Stress and Strain in

Flexible
•
Pavements
Major content covered in this block
• Source of stresses and strains
• Critical AC pavement responses
• Calculation of pavement responses
– One-layer systems
– Multi-layer systems
• Design considerations for minimize
pavement responses
• For any pavement design procedure to
be completely rational in nature, total
consideration must be given to three
elements (Yoder pp. 24):
– The theory used to predict the
failure/distress parameter,
– The evaluation of the pertinent material
properties necessary for the theory
selected, and
– The determination of the relationship b/n
the magnitude of the parameter in question
to the failure or performance level desired.
 Source of Stresses and
Strains
• Load related
– Vertical stress and strain
– Shear stress and strain
– Radial stress and strain

• Shrinkage stresses and strains

• Temperature induced stresses and
strains
Multiple Wheel Loads
 Why Stresses and
Strains?
• Need to predict & understand stress/strain
distribution within the pavement structure
as they (σ & ε) relate to failure (cracking &
rutting)
• Numerical Models
– Need model to compute deflections (δ) and
strains (ε)
– Numerous models available with different:
• Capabilities
• Underlying assumptions
• Complexity
• Material information requirements
The type of theory used is generally
distinguished by reference to three
properties of material behavior
response:
1.The relationship between stress and
strain (linear or nonlinear),
2.The time dependency of strain under a
constant stress level (viscous or
nonviscous), and
3.The degree to which the material can
rebound or recover strain after stress
removal (plastic or elastic)
Behavior of materials
• Most pavement materials are nonlinear
but the use of linear model suffice
provided the stress states are low.
• For the case of viscous materials (two
models shown), the strain magnitude is
a function of the time the specimen is
stressed.
– Model I: a simple Maxwell-type system
comprising a spring and dashpot in series.
The strain can be denoted by:
 t
 (t )  
E 
• Where t is the time and η is coefficient of
viscosity of the dashpot system.
• Model II: The Kelvin system characterized by a
spring and dashpot in parallel. The time
dependent strain for this system is:

 (t )  1  e Et 

E
• For this system, as the loading time approach ∞,
the strain approaches the elastic value. Upon
load release, all the strain is recoverable fully.
• Most viscous pavement materials, such as
asphalt mixtures at elevated temperatures and
very cohesive soils, do not follow either of this
ideal cases, and as a consequence, various
combinations of models have been
developed to simulate the behavior
response.
• From practical point of view, many of the
viscoelastic materials requires such a
great deal of time to fully recover the
strain that much of the deformation can
be considered as being plastic or
permanent in nature.
• This feature explains why linear
viscoelastic theory is used to predict the
permanent deformation of pavement
systems.
→General limitations of any specific theoretical
model such as nonlinear elastic or linear
viscoplastic.
→The theory most widely utilized at present is
multilayered linear elastic theory!
 Layered Elastic Theory
• Single layer system
– Boussinesq theory

• Graphical and tabular solution

• Flexible plate/rigid plate equation (@ r=0)
• Multi layer system
• Burmister’s theory
 Layered Elastic Theory

• Pavement behavior under wheel

loads is characterized by considering
it to be a homogeneous half-space
subjected to a circular load of radius
“a” and uniform pressure “p” also
given by “q”.
 Assumptions
• Homogeneous Material Properties
• Finite Layer Thickness
• Layers Infinite in Lateral Directions
• Isotropic Layers
• Full Friction Between Layers
• No Surface Shearing Forces
• Solutions Characterized by E, μ or ν
 Assumptions

• Most Not Valid

• Reasonable for Small Strains
 Stresses

• Normal Stresses (Perpendicular)

– σz, σt, σr
• Shear Stresses (Parallel)
– τrt = τtr
– τzt = τtz
– τrz = τzr
Strains
 Single-Layer Systems
• Boussinesq Theory (1885) – elastic
solid half space one layer
– Stress, Strains, Deflections
• Assumes
– Homogeneous
– Isotropic
– Elastic Media
– Point Load at Surface
Vertical Stress Distribution
Boussinesq’s Formula
 Single-Layer Systems
• Circular Area

– Graphical and Tabular Solutions

• Foster and Ahlvin (1954)

• Ahlvin and Ulery (1962)

– Solutions at axial symmetry

One-layer Solutions (Foster
& Ahlvin)
• Developed charts to determine σ , σ , z t
σr, τrz & w (ν=0.5)
• Axisymmetric loading:
– σz = Vertical stress
– σr = Radial stress
– σt = Tangential stress
– τrz = Shear stress
– w = Deflection
Pre-solved @ radial distances
 One-layer Solutions
(Foster & Ahlvin)
Depth (z) and offset (r) are expressed in radial ratios
 Example
• Given:
– Load, P = 40 kN
– Pressure, q = 552 kPa
• Find:
– Vertical Stress, σz @ z= 152 mm & r= 152 mm
– First, we need to calculate the radius:
P 40 40000
q  a
A a2
 * 0.552
 152mm

• x100  33
z/a = 1 & r/a = 1
z

q
• Hence, from the chart  552 x33  182 kPa
100
z

(fig 2.2):
 Deflection

• When a wheel load is applied a single contact area, the most

critical stress, strain and deflection occurs under the centre of the
circular area on the axis of symmetry. {st =sr principal
stresses)
Fig. 2.6 Vertical deflection due to circular loading (Foster and
Ahlvin, 1954)
One Layer Elastic Equations
 Two-Layer Systems
(Burmister 1958)
Assumptions
1. Each layer is homogeneous, isotropic, linear
elastic material with an elastic modulus of E and
a Poisson ratio v
2. Material is weightless and infinite in areal extent
3. Each layer has a finite thickness h, except that
the lowest layer is infinite in thickness
4. A uniform pressure q is applied on the surface
over a circular area of radius a
5. Satisfying continuity conditions (same vertical
stress, shear stress, vertical displacement, and
radial displacement at the layer interfaces)
Developed solutions for:
– Vertical deflections (flexible & rigid)
– Vertical stresses (limited # of cases)
– σ & δ highly dependent on stiffness ratio E1/E2
• Vertical stress decreases considerably
with increase in modular ratio.
• For example,
– for a/h1=1 and E1/E2 = 1, sz at interface = 65%
of contact pressure
– for a/h1=1 and E1/E2 = 100, sz at interface =
8% of contact pressure
 Vertical Surface Deflection
in a Two layer System
• Burmister (1958) developed a chart for
computing vertical surface deflection in a two-
layer system.
• The deflection factor, F2, is obtained from the
chart based on the values of a/h1 and E1/E2.
• Then the deflection is computed from the
following equations:
qa
Deflection under a flexible Plate  1.5 F
E
2

qa
Deflection under a rigid Plate  1.18 F
E
2

2
• In one-layer theory we assumed
that all layers could be
represented as one.
– δsurface = δtop of the subgrade
• For two-layer theory we have:
– Vertical Surface Deflection
– Vertical Interface Deflection
• Surface Deflections:

– Why use E2 for surface deflection?

• E2 accounts for most of the
deflection
• F2 takes into account the stiffness
ratio
Surface Deflections Example
 Interface Deflection in a
Two-layer System
• Huang (1969) developed charts for interface
deflection in a two-layer system.
• These charts are prepared for varying E1/E2 values.
• The interface deflection factor, F, is obtained from
the chart based on the values of E1/E2, h1/a and r/a
values.
• The interface deflection (∆S) is then found from:

The deflection that takes qa

  F
place within the pavement s
E 2

(∆p) is given by:

   
p T s
Interface Deflections
Example
 Surface Vs Interface
Deflections
• Compare the results from the
example:
– Surface deflection = 43 mils
– Interface deflection = 40 mils
Top layer compression = 43-40= 3 mils
Compression percentages:
• Top Layer = 3/43 ×100 ≅ 7%
• Subgrade Layer = 40/43 ×100 ≅ 93%
Two-Layer Vertical Stress
• What thickness do
we have to use to
protect the
subgrade?
Critical Tensile Strain – two
layer
• The critical tensile strain, e, at the bottom of the
first layer for a two-layer system can be
determined by:

q
e F
E
e

The critical tensile strain

under dual wheels or
dual-tandem wheels is
obtained from the same
equation, but the strain
factor needs to be
corrected!!
Example
 Stresses & Strains for
Design
Purpose of the pavement structure:
• Protect the subgrade; reduce stresses to a
tolerable level to prevent excessive
settlement or collapse
 Tensile Strain
• Tensile strain at the bottom of AC layer;
used in pvt design as the fatigue
cracking criterion
• Two types of strain:
– Overall minor principal strain, ε3
– Horizontal ‘principal’ strain, εt (not an actual
principal strain)
• Horizontal ‘principal’ strain (εt) used as
a design criterion.
Overall Principal Strains
Horizontal ‘Principal’
Strain
 Three-layer System
• Fox and Acum produced the first extensive
tabular summary of normal and radial stresses
in three-layer systems at the intersection of
the plate axis with the layer interfaces.
• Jones (1962) and Peattie (1962) subsequently
expanded these solutions to a much wider
range of solution parameters.

Three-layer system showing location of stresses presented by

Jones (1962) and Peattie (1962)
 Notation
• σz1 = Vertical stress at interface 1
• σz2 = Vertical stress at interface 2
• σr1 = Horizontal stress at the bottom of layer 1
• σ’r1 = Horizontal stress at the top of layer 2
• σr2 = Horizontal stress at the bottom of layer 2
• σ’r2 = Horizontal stress at the top of layer 3
• These stress values are along the axis of
symmetry of the load.
• Therefore, σr1 = σt1 1 1
     ;     
– For μ = 0.5, and z
E
1
z1 r1 r
2E
1
r1 z1

– Therefore, radial strain = one half the vertical

strain i.e., εr = -0.5 εz
 Parameters in Jones
Tables
• Stresses in a three layer system depend on the following
ratios:
K1 = E1/E2; K2 = E2/E3
A = a/h2; H = h1/h2
• Jones (1962) presented a series of tables for determining
σz1, σz1 - σr1, σz2, σz2 - σr2.
• His tables also include values of σz1 - σr1 and σz2 – σ’r2. But
these can be readily obtained from those at bottom of
layer 1 and 2.
• For continuity;
 Computing Stresses from
Jones Tables
• Tables presented by Jones (1962) consist of
four values of K1 and K2 i.e., 0.2, 2, 20 and 200.
• Therefore, interpolation of stress factors is
necessary for many problem solutions. No
extrapolation is allowed.
• Four sets of stress factors i.e., ZZ1, ZZ2, ZZ1-
RR1 and ZZ2-RR2, are shown. The product of
contact pressure and the stress factor gives
the stress.
 Multi-layer System
• Graphical solution
– Odemark’s transformation (Odemark
1949)

• Layered Elastic Analysis

 Odemark’s
Transformation
• It transforms the various layers with different “E”
and “ν” into an “equivalent system” where all
layers have the same modulus
• If “h” “E” and “ν” of a layer are changed while
remaining the stiffness the same, the stresses
and strains below that layer also remain the same
• Odemark’s method is based on the
assumption that the stresses and strains
below a layer depend on the stiffness of
that layer only.
• If the thickness, modulus and Poisson’s
ratio of a layer are changed, but the
stiffness remains unchanged, the stresses
and strains below the layer should also
remain (relatively) unchanged.
• If in the equation Poisson’s ratio is
assumed to be same for all layers (and in
practice Poisson’s ratio is seldom known
with any degree of accuracy), the
transformation may be written as:
• The pavement layers: asphalt and
granular base layers are transformed into
an equivalent subgrade modulus. The
total thickness of the transformed section
is given by equivalent thickness, h e.
Layered Elastic Analysis
• Assumptions are the same as Burmister
assumption
• Consider multiple wheel loads
• Determine stress, strain, deformation at any
location
• Has limitations
– Linearity assumption – materials are stress
dependent
– Elastic material assumption – asphalt is visco-elastic
material and has non-recoverable deformation
 Computer Programs
• Elastic layer program
– BISAR
– EVERSTRS
– ELSYMS
– DAMA
– KENLAYER…
• Finite Element Procedures
– ILLI-PAVE
– MICH-PAVE…
Sensitivity of Pavement
Responses to
Design Variables
Sensitivity Analysis
 Design Considerations for
Minimize AC Pavement
Responses
• Fatigue consideration: minimize the critical
tensile strain in upper layers (AC, base) to
prevent fatigue and reflective cracking.
• Rutting consideration: minimize vertical
strain and avoid permanent deformation in
the lower layers (subgrade)
• Subgrade protection: retain soil swelling
pressure, provide adequate frost protection
• Adequate wearing surface: withstand high
shearing and compressive stress from
heavy wheel loads, provide resistance to
abrasion
Critical AC Pavement
Responses
Granular Base
Critical AC Pavement
Response
Stabilized Base
 • Likely cause of increased
• Resulting damage from a ESALs: increased bus traffic.
marked increase in ESALs.
 Problems
1. Calculate the surface deflection under the centre of a tyre
(a = 152 mm, p = 552 kPa) for a 305 mm pavement
having a 345 MPa modulus and subgrade modulus of 69
MPa from two-layer theory. Also calculate the interface
deflection and the deflection that takes place within the
pavement layer.
2. A circular load with a radius of 152 mm and a uniform
pressure of 552 kPa is applied on a two-layer system. The
subgrade has an elastic modulus of 35 kPa and can support
a maximum vertical stress of 55 kPa. What is the required
thickness of full depth AC pavement, if AC has an elastic
modulus of 3.45 GPa. Instead of a full depth AC pavement,
if a thin surface treatment is applied on a granular base
(with elastic modulus of 173 MPa), what is the thickness of
base course required?
3. A plate bearing test using 750 mm diameter rigid plate was
made on a subgrade as well as on 254 mm of gravel base
course. The unit load required to cause settlement of 5 mm
was 69 kPa and 276 kPa, respectively. Determine the
required thickness of base course to sustain a 222.5 kN
tyre, 690 kPa pressure and maintain a deflection of 5 mm.
 Problem – three layer
• Given the three layer system shown in figure,
determine all the stresses and strains at the two
interfaces on the axis of symmetry.
 Analytical Models
• A number of different types of models (mostly computer
based) can be used to predict the state of stress in a
pavement under simulated wheel and environmental
loading conditions.
• The models that primarily fall into this category are those
based on multilayer elastic (MLE) theory and FE analysis.
The MLE models are considered satisfactory for predicting
flexible pavement response under external wheel loads and
are also relatively easy to operate, fast executing, and
widely used. They are not capable of predicting pavement
response associated with any environmental loading (i.e.,
that due to daily temperature changes, temperature
gradients, moisture variations, etc.). FE models are also very
good for predicting pavement response and are capable of
considering both wheel and environmental loading.
Unfortunately, they are complicated to operate and time-
consuming, and therefore are not typically used for M-E
flexible pavement design. Another emerging analytical
modeling approach, fracture mechanics, may eventually find
its way into future M-E design procedures.
 Transfer Functions
• A multitude of relationships have been developed to relate the
state of stress in a pavement to its overall performance. In
current M-E design procedures for flexible pavements, the
primary transfer functions are those that relate ( a) maximum
wheel load tensile strain in the hot-mix asphalt (HMA) surface
layer to eventual fatigue cracking and ( b) wheel load
compressive stress (or strain) at the top of the subgrade layer to
rutting at the surface.
• These models are typically derived through statistically based
correlations of pavement response with observed performance of
laboratory test specimens, full-scale road test experiments (such
as that conducted by the AASHTO), or by both methods. Transfer
functions are the most important component of an M-E design
procedure; unfortunately, a lot of models are available that do
not show good agreement. (It is hoped that the planned 2002
AASHTO Guide will establish the best models for nationwide
application.)
 Example
• Given
– Load = 40 kN
– Tire Inflation = 552 kPa
– E = 69 MPa
– Μ = 0.4
• Find
– σz1, σz2,
– ∆z1, ∆ z2
• r1= 0, z1= 0, r2= 152 mm, z2= 152
mm
 Multi-layered Elastic System in
Cylindrical Coordinates under
Axial Symmetry

How do we get E?
Before & after
construction
E&ν
Before: lab testing (MR)
After: field testing
(FWD)