the least. The literature illustrates this concept, highlighting how the changes in the distance
on EAD systems is indeed extensive, but process-oriented sediment between the shoreline and rollover point are impacted by the physical
dynamics studies and sediment budgets are needed for more EAD conditions. With these comments in mind, the reader should be aware
systems, to better quantify trapping efficiencies. PAD and MDD that the thresholds used in the decision tree (Fig. 6) are not well
systems also are likely to be more numerous, as these are produced defined and probably do not represent absolute boundaries (Fig. 3).
by rivers with moderate sediment loads. These systems also have been Nonetheless, the hierarchical decision tree is valuable as it provides
relatively understudied (Table 1). Although SDC and CC systems are direction for using process-related factors to understand the diversity
rarer, their size and nature (dominated by gravity-driven flows) in dispersal systems. Future research can test, refine and refute the
requires further research to quantify and, ultimately, model these ideas presented.
systems.
The research presented here attempts to find order within the 5.4. System types through geologic time
complexity of nature, and, in so doing, disregards important subtleties
in terrestrial and marine processes that have impacts on fine-grained It must be mentioned that the type of marine sediment dispersal
sediment dispersal of specific river systems. This is the bane of such for many river systems certainly has changed with time. During low
approaches. Nevertheless, this research is valuable in that it helps stands of sea level, when rivers debouched at the modern shelf break,
Fig. 7. Predictions for the type of marine dispersal system characterizing N 100 rivers in this study. These predictions were made using the available data (Figs. 1 and 2) and the
hierarchical decision tree in Fig. 6. Data are available upon request.
J.P. Walsh, C.A. Nittrouer / Marine Geology 263 (2009) 34–45 43
CC systems would have been considerably more common than today Acknowledgements
(Milliman and Syvitski, 1992), and wave and tide conditions were
likely different as climate and shelf width (and, therefore, fetch) were The authors thank the National Science Foundation (grants OCE
altered. As sea level rose rapidly after the Last Glacial Maximum, most 9904167, OCE 0203351 and OCE 0452166), the National Geographic
rivers systems stored their sediment loads in estuarine valleys Society (grant 6573-99) and the Office of Naval Research (ONR
crossing the shelf (i.e., were EAD systems). When sea-level rise N00014-00-1-0846) for funding this research. Neal Driscoll gave
slowed around 8–6 ky BP and where sediment overwhelmed the helpful support for this paper. The work was inspired by discussions
holding capacity of some estuaries, deltas began to form around the with many past lab mates and other colleagues. Liviu Giosan and other
world (Warne and Stanley, 1995). In this way, the modern dispersal anonymous reviewers are acknowledged for suggestions which
systems presented in Fig. 7 reflect the transition of former estuaries to improved the manuscript.
non-EAD systems (i.e., a balance between sediment fill and initial
size). This evolution in system behavior must be kept in mind when References
interpreting the geologic record.
Alexander, C.R., Simoneau, A.M., 1999. Spatial variability in sedimentary processes on
the Eel continental slope. Mar. Geol. 154 (1–4), 243–254.
Alexander, C.R., DeMaster, D.J., Nittrouer, C.A., 1991. Sediment accumulation in a modern
5.5. Implications epicontinental-shelf setting—the Yellow Sea. Mar. Geol. 98 (1), 51–72.
Allen, J.R.L., 1964. Sedimentation in the modern delta of the river Niger, west Africa,
Variability in the process-related partitioning of sediments in the Deltaic and shallow marine deposits. In: Van Straaten, L.M.J.U. (Ed.), Deltaic and
Shallow Marine Deposits: Proceedings of the 6th International Sedimentological
five fundamental types of dispersal systems identified in this study has Congress. Developments in Sedimentology 1. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 26–34.
significant implications for the fate of carbon; a detailed discussion Aller, R.C., 1998. Mobile deltaic and continental shelf muds as suboxic, fluidized bed
with specific focus on large river margins is provided in McKee et al. reactors. Mar. Chem. 61 (3–4), 143–155.
Aller, R.C., Hannides, A., Heilbrun, C., Panzeca, C., 2004. Coupling of early diagenetic
(2004). Rapid deposition and accumulation of sediment, particularly processes and sedimentary dynamics in tropical shelf environments: the Gulf of
in thick beds from sediment gravity flows (e.g., fluid muds or turbidity Papua deltaic complex. Cont. Shelf Res. 24, 2455–2486.
currents) can minimize biological mixing and carbon respiration. Allison, M.A., Neill, C.F., 2002. Accumulation rates and stratigraphic character of the
modern Atchafalaya River prodelta, Louisiana. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Geol. Soc. 52,
Continued remobilization of sediment allows multiple opportunities 1031–1040.
for carbon respiration by oxygen-, iron-, and manganese-based Aloisi, J.C., Monaco, A., Thommeret, J., Thommeret, Y., 1975. Evolution paleogeographi-
electron-receptor systems for bacterial decomposition (Aller et al., que du plateau continental languedocien dans le cadre du golfe du Lyon; Analyse
comparee des donnees sismiques, sedimentologiques et radiometriques concer-
2004). Particularly in EAD, PAD and CC cases, terrestrially supplied
nant le Quaternaire recent. (Paleogeographical evolution of the Languedoc
carbon can have little opportunity for oxidation in the marine continental shelf in the framework of the Gulf of Lion; comparative analysis from
environment; rapid transport and thick accumulation of sediment seismic, sedimentologic and radiometric data concerning the upper Quaternary).
Rev. Geogr. Phys. Geol. Dyn. 17 (1), 13–22.
likely minimizes oxygen exposure times, and enhances carbon burial
Baker, E.T., Hickey, B.M., 1986. Contemporary sedimentation processes in and around an
(Hedges and Keil, 1995; Harnett et al., 1998). Fluid muds also can active West-Coast submarine-canyon. Mar. Geol. 71, 15–34.
transport sediment in MDD and SDC systems, but much of this Bornhold, B.D., Yang, Z.S., Keller, G.H., Prior, D.B., Wiseman, W.J., Wang, Q., Wright, L.D.,
sediment experiences multiple episodes of sediment movement, and Xu, W.D., Zhuang, Z.Y., 1986. Sedimentary framework of the modern Huanghe
(Yellow-River) Delta. Geo-Mar. Lett. 6 (2), 77–83.
carbon has repeated opportunities for incineration in such systems British Oceanographic Data Center, 1994. GEBCO Digital Atlas. British Oceanographic
(Aller, 1998). Dynamics and complexities in carbon loading (e.g., Goni Data Center, Birkenhead, Merseyside, United Kingdom.
et al., 1997; Leithold and Blair, 2001) and respiration with multiple Cacchione, D., Sternberg, R.W., Ogston, A.S., 2006. Bottom instrumented tripods:
history, applications, and impacts. Cont. Shelf Res. 26 (17–18), 2319–2334.
electron receptors (e.g., Aller, 1998) need to be better understood in all Coleman, J.M., Wright, L.D., 1975. Modern river deltas: variability of processes and sand
types of dispersal systems for the development of realistic global bodies. In: Broussard, M.L. (Ed.), Deltas, Models for Exploration. Houston Geological
carbon budgets (Keil et al., 1997; McKee et al., 2004). Society, Houston, pp. 99–149.
Coleman, J.M., Prior, D.B., 1988. Mass-wasting on continental margins. Annu. Rev. Earth
Planet. Sci. 16, 101–119.
Coleman, J.M., Roberts, H.H., Murray, S.P., Salama, M., 1981. Morphology and dynamic
6. Conclusions sedimentology of the Eastern Nile Delta Shelf. Mar. Geol. 42 (1–4), 301–326.
Coleman, J.M., Roberts, H.H., Stone, G.W., 1998. Mississippi River delta: an overview. J.
The conclusions of this research are the following: Coast. Res. 14 (3), 698–716.
Corbett, D.R., Mckee, B., Allison, M., 2006. Nature of decadal-scale sediment
accumulation on the western shelf of the Mississippi River delta. Cont. Shelf Res.
1) Fine-grained fluvial sediment dispersal systems can be divided 26, 2125–2140.
into five basic types: estuarine accumulation dominated (EAD), Correggiari, A., Trincardi, F., Langone, L., Roveri, M., 2001. Styles of failure in late
canyon captured (CC), proximal accumulation dominated (PAD), Holocene highstand prodelta wedges on the Adriatic shelf. J. Sediment. Res. 71 (2),
218–236.
marine dispersal dominated (MDD), and subaqueous delta clino- Crockett, J.S., Nittrouer, C.A., 2004. The sandy inner shelf as a repository for muddy
form (SDC). sediment: an example from Northern California. Cont. Shelf Res. 24 (1), 55–73.
2) These divisions are based on the dominant mode and pattern of Dalrymple, R.W., Zaitlin, B.A., Boyd, R., 1992. Estuarine facies models: conceptual basis
and stratigraphic implications. J. Sediment. Petrol. 62, 1130–1146.
sedimentation anticipated from each type. EAD and PAD systems are Davis, R.A., Hayes, M.O., 1984. What is a wave-dominated coast? Mar. Geol. 60, 313–329.
regulated by flocculation, and immediate deposition. CC systems are Droz, L., Rigaut, F., Cochonat, P., Tofani, R., 1996. Morphology and recent evolution of the
dominated by gravity-driven off-shelf sediment transport, and MDD Zaire turbidite system (Gulf of Guinea). Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 108 (3), 253–269.
Dukat, D.A., Kuehl, S.A., 1995. Non-steady-state Pb-210 flux and the use of Ra-228/Ra-
and SDC are controlled by dilute suspension transport in the benthic- 226 as a geochronometer on the Amazon Continental-Shelf. Mar. Geol. 125 (3–4),
boundary-layer and sediment gravity flows. 329–350.
3) Basic characteristics of these systems (mean significant wave Fisk, H.N., McFarlan, E.J., Kolb, C.R., Wilbert, L.J., 1954. Sedimentary framework of the
modern Mississippi delta. J. Sediment. Petrol. 24, 76–99.
height, tidal range, shelf width and sediment load) can be used to Fletcher, C.H., Knebel, H.J., Kraft, J.C., 1992. Holocene depocenter migration and
predict the dispersal system using a hierarchical decision tree. sediment accumulation in Delaware Bay—a submerging marginal marine sedi-
4) Strong relationships between the mean significant wave height and mentary basin. Mar. Geol. 103 (1–3), 165–183.
Fox, J.M., Hill, P.S., Milligan, T.G., Boldrin, A., 2004. Flocculation and sedimentation on
the depth and distance of the nearest maximum shelf depocenter
the Po River Delta. Mar. Geol. 203 (1–2), 95–107.
suggest that a continuum exists between the systems types. Frignani, M., Langone, L., 1991. Accumulation rates and Cs-137 distribution in sediments
5) More research is needed to verify or improve the definition of the off the Po River Delta and the Emilia-Romagna Coast (Northwestern Adriatic Sea,
boundaries between the dispersal system types, and develop a Italy). Cont. Shelf Res. 11 (6), 525–542.
Frignani, M., Langone, L., Ravaioli, M., Sorgente, D., Alvisi, F., Albertazzi, S., 2005. Fine-
better understanding how sedimentological and geochemical sediment mass balance in the western Adriatic continental shelf over a century
processes affect the quality and quantity of sediment accumulation. time scale. Mar. Geol. 222–223, 113–133.
44 J.P. Walsh, C.A. Nittrouer / Marine Geology 263 (2009) 34–45
Galloway, W.E., 1975. Process framework for describing the morphologic and Milliman, J.D., Meade, R.H., 1983. World-wide delivery of river sediment to the oceans. J.
stratigraphic evolution of deltaic depositional systems. In: Broussard, M.L. (Ed.), Geol. 91 (1), 1–21.
Deltas, Models for Exploration. Houston Geological Society, Houston, pp. 87–98. Milliman, J.D., Syvitski, J.P.M., 1992. Geomorphic tectonic control of sediment discharge
Geyer, W.R., Hill, P.S., Kineke, G.C., 2004. The transport, transformation and dispersal of to the ocean—the importance of small mountainous rivers. J. Geol. 100 (5),
sediment by buoyant coastal flows. Cont. Shelf Res. 24, 927–949. 525–544.
Giosan, L., Constantinescu, S., Clift, P.D., Tabrez, A.R., Danish, M., Inam, A., 2006. Recent Mullenbach, B.L., Nittrouer, C.A., 2000. Rapid deposition of fluvial sediment in the Eel
morphodynamics of the Indus delta shore ans shelf. Cont. Shelf Res. 26, 1668–1684. Canyon, northern California. Cont. Shelf Res. 20 (16), 2191–2212.
Goni, M.A., Ruttenberg, K.C., Eglinton, T.I., 1997. Source and contribution of terrigenous Nelson, H., Creager, J.S., 1977. Displacement of Yukon-derived sediment from Bering Sea
organic carbon to surface sediments in the Gulf of Mexico. Nature 389 (6648), 275–278. to Chukchi Sea during Holocene time. Geology 5 (3), 141–146.
Goodbred, S.L., Kuehl, S.A., 1998. Floodplain processes in the Bengal Basin and the Nelson, C.H., Rowland, R.W., Stoker, S.W., Bradley, B.R., 1980. Interplay of physical and
storage of Ganges–Brahmaputra river sediment: an accretion study using Cs-137 biological sedimentary structiures of the Bering epicontinental shelf. In: Larsen, M.
and Pb-210 geochronology. Sediment. Geol. 121 (3–4), 239–258. C., Nelson, C.H., Thor, D.R. (Eds.), Geological, Geochemical, and Geotechinical
Goodbred, S.L., Kuehl, S.A., 1999. Holocene and modern sediment budgets for the Observation on the Bering Shelf, Open-File Report 80-979. U.S. Geological Survey,
Ganges–Brahmaputra river system: evidence for highstand dispersal to flood-plain, Reston, VA.
shelf, and deep-sea depocenters. Geology 27 (6), 559–562. Nittrouer, C.A., Sternberg, R.W., 1981. The formation of sedimentary strata in an
Got, H., Aloesi, J.-C., Monaco, A., 1985. Sedimentary processes in Mediterranean deltas allochthonous shelf environment—the Washington continental-shelf. Mar. Geol. 42
and shelves. In: Stanley, D.J., Wezel, F.-C. (Eds.), Springer-Verlag, New York. (1–4), 201–232.
Harris, P.T., Baker, E.K., Cole, A.R., Short, S.A., 1993. A preliminary-study of sedimentation Nittrouer, C.A., Wright, L.D., 1994. Transport of particles across continental shelves. Rev.
in the tidally dominated Fly River Delta, Gulf of Papua. Cont. Shelf Res. 13 (4), Geophys. 32 (1), 85–113.
441–472. Nittrouer, C.A., DeMaster, D.J., McKee, B.A., 1984. Fine-scale stratigraphy in proximal and
Hartnett, H.E., Keil, R.G., Hedges, J.I., Devol, A.H., 1998. Influence of oxygen exposure distal deposits of sediment dispersal systems in the East China Sea. Mar. Geol. 61
time on organic carbon preservation in continental margin sediments. Nature 391 (1), 13–24.
(6667), 572–574. Nittrouer, C.A., Kuehl, S.A., DeMaster, D.J., Kowsmann, R.O., 1986. The deltaic nature of
Hedges, J.I., Keil, R.G., 1995. Sedimentary organic-matter preservation—an assessment Amazon shelf sedimentation. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 97 (4), 444–458.
and speculative synthesis. Mar. Chem. 49 (2–3), 81–115. Nittrouer, C.A., et al., 1996. The geological record preserved by Amazon shelf
Heezen, B.C., Ewing, M., Granelli, N.C.L., Menzies, R.J., Schneider, E.D., 1964. Congo sedimentation. Cont. Shelf Res. 16 (5–6), 817–841.
submarine canyon. Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geol. 48 (7), 1126–1149. Nittrouer, C.A., Austin, J.A., Field, M.E., Kravitz, J.H., Syvitski, J.P.M., Wiberg, P.L., 2007.
Hori, K., et al., 2001. Sedimentary facies of the tide-dominated paleo-Changjiang Writing a Rosetta Stone: Insights into Continental-Margin Sedimentary Processes
(Yangtze) estuary during the last transgression. Mar. Geol. 177 (3–4), 331–351. and Strata, Special Publication 37 of the International Association of Sedimentol-
Hori, K., Saito, Y., Zhao, Q., Wang, P., 2002. Architecture and evolution of the tide- ogists. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA. 549 pp.
dominated Changjiang (Yangtze) River delta, China. Sediment. Geol. 146 (3–4), Ogston, A.S., Cacchione, D.A., Sternberg, R.W., Kineke, G.C., 2000. Observations of storm
249–264. and river flood-driven sediment transport on the northern california continental
Hovius, N., 1998. Controls on sediment supply by large rivers. SEPM Spec. Publ. 42, shelf. Cont. Shelf Res. 20, 2141–2162.
47–69. Orton, G.J., Reading, H.G., 1993. Variability of deltaic processes in terms of sediment
Jakobsson, M., et al., 2000. New grid of Arctic bathymetry aids scientists and supply, with particular emphasis on grain size. Sedimentology 40, 475–512.
mapmakers. Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 81 (9), 89, 93, 96. Palanques, A., Puig, P., Guillen, J., Jimenez, J., Gracia, V., Sanchez-Arcilla, A., Madsen, O.,
Jaeger, J.M., Nittrouer, C.A., Scott, N.D., Milliman, J.D., 1998. Sediment accumulation 2002. Near-bottom suspended sediment fluxes on the microtidal low-energy Ebro
along a glacially impacted mountainous coastline: North-east Gulf of Alaska. Basin continental shelf (NW Mediterranean). Cont. Shelf Res. 22 (2), 285–303.
Res. 10 (1), 155–173. Palinkas, C.M., Nittrouer, C.A., 2007. Modern sediment accumulation on the Po shelf,
Keil, R.G., Mayer, L.M., Quay, P.D., Richey, J.E., Hedges, J.I., 1997. Loss of organic matter Adriatic Sea. Cont. Shelf Res. 27, 489–505.
from riverine particles in deltas. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 61 (7), 1507–1511. Pinet, P., Souriau, M., 1988. Continental erosion and large-scale relief. Tectonics 7,
Kineke, G.C., Woolfe, K.J., Kuehl, S.A., Milliman, J.D., Dellapenna, T.M., Purdon, R.G., 2000. 563–582.
Sediment export from the Sepik River, Papua New Guinea: evidence for a divergent Puig, P., Ogston, A.S., Mullenbach, B.L., Nittrouer, C.A., Sternberg, R.W., 2003. Shelf-to-
sediment plume. Cont. Shelf Res. 20, 2239–2266. canyon sediment-transport processes on the Eel continental margin (northern
Kudrass, H.R., Michels, K.H., Wiedicke, M., Suckow, A., 1998. Cyclones and tides as California). Mar. Geol. 193 (1–2), 129–149.
feeders of a submarine canyon off Bangladesh. Geology 26, 715–718. Puig, P., Ogston, A.S., Mullenbach, B.L., Nittrouer, C.A., Parsons, J.D., Sternberg, R.W.,
Kuehl, S.A., Hariu, T.M., Moore, W.S., 1989. Shelf sedimentation off the Ganges– 2004. Storm-induced sediment gravity flows at the head of the Eel submarine
Brahmaputra River system—evidence for sediment bypassing to the Bengal fan. canyon, northern California margin. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 109 (C3).
Geology 17 (12), 1132–1135. Rodriguez, A.B., Hamilton, M.D., Anderson, J.B., 2000. Facies and evolution of the
Kuehl, S.A., Nittrouer, C.A., Allison, M.A., Faria, L.E.C., Dukat, D.A., Jaeger, J.M., Pacioni, T.D., modern Brazos Delta, Texas; wave versus flood influence. J. Sediment. Res. 70 (2),
Figueiredo, A.G., Underkoffler, E.C., 1996. Sediment deposition, accumulation, and 283–295.
seabed dynamics in are energetic fine-grained coastal environment. Cont. Shelf Res. Scruton, P.C., 1960. Delta building and the deltaic sequence. In: Shepard, F.P., Phleger, F.B.,
16 (5–6), 787–815. van Andel, T.H. (Eds.), Recent Sediments, northwest Gulf of Mexico. American
Kuehl, S.A., Levy, B.M., Moore, W.S., Allison, M.A., 1997. Subaqueous delta of the Ganges– Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, OK.
Brahmaputra river system. Mar. Geol. 144 (1–3), 81–96. Smith, W.H.F., Sandwell, D.T., 1997. Global sea floor topography from satellite altimetry
Langland, M., Cronin, T. (Eds.), 2000. A Summary Report of Sediment Processes in and ship depth soundings. Science 277, 1956–1962.
Chesapeake Bay and Watershed. USGS Water Resources Investigations Report 03- Sommerfield, C.K., Nittrouer, C.A., 1999. Modern accumulation rates and a sediment
4123. U.S. Geological Survey, p. 122. budget for the Eel shelf: a flood-dominated depositional environment. Mar. Geol.
Leithold, E.L., Blair, N.E., 2001. Watershed control on the carbon loading of marine 154 (1–4), 227–241.
sedimentary particles. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 65, 2231–2240. Sternberg, R., 2005. Sediment transport in the coastal ocean: a retrospective evaluation
Liu, J.P., Milliman, J.D., Gao, S., 2002. The Shandong mud wedge and post-glacial of the benthic tripod and its impact, past, present and future. Sci. Mar. 69, 43–54.
sediment accumulation in the Yellow Sea. Geo-Mar. Lett. 21 (4), 212–218. Sternberg, R.W., Nowell, A.R.M., 1999. Continental shelf sedimentology: scales of
Liu, J.P., Milliman, J.D., Gao, S., Cheng, P., 2004. Holocene development of the Yellow investigation define future research opportunities. J. Sea Res. 41 (1–2), 55–71.
River's subaqueous delta, North Yellow Sea. Mar. Geol. 209 (1–4), 45–67. Sternberg, R.W., Kineke, G.C., Johnson, R., 1991. An instrument system for profiling
Maldonado, A., Serra, J., Martrous, F., Verdaguer, A., Aloisi, J.C., Got, H., Monaco, A., suspended sediment, fluid, and flow conditions in shallow marine environments.
Mirabile, L., 1980. La plateforme continentale de l'Ebre dans le cadre de l'evolution Cont. Shelf Res. 11 (2), 109–122.
recente du delta. The continental shelf of the Ebro region in the framework of Recent Summerfield, M.A., Hulton, N.J., 1994. Natural controls of fluvial denudation rates
delta evolution. Abstracts-International Geological Congress 26, Paris, p. 508. in major world drainage basins. J. Geophys. Res. B Solid Earth Planets 99,
McCave, I.N., 1972. Transport and escape of fine-grained sediment from shelf areas. In: 13871–13883.
Swift, D.J.P., Duane, D., Pilkey, O.H. (Eds.), Shelf Sediment Transport. Dowden Summerhayes, C.P., Sestini, G., Misdorp, R., Marks, N., 1978. Nile Delta; nature and
Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA, pp. 225–248. evolution of continental shelf sediments. Mar. Geol. 27 (1–2), 43–65.
McKee, B.A., Nittrouer, C.A., DeMaster, D.J., 1983. Concepts of sediment deposition and Swenson, J.B., Paola, C., Pratson, L., Voller, V.R., Murray, A.B., 2005. Fluvial and marine
accumulation applied to the continental-shelf near the mouth of the Yangtze-River. controls on combined subaerial and subaqueous delta progradation: morphody-
Geology 11 (11), 631–633. namic modeling of compound-clinoform development. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf.
McKee, B.A., DeMaster, D.J., Nittrouer, C.A., 1984. The use of Th-234/U-238 disequili- 110, 1–16.
brium to examine the fate of particle-reactive species on the Yangtze continental- Swift, D.J.P., Thorne, J.A., 1991. Sedimentation on continental margins: I. A general model
shelf. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 68 (3), 431–442. for shelf sedimentation. In: Swift, D.J.P., Tillman, R.W., Oertel, G.F., Thorne, J.A.
McKee, B.A., Aller, R.C., Allison, M.A., Bianchi, T.S., Kineke, G.C., 2004. Transport and (Eds.), Shelf Sand and Sandstone Bodies, Geometry, Facies and Sequence
transformation of dissolved and particulate materials on continental margins Stratigraphy: International Association of Sedimentologists Special Publication,
influenced by major rivers: benthic boundary layer and seabed processes. Cont. vol. 14, pp. 3–31.
Shelf Res. 24 (7–8), 899–926. Syvitski, J.P.M., Vörösmarty, C.J., Kettner, A.J., Green, P.A., 2005. Impact of humans on the
Michels, K.H., Kudrass, H.R., Hubscher, C., Suckow, A., Wiedicke, M., 1998. The submarine flux of terrestrial sediment to the global coastal ocean. Science 308, 376–380.
delta of the Ganges–Brahmaputra: cyclone-dominated sedimentation patterns. Ta, T.K.O., Nguyen, V.L., Tateishi, M., Kobayashi, I., Saito, Y., Nakamura, T., 2002a. Sediment
Mar. Geol. 149 (1–4), 133–154. facies and Late Holocene progradation of the Mekong River Delta in Bentre Province,
Milliman, J.D., 1995. Sediment discharge to the ocean from small mountainous rivers: southern Vietnam: an example of evolution from a tide-dominated to a tide- and
the New Guinea example. Geo-Mar. Lett. 15 (3–4), 127–133. wave-dominated delta. Sediment. Geol. 152 (3–4), 313–325.
J.P. Walsh, C.A. Nittrouer / Marine Geology 263 (2009) 34–45 45
Ta, T.K.O., Nguyen, V.L., Tateishi, M., Kobayashi, I., Tanabe, S., Saito, Y., 2002b. Holocene Warne, A.G., Stanley, D.J., 1995. Sea-level change as critical factor in development of
delta evolution and sediment discharge of the Mekong River southern Vietnam. basin margin sequences: new evidence from late Quaternary record. J. Coast. Res.
Quat. Sci. Rev. 21 (16–17), 1807–1819. Spec. Issue 17, 231–240.
Tolman, H.L., 2002. User manual and system documentation of WAVEWATCH-III version Wheatcroft, R.A., Sommerfield, C.K., Drake, D.E., Borgeld, J.C., Nittrouer, C.A., 1997. Rapid
2.22. NOAA/NWS/NCEP/OMB technical note, 222: 133 pp. and widespread dispersal of flood sediment on the northern California margin.
Traykovski, P., Geyer, W.R., Irish, J.D., Lynch, J.F., 2000. The role of wave-induced density- Geology 25 (2), 163–166.
driven fluid mud flows for cross-shelf transport on the Eel River continental shelf. Wright, L.D., 1985. River deltas, In: Davis, R.A. (Ed.), Coastal Sedimentary Environments,
Cont. Shelf Res. 20, 2113–2140. 2nd ed. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 1–75.
Walsh, J.P., Nittrouer, C.A., 1999. Observations of sediment flux to the Eel continental Wright, L.D., Nittrouer, C.A., 1995. Dispersal of river sediments in coastal seas—six
slope, northern California. Mar. Geol. 154 (1–4), 55–68. contrasting cases. Estuaries 18 (3), 494–508.
Walsh, J.P., Nittrouer, C.A., 2003. Contrasting styles of off-shelf sediment accumulation Wright, L.D., Wiseman, W.J., Bornhold, B.D., Prior, D.B., Suhayda, J.N., Keller, G.H., Yang,
in New Guinea. Mar. Geol. 196 (3–4), 105–125. Z.S., Fan, Y.B., 1988. Marine dispersal and deposition of Yellow-River silts by gravity-
Walsh, J.P., Nittrouer, C.A., 2004. Mangrove sedimentation in the Gulf of Papua, Papua driven underflows. Nature 332, 629–632.
New Guinea. Mar. Geol. 208, 225–248. Wright, L.D., Friedrichs, C.T., Kim, S.C., Scully, M.E., 2001. Effects of ambient currents and
Walsh, J.P., et al., 2004. Clinoform mechanics in the Gulf of Papua, New Guinea. Cont. waves on gravity-driven sediment transport on continental shelves. Mar. Geol. 175
Shelf Res. 24 (19), 2487–2510. (1–4), 25–45.
Wang, X.H., Pinardi, N., 2002. Modeling the dynamics of sediment transport and
resuspension in the northern Adriatic Sea. J. Geophys. Res. Oceans 107 (C12), 3225.