07/02/2019 Geoffrey of Monmouth - Wikipedia

Geoffrey of Monmouth
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth (Latin: Galfridus  Monemutensis,  Galfridus
Geoffrey of Monmouth
Arturus, Welsh: Gruffudd  ap  Arthur,  Sieffre  o  Fynwy; c. 1095 – c. 1155)
was a British cleric and one of the major figures in the development of Born Galfridus Arturus
British historiography and the popularity of tales of King Arthur. He is best c. 1095
known for his chronicle The  History  of  the  Kings  of  Britain (Latin: De Possibly Monmouth,
gestis  Britonum or Historia  regum  Britanniae)[1] which was widely Wales
popular in its day, being translated into other languages from its original Died c. 1155
Latin. It was given historical credence well into the 16th century,[2] but is Other names Galfridus
now considered historically unreliable. Monemutensis
Galfridus Arturus
Galfridus Artur
Contents Gruffudd ap Arthur
Biography Sieffre o Fynwy
The History of the Kings of Britain
Occupation Roman Catholic
Other writings cleric
See also
Known for His chronicle De
Notes gestis Britonum
References and further reading
External links
Editions of the Latin text
English translations available on the internet

Biography
Geoffrey was born between about 1090 and 1100,[3][4][5][6] in Wales or the Welsh Marches. He reached the age of
majority by 1129 when he is recorded as witnessing a charter.

Geoffrey refers to himself in his Historia as Galfridus  Monemutensis (Geoffrey of Monmouth), which indicates a
significant connection to Monmouth, Wales, and which may refer to his birthplace.[7] His works attest to some
acquaintance with the place-names of the region.[7] Geoffrey was known to his contemporaries as Galfridus Arturus or
variants thereof.[8][7] The "Arthur" in these versions of his name may indicate the name of his father or a nickname
based on his scholarly interests.[8]

Earlier scholars assumed that Geoffrey was Welsh or at least spoke Welsh.[8] His knowledge of the Welsh language
appears to have been slight, however,[8] and there is no real evidence that he was of Welsh or Cambro-Norman
descent.[7] He may have come from the same French-speaking elite of the Welsh border country as Gerald of Wales,
Walter Map, and Robert, Earl of Gloucester, to whom Geoffrey dedicated versions of his History.[8] Frank Merry
Stenton and others have suggested that Geoffrey's parents may have been among the many Bretons who took part in
William I's conquest and settled in the southeast of Wales.[7] Monmouth had been in the hands of Breton lords since
1075[7] or 1086,[8] and the names Galfridus and Arthur were more common among the Bretons than the Welsh.[7]

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He may have served for a while in the Benedictine Monmouth Priory,[9] but most of his adult life appears to have been
spent outside Wales. Between 1129 and 1151, his name appears on six charters in the Oxford area, sometimes styled
magister (teacher).[8] He was probably a secular canon of St. George's college. All the charters signed by Geoffrey are
also signed by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford, a canon at that church. Another frequent co-signatory is Ralph of
Monmouth, a canon of Lincoln.[8]

Archbishop Theobald of Bec consecrated Geoffrey as Bishop of St Asaph at Lambeth on 24 February 1152,[10] having
ordained him a priest at Westminster 10 days before. According to Lewis Thorpe, "There is no evidence that he ever
visited his see, and indeed the wars of Owain Gwynedd make this most unlikely."[11] He appears to have died between
25 December 1154 and 24 December 1155—in 1155 according to Welsh chronicles, when his successor took office.[8]

The History  of the Kings of Britain
Geoffrey wrote several works in Latin, the language of learning and literature in Europe during the medieval period.
His major work was The  History  of  the  Kings  of  Britain, the work best known to modern readers. It relates the
purported history of Britain, from its first settlement by Brutus of Troy, a descendant of Trojan hero Aeneas, to the
death of Cadwaladr in the 7th century, covering Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain, Kings Leir and Cymbeline, and one
of the earliest developed narratives of King Arthur.

Geoffrey claims in his dedication that the book is a translation of an "ancient book in the British language that told in
orderly fashion the deeds of all the kings of Britain", given to him by Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford, but modern
historians have dismissed this claim.[12] It is likely, however, that the Archdeacon did furnish Geoffrey with some
materials in the Welsh language which helped inspire his work, as Geoffrey's position and acquaintance with him
would not have permitted him to fabricate such a claim outright.[13] Much of it is based on the Historia Britonum, a
9th-century Welsh-Latin historical compilation, Bede's Historia  ecclesiastica  gentis  Anglorum, and Gildas's 6th-
century polemic De  Excidio  et  Conquestu  Britanniae, expanded with material from bardic oral tradition and
genealogical tracts, and embellished by Geoffrey's own imagination.[14] In an exchange of manuscript material for their
own histories, Robert of Torigny gave Henry of Huntingdon a copy of History, which both Robert and Henry used
uncritically as authentic history and subsequently used in their own works,[15] by which means some of Geoffrey's
fictions became embedded in popular history.

The History of the Kings of Britain is now usually considered a literary work of national myth containing little reliable
history. This has since led many modern scholars to agree with William of Newburgh, who wrote around 1190 that "it is
quite clear that everything this man wrote about Arthur and his successors, or indeed about his predecessors from
Vortigern onwards, was made up, partly by himself and partly by others".[16] Other contemporaries were similarly
unconvinced by Geoffrey's History. For example, Giraldus Cambrensis recounts the experience of a man possessed by
demons: "If the evil spirits oppressed him too much, the Gospel of St John was placed on his bosom, when, like birds,
they immediately vanished; but when the book was removed, and the History of the Britons by 'Geoffrey Arthur' [as
Geoffrey named himself] was substituted in its place, they instantly reappeared in greater numbers, and remained a
longer time than usual on his body and on the book."[17]

Geoffrey's major work was nevertheless widely disseminated throughout Medieval Western Europe; Acton Griscom
listed 186 extant manuscripts in 1929, and others have been identified since.[18] It enjoyed a significant afterlife in a
variety of forms, including translations and adaptations such as Wace's Anglo-Norman Roman  de  Brut, Layamon's
Middle English Brut, and several anonymous Middle Welsh versions known as Brut  y  Brenhinedd ("Brut of the
kings").[19] where it was generally accepted as a true account.

In 2017, Miles Russell published the initial results of the Lost Voices of Celtic Britain Project established at
Bournemouth University.[20] The main conclusion of the study was that the Historia Regum Britanniae appears to
contain significant demonstrable archaeological fact, despite being compiled many centuries after the period that it
describes. Geoffrey seems to have brought together a disparate mass of source material, including folklore, chronicles,

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king-lists, dynastic tables, oral tales, and bardic praise poems, some of which was irrevocably garbled or corrupted. In
doing so, Geoffrey exercised considerable editorial control, massaging the information and smoothing out apparent
inconsistencies in order to create a single grand narrative. Much of the information that he used can be shown to be
derived from two discrete sources, the first being the orally transmitted, heroic tales of the Catuvellauni and
Trinovantes, two essentially pro-Roman tribes inhabiting central south-eastern Britain at the very end of the Iron Age;
the second being the king-lists of important post-Roman dynasties ruling territories in western Britain. Stretching this
source material out, chopping, changing and re-editing it in the process, Geoffrey added additional information culled
from later Roman histories and also those of Dark Age and early Medieval writers such as Gildas and Bede.[21]

Other writings
Geoffrey's earliest writing was probably the Prophetiae Merlini (Prophecies of Merlin) which he wrote before 1135, and
which appears both independently and incorporated into The History of the Kings of Britain. It consists of a series of
obscure prophetic utterances attributed to Merlin which he claimed to have translated from an unspecified language.

Geoffrey's structuring and shaping of the Merlin and Arthur myths engendered their vast popularity which continues
today, and he is generally viewed by scholars as the major establisher of the Arthurian canon.[22] The History's effect
on the legend of King Arthur was so vast that Arthurian works have been categorised as "pre-Galfridian" and "post-
Galfridian", depending on whether or not they were influenced by him.

The third work attributed to Geoffrey is the hexameter poem Vita Merlini ("Life of Merlin"), based more closely on
traditional material about Merlin than the other works. Here he is known as Merlin of the Woods (Merlinus Sylvestris)
or Scottish Merlin (Merlinus Caledonius) and is portrayed as an old man living as a crazed and grief-stricken outcast in
the forest. The story is set long after the timeframe of the History's Merlin, but the author tries to synchronise the
works with references to the mad prophet's previous dealings with Vortigern and Arthur. The Vita did not circulate
widely, and the attribution to Geoffrey appears in only one late 13th-century manuscript, but it contains recognisably
Galfridian elements in its construction and content, and most critics recognise it as his.[8]

See also
Adam of Usk
Ranulf Higdon
William of Malmesbury

Notes
1. Geoffrey of Monmouth. The history of the kings of Britain: an edition and translation of De gestis Britonum
(Historia regum Britanniae). Arthurian studies. 69. Michael D. Reeve (ed.), Neil Wright (trans.). Woodbridge,
Suffolk: Boydell Press. 2007. p. lix. ISBN 978-1-84383-206-5.
2. Polydore Vergil's sceptical reading of Geoffrey of Monmouth provoked a reaction of denial in England, "yet the
seeds of doubt once sown" eventually replaced Geoffrey's romances with a new Renaissance historical approach,
according to Hans Baron, "Fifteenth-century civilisation and the Renaissance", in The New Cambridge Modern
history, vol. 1 1957:56.
3. Crick 2004: "it seems likely that he was born within ten years of 1100".
4. Foster 1959: "Geoffrey was b. between 1090 and 1100".
5. Arthurian Figures of history and legend: A biographical dictionary: "Geoffrey of Monmouth (floruit 1112–1139/
lifespan circa 1095–1155)".
6. A Concise History of Wales: "The key historical text was Historia Regum Brittanae (c.1139) by Geoffrey of
Monmouth (c.1090–1155)".
7. Roberts, "Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regnum Britanniae and Brut y Brenhinedd", p. 98.

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8. J. C. Crick, "Monmouth, Geoffrey of (d. 1154/5)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,
2004, accessed 7 June 2009 (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/10530)
9. Dunn, Charles W. (1958). Bibliographical Note to History of the Kings of Britain. E.P Dutton & Co.
10. Burton, Edwin Hubert. "Geoffrey of Monmouth" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Geoff
rey_of_Monmouth). Catholic Encyclopedia (1913). 6.
11. From the introduction to his translation of The History of the Kings of Britain (London: Penguin Books, 1966), p.
12.
12. Richard M. Loomis, The Romance of Arthur New York & London, Garland Publishing, Inc. 1994, pg. 59
13. Michael Curley, Geoffrey of Monmouth, p. 12
14. Thorpe, Kings of Britain pp. 14–19.
15. C. Warren Hollister, Henry I (Yale English Monarchs), 2001:11 note44.
16. Quoted by Thorpe, Kings of Britain, p. 17.
17. Gerald of Wales, The Journey through Wales/The Description of Wales (Lewis Thorpe ed.), Penguin, 1978,
Chapter 5, p 116.
18. Thorpe, Kings of Britain p. 28
19. Thorpe, Kings of Britain p. 29
20. Russell, Arthur and the Kings of Britain: The Historical Truth Behind the Myths p. 297-300
21. Lost Voices of Celtic Britain Project https://research.bournemouth.ac.uk/project/lost-voices-of-celtic-britain/
22. Thorpe, Kings of Britain, p. 20ff., particularly pp. 20–22 & 28–31.

References and further reading
Geoffrey of Monmouth. The History of the Kings of Britain. Edited and translated by Michael Faletra. Broadview
Books: Peterborough, Ontario, 2008. ISBN 1-55111-639-1
Geoffrey of Monmouth. The History of the Kings of Britain. Translated, with introduction and index, by Lewis
Thorpe. Penguin Books: London, 1966. ISBN 0-14-044170-0
Crick, J. C. (2004). "Monmouth, Geoffrey of [Galfridus Arturus] (d. 1154/5)". Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/10530 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Ao
dnb%2F10530). (Subscription or UK public library membership (http://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public) required.)
Curley, Michael (1994). Geoffrey of Monmouth. New York: Twayne Publishers.
Echard, Siân (1998). Arthurian Narrative in the Latin Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0521021524.
Echard, Siân, ed. (2011). The Arthur of Medieval Latin Literature: The Development and Dissemination of the
Arthurian Legend in Medieval Latin. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 978-0708322017.
Foster, Idris Llewelyn (1959). "Geoffrey of Monmouth (1090?–1155), or Galfridus (Gaufridus) Artur, or Galfridus
(Gaufridus) Monemutensis, bishop of S. Asaph and chronicler". The Dictionary of Welsh Biography down to 1940
(http://yba.llgc.org.uk/en/s-SIEF-OFY-1090.html). London: The Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion. pp. 274–5.
Higham, N. J. (2002). King Arthur: Myth-making and History. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-
21305-3.
Morris, John (1996) [1973]. The Age of Arthur: A History of the British Isles from 350 to 650. New York: Barnes &
Noble. ISBN 1-84212-477-3.
Parry, John Jay; Caldwell, Robert (1959). "Geoffrey of Monmouth". In Loomis, Roger S. Arthurian Literature in the
Middle Ages. Oxford University: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-811588-1.
Roberts, Brynley F. (1991). "Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regum Britanniae and Brut y Brenhinedd". The Arthur
of the Welsh: The Arthurian Legend in Medieval Welsh Literature. Cardiff: University of Wales Press. ISBN 0-
7083-1307-8.
Russell, Miles (2017). Arthur and the Kings of Britain: the Historical Truth Behind the Myths. Stroud: Amberley.
ISBN 978-1445662749.
Tatlock, J. S. P. (1950). The Legendary History of Britain: Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae and
its early vernacular versions. Berkeley: University of California Press.

External links
Latin Chroniclers from the Eleventh to the Thirteenth Centuries: Geoffrey of Monmouth (http://www.bartleby.com/2
11/0909.html) from The Cambridge History of English and American Literature, Volume I, 1907–21.

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Works by Geoffrey of Monmouth (https://librivox.org/author/10446) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

Editions of the Latin text

Works by or about Geoffrey of Monmouth (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Monmo
uth%2C%20Geoffrey%20of%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Monmouth%2C%20Geoffrey%20o%2E%22%20O
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Monmouth%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Geoffrey%20o%2E%20Monmouth%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22
G%2E%20o%2E%20Monmouth%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Monmouth%2C%20Geoffrey%22%20OR%20su
bject%3A%22Geoffrey%20Monmouth%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Geoffrey%20of%20Monmouth%22%20O
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0creator%3A%22Monmouth%2C%20G%2E%20o%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Monmouth%2C%20G%2
E%20of%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Geoffrey%20Monmouth%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Monmouth%2
C%20Geoffrey%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Geoffrey%20of%20Monmouth%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Geoffre
y%20o%2E%20Monmouth%22%20OR%20title%3A%22G%2E%20o%2E%20Monmouth%22%20OR%20title%3
A%22Geoffrey%20Monmouth%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Geoffrey%20of%20Monmouth%22%20OR%20
description%3A%22Geoffrey%20o%2E%20Monmouth%22%20OR%20description%3A%22G%2E%20o%2E%20
Monmouth%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Monmouth%2C%20Geoffrey%20of%22%20OR%20description%3
A%22Monmouth%2C%20Geoffrey%20o%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Geoffrey%20Monmouth%22%2
0OR%20description%3A%22Monmouth%2C%20Geoffrey%22%29%20OR%20%28%221090s-1155%22%20AN
D%20Monmouth%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Hammer, Jacob/ Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia regum Britanniae, a variant version. Edited by Jacob Hammer.
Medieval Academy Books, No. 57 (1951). Medieval Academy Electronic Editions (http://www.medievalacademy.or
g/resource/resmgr/maa_books_online/hammer_0057_bkmrkdpdf.pdf). Geoffrey of Monmouth, Second Variant
version of the "Historia Regum Britannie" from Library of Matthew Parker.
Historia regum Britanniae, MS CUL Ff.1.25, Cambridge Digital Library (http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-FF-0000
1-00025-00005).

English translations available on the internet

Historia Regum Britanniae:

Histories of the Kings of Britain (http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/gem/index.htm), tr. by Sebastian Evans,

at Sacred Texts
By Aaron Thompson with revisions by J. A. Giles at http://www.yorku.ca/inpar/geoffrey_thompson.pdf. (PDF)
(Arthurian passages only) edited and translated by J. A. Giles at
http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/geofhkb.htm.
Vita Merlini, Basil Clarke's English translation from Life of Merlin: Vita Merlini (Cardiff: University of Wales Press,
1973).

At Jones the Celtic Encyclopedia (http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/merlini.html)

At Sacred-texts.com (http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/vm/index.htm)

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