Ilorin Journal of Education Vol 25 August 2006

ILORIN
JOURNAL OF
EDUCATION
ISSN: 0189 – 6636
VOLUME 25, AUGUST 2006

Ilorin Journal of Education, Volume 25, 2006
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elcome to the Ilorin Journal of Education. The Ilorin Journal of
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Copyright © 2006
i
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Professor ‘Raheem Adebayo Lawal (Ph.D.)

Dean, Faculty of Education,
Editor-in-Chief, Ilorin Journal of Education,
University of Ilorin,
P.M.B. 1515,
Ilorin,
Nigeria.
iv
EDITORIAL TEAM
Editor-in-Chief
Professor ‘Raheem Adebayo Lawal, Dean, Faculty of Education, University of
Ilorin
Managing Editor
Mudasiru Olalere Yusuf (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin
Sub-Editors
B. O. Olawuyi (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin
A. O. Sofoluwe (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin
Internal Editorial Board Member

S. B. Olajide (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin
A. T. Alabi (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin
M. O. Esere (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin
A. S. Onasanya (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin
O. Onifade (PhD), Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin
Consulting Editors
Professor Ugur Demiray, Faculty of Communication Sciences, Anadolu University,
Eskisehir, Turkey
Professor N. Balasubramanian, Bharathiar University, Coimbatoire, India
Charles Isitoa Juwah, The Robert Gordon University, Schoolhill, Aberdeen
Review Board
Gulsun Kurubacak (PhD), College of Open Education, Anadolu University,
Eskisehir, Turkey
Ali Fawaz Sahreef (PhD), Maldives College of Higher Education, Male Maldives
Ezendu Ariwa, London Metropolitan University, Business School, London, UK
Satyadhyan R. Chickerur, Sonal College of Technology, Salem India
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Welcome to IJE……………………………………..……………………………. i
Instruction to Contributors………………………..……………………………. iii
Editorial Team……..…………………………………………………………………. v
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………. vi
Modelling Instructional Strategy and Pupils’ Learning Outcomes

in Primary Science
A. B. C. Orji ………………………………………………………………………… 1
Effect of Field Trip Method of Teaching on Students’ Performance

in Social Studies
Yusuf, AbdulRaheem……………………………………………………………… 8
Principles, Practice and Techniques of the “Bini” Traditional Bronze

Casting Operations: A Traditional Artifact of Benin-City, Edo State
Uwaifo, Victor Oziengbe………………………………………………………….. 20
Social Studies and International Relations: Challenges for Citizenship

Education in the Nigerian Junior Secondary School Social Studies Curriculum
R. W. Okunloye………………………………………………………………………….. 28
ICT-based Library: A Redefinition of Library Services

Sanni, Moronkola Munir………………………………………………………………. 33
Teacher Education in Nigeria and the Millennium Development Goals

Adebayo Lawal…………………………………………………………………………… 43
Academic Staff Perception of Qualification on Administrative

Effectiveness of Heads of Academic Departments in Nigerian Universities
Don Omoike……………………………………………………………………………… 54
Supervisor’s Factor in the Achievement of Universal Basic Education

(UBE) Objectives in Nigeria
Y. A. Fasasi………………………………………………………………………………. 62
vi
Effect of Counselling on Examination Anxiety and Academic Performance

among University Of Maiduguri Diploma Students
Bulama Kagu & Mohammed Hassan………………………………………………. 69
Optimal Strategies for the Game of Squash

Talabi, A. E……………………………………………………………………………… 75
Globalisation and The Development of Western Education in Nigeria

Adeniran, L. A…………………………………………………………………………… 83
vii
Ilorin Journal of Education, Vol. 25 August, 2006
MODELLING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY AND PUPILS’

LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PRIMARY SCIENCE
A. B. C. Orji (PhD)
Department of Science and Environmental Education
University of Abuja
PMB 117
Abuja, Nigeria
Orji4real2008@yahoo.com
Abstract
As a foundational science, primary science plays an indispensable role in
the attainment of sound technological literacy among the entire citizenry of any
country. The resurgence of research interest in primary science instructions
culminated in a number of measures which included such instructional strategies
as modelling instructional strategy whose effects on pupils’ learning outcomes
(achievement and attitude) were examined in this study. The subjects
comprised 126 primary school pupils within the Gwagwalada Area Council of the
Federal Capital Territory (FCT). A pre-test post-test control group quasi –
experimental design was adopted for the study. Three validated and reliable
instruments: Test of Primary Science Ability, Primary Science Achievement Test,
and Primary Science Attitude Scales were used for the study. Data were analyzed
using t-test statistical technique. Findings indicated that the post test mean
achievement score of the group exposed to modelling instructional strategy were
significantly higher than those of the control group. It was also found that
pupils’ attitude to primary science improved after exposure to modelling strategy.
These findings were discussed with their implications, while the study advocates
for the introduction and popularization of modelling Instructional Strategy in
Nigerian primary schools.
Background to the Study

Science can simply be regarded as an attempt by man to gain better
understanding and clearer interpretation of mankind and of the environment. By
this definition, it is therefore implied that the art of ‘sciencing’ involves the
process of understanding ourselves, other living things and the environment
through the organisation of experience about nature into meaningful system of
explanation (Ogunniyi, 1986). Science aims at searching for causes and
providing reasons for solution to phenomena or experiences in life. Basically, the
aim of science is the same irrespective of the level where science concepts are
communicated. Be it at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels of our
education system.
At the primary level, however, science is such that builds the foundation for
future science and other programmes like the Universal Basic Education (UBE).
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A. B. C. Orji
The curriculum for primary science consists of richly packaged activities for both
the teacher and the pupil (FGN, 1988; 2004) which if properly articulated and
harnessed will produce desired outcome of scientific literacy and development at
both the individual and national level. Despite this laudable role of primary
science, there are indications (Orji, 2002) that the quality of teaching and
learning of science in Nigerian Primary Schools leaves much to be desired.
Perhaps, the poor quality teaching – learning process in Nigerian Primary Science
classrooms, might have led to underachievement, gender disparity and general
lack of interest recorded among pupils in primary science (Onocha, Okpala and
Offorma, 1995; Balogun, 1994; Yoloye, 1994; Agholor 1993). Efforts should
therefore be geared not only to appraise the situation but also to expedite action
towards addressing the afore stated academic problems. To this end, science
educators have continued to search for ways and consequently advanced a
number of proposals. One of the proposals being made in recent times is the
use of modeling technique, which is the main focus of the present study.
Modeling can take various forms like; organizing career talk and programmes,
exposing pupils to video – taped interviews, pictures and photographs; arranging
discussion, project, quizzes and group work activities. Onocha (1998) and Beller
and Gafni (1996) have all argued on the inherent benefits of modeling
techniques. It is against this background that the study was conceived to
ascertain whether modelling strategy could be used to improve pupils’ learning
outcomes (achievement and attitude) in primary science.
Research Method
The quasi-experimental pre-test, post-test control group design was
adopted for the study. In the design, pre-test served as a measure of pupils’
background knowledge and initial nature of attitude. The sample comprised 126
primary VI pupils of intact classes from comparable primary schools randomly
selected from Gwagwalada Area Council of the Federal Capital Territory. Simple
random sampling technique was again used to assign the intact classes into
experimental and control groups respectively. At the end of the random
assignment, the experimental group had 60 pupils while the control group had
66 pupils.
Instrumentation
The instruments used for the study comprised the following;
(i) Modelling Instructional Strategy Guide (MISG)
(ii) Test of Primary Science Ability (TOPSA)
(iii) Primary Science Achievement Test (PSAT)
(iv) Primary Science Attitude Scale (PSAS)
The Modelling Instructional Strategy Guide (MISG): The instructional
guide was developed by the researcher based on the content of modeling
strategy as suggested by Onocha (1998). The guide contains some carefully
selected activities, which include hints on how to:
2
- Organize career talk and programmes in which models/known

personalities are invited.
- Expose pupils to video-taped interviews, pictures and photographs
of models or personalities of interest.
- Arrange discussion with models or personalities of interest.
The main aim of the instructional strategy was to expose learners to role
models and mentors in science and technology. During every learning activity
and at their leisure they were introduced to stimulating and challenging activities.
The particular one(s) to embark on at particular time depended on the
convenience and discretion of the teachers. The guideline was given to science
educators including some primary science teachers. They ascertained its
suitability with respect to content and language level of the pupils. Lesson notes
were also prepared on the topics validated by the same group of experts.
Test of Primary Science Ability (TOPSA): The TOPSA was a 15 – item
multiple-choice instrument with high validity and reliability index of 0.80 as
established elsewhere (Orji, 2002). Each item in the instrument contains four
options ranging from A to D. Specifically, the instrument was used to select
pupils of comparable ability in primary science.
Primary Science Achievement Test (PSAT): The PSAT was a 20-item
multiple-choice instrument used to measure the level of pupils’ performance in
primary science. Each item has four options ranging from A to D. The
instrument served as pre-test and post test respectively. The validity and
reliability (r = 0.82) have been established and documented previously (Orji,
2002)
Primary Science Attitude Scale (PSAS): PSAS is a 16-item attitudinal
instrument, which was used to measure the pre and post-treatment attitude of
pupils towards primary science. It was a four- point attitude scale in which
respondents were required to tick one of the option (strong agree, agree,
disagree and strongly disagree) alongside a set of items which were measured
on a weighted value of 4 for strongly agree, 3 for agree, 2 for disagree and 1 for
strongly disagree. In case of negative items, these points were reversed. An
equal number of positive and negative items were provided. The instrument had
been validated and used by Orji (2002) who found reliability index to be 0.84
using a Cronbach alpha statistic.
Data Collection Procedure

The ability levels of the students were obtained by giving the TOPSA to all
the primary VI pupils in the sampled schools. The mean and standard deviation
of the arms in each of the schools were computed and the arms that had
comparable means and standard deviations ranging from 5.540 to 6.00 and 7.23
to 7.52 respectively were used for the study. The comparable subjects were
randomly assigned into experimental and control groups. Intact classes were
used so as not to disrupt the academic programmes of the schools.
3
A. B. C. Orji
To avoid possible sensitization on the part of pupils their regular teachers

were used as trained experts during treatment; though under close supervision
of the researcher. During the period of training, the teachers were educated on
the benefits of modeling as well as the purpose and nature of the study.
Teachers were again taken through the MISG. Invited guest speakers were
briefed on the purpose of study, which guided their lectures/discussions they had
with trainee teachers. Practical demonstrations were also carried out. Training
lasted for 4 weeks after which pre-test were administered on the subjects.
Treatment commenced after the pre-test. Teachers guided the pupils through
the filling of questionnaire on a one-to-one basis because of the age and
inexperience. Where interpretations, translations and clarifications were
necessary, they were done. The experimental group was exposed to modeling
instructional strategy by the trained experts while teachers for the control group
were allowed to adopt their usual way of teaching through lesson notes which
were made uniform to ensure that the chosen topics for both groups were the
same. After the treatment both groups received the post test. At the end, data
were collected and analyzed.
Data Analyses and Results

Data from the study were analyzed using descriptive statistics of means
and standard deviation. Thereafter, T-test statistic was used to ascertain
whether any significant difference existed at 0.05 level.
Pre-test mean achievement and attitude scores were obtained and the t-
values were computed before the commencement of the treatment. The aim
was to find initial difference between the subjects and to confirm comparability
of the groups. The t-values showed no significant difference indicating initial
comparable ability of the groups. The post-test mean scores for achievement
and attitudes were analyzed as follows.
Table 1: t-test Statistics on Post-test Achievement Scores of the Experimental

and Control Groups
Groups N X Df t-cal. t-
SD critical
Experimental 60 15.3 9.6
124 2.42 1.96
Control 66 10.8 8.2
Analysis of the post-test mean achievement score in Table 1 shows a t-

value of 2.42 which is greater than the table value of 1.96. Hence, the null
hypothesis was rejected. In other words there is a significant difference in the
mean post-test achievement scores of experimental and control groups.
4
Table 2: T-test Statistics on Mean Post-test Attitude Scores of the Experimental

and Control Groups
Groups N X SD Df t-cal. t-critical

Experimental 60 14.6 9.20
124 3.65 1.96
Control 66 8.52 7.00
Results of analyses in Table 2 show that t-value of 3.65 is greater than

the table value of 1.96 and therefore significant. As a result, the hypothesis here
is equally rejected. This finding implies that pupils in experimental group
obtained significantly higher mean scores than those in the control group.
Discussion
The modelling as an instructional strategy seemed to have significant
positive impact on the pupils’ achievement in primary science. The efficacy of
modelling in enhancing pupils’ achievement is therefore established. The present
finding lends support to earlier views and opinions (Beller & Gafni, 1994) which
advocate the use of modelling as a performance-enhancing strategy. Tenable
reasons for this finding could be sought on the fact that modelling strategy helps
to sustain pupils’ curiosity which encourages participatory role of the pupils that
leads to better performance.
Again, findings reveal that significant difference existed between the attitude
of pupils in experimental and those in the control group. In other words,
modelling strategy impacts positively on the pupils’ attitude towards primary
science. The finding provides strong empirical evidence to earlier assertion that
modelling could be used to arouse pupils’ interest and improve on their attitude
(Onocha, 1998). Perhaps, the availability of mentors and role models might
have stimulated pupils’ interest and consequently improved on their attitude
towards the subject. The beauty of the finding is that once the interest is
rekindled, the pupils are most likely to exhibit positive attitude and improved
performance.
Implications and Recommendations

No doubt, the present findings and their associated discussion raised a
number of implications to Nigerian education system. The fact that modeling
was found to have positive effect on both the performance and attitude of
Nigerian primary school pupils to primary science calls for its introduction into
primary science classrooms. To this end, all hands should be on deck by all
stakeholders to ensure that modeling instructional strategy is popularized in our
schools.
5
A. B. C. Orji
Furthermore, conferences, orientation and training workshops on how to

effectively blend, use and popularize modelling strategy need to be organized for
both pre-service and in-service teachers in primary schools.
Conclusion
Primary science is a subject that builds foundation for future scientists,
engineers and technologists in the country. Given this laudable role, science
educators have not relented in their efforts to improve on the quality of
instruction in primary science classrooms. Hence the proposal of modelling
instructional strategy whose effects on pupils’ learning outcome (attitude and
performance), were examined in the present study. Data were collected and
analyzed. Results from the analysis indicated that modelling instructional
strategy impacts positively on pupils’ achievement in, and attitude to primary
science. In the light of these findings the instructional strategy was
recommended for use in Nigerian primary science classrooms.
References
Agholor, R. N (1993). Motivating African girls to science: Removing socio-
cultural barriers. Paper presented at the International Conference on
Science Education in Developing Countries. From Theory to Practice,
Jerusalem, Israel, January 3-7
Balogun T. A. (1994). Intervention strategy In promoting women participation in
science and technology. In Erinosho, S.Y (Ed.), Perspective on women in
science and technology in Nigeria (pp. 28 – 38). Ibadan: Sam Bookman.
Beller, M. & Grafni, N. (1994). The 1991 international assessment of educational
progress in mathematics and sciences. Journal of Educational Psychology,
8(2), 365 – 367.
Federal Government of Nigeria (1988). The Nigerian primary school curriculum.
Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th ed.).
Abuja: NERDC
Onocha, C. Okpala, P, & Offorma, G. (1995). Education of women and girls
study of equity in Eastern Nigeria. A study commissioned by the Regional
Office of UNESCO/BREDA in Africa Dakar, Senegal.
Onocha C, (1998). Girls and science education: Changing mind-sets and
improving learning. In Erinosho S.Y (Ed), Science and education for all:
Which way forward? Proceedings of a Seminar, NIGIS Project Secretariat.
Orji A.B.C (2002). The effect of concept mapping on pupils learning outcomes in
primary science. Research Paper Presented at the 4th Biennial Conference
of WCCI, University of Nigeria Nsukka, 22nd – 26th October.
Ogunniyi, M. B. (1986). Teaching science in Africa, Ibadan: Salem Publishing
Company.
6
Yoloye, A. (1994). Gender issues in the teaching of science technology and

mathematics. In Erinosho S.Y. (Ed.), Perspectives on women in science
and technology in Nigeria (pp. 39 – 50). Ibadan: Sam Bookman.
7
EFFECT OF FIELD TRIP METHOD OF TEACHING ON STUDENTS’

PERFORMANCE IN SOCIAL STUDIES
Yusuf, AbdulRaheem (PhD)

Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin
yuabra@yahoo.com
2348060633040
Abstract
The study investigated the effect of field trip on junior secondary school
students’ performance in social studies, in Ilorin metropolis, Nigeria. A quasi-
experimental design was adopted for the study. The sample consisted of 77
students drawn from two sampled secondary schools in Ilorin South and Ilorin
East Local Government Areas of Kwara State. The sampled secondary schools
were randomly assigned to treatment (37 students) and control (40 students)
groups. Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyse the data
collected. The findings showed that students taught using field trip performed
significantly better than their counterparts taught using the conventional method.
Based on these findings, it was recommended among others, that teachers of
social studies should expose their students to field trip, as this will promote
learning by experience, discovery learning, active engagement in learning, and
self-motivation in social studies.
Introduction
Social studies as a problem solving subject requires both the teacher and
the students to pay attention to the ideas and paths. It considers successful
ways to facilitate learning among students. While other core subjects have
moved toward student-centred, experiential, hands-on learning and constructivist
learning strategies, social studies has remained largely teacher centred (Hope,
1996). Much of social studies teaching and learning is geared to the simple
transmission of information through the use of a single textbook, the lecture
method, and teacher controlled question and answer strategies. Probably, that is
why Yusuf (2004), as shown on Table 1, observed growing decline and
fluctuation in the students’ performance in the subject in Junior School Certificate
Examination (JSCE).
8
Yusuf, AbdulRaheem
Table 1: Junior School Certificate Examination (JSCE) Performance of Male and

Female Students in Kwara State in Social Studies
Year No of No of Male % No of % No of % No of %
Students Students Female male Female
that passed student student student
that passed that that failed
failed
1999 22309 6662 52.6 4933 51.2 6009 47.4 8705 48.8
2000 22921 7708 59.1 4789 48.4 5326 40.9 5098 51.6
2001 25601 6243 54 7949 56.6 5310 46 6099 43.4
2002 22723 9985 79.8 8327 81.6 1883 20.2 6872 18.4
2003 23175 10222 91.8 10949 90.9 911 8.2 1094 9.1
Source: Kwara State Ministry of Education
Table 2 reveals that the performance of males in the examination

fluctuated. This is because the males in 1994 recorded 74.8% and his rose to
79.2% in 1996. The males recorded a declining performance in 1997 when only
59.2% of the males passed in the subject. However, in 1998, the performance
improved when the percentage of male students’ performance showed an
increase of 2.4%, that is, 61.6% but decreased to 52.6% and 54.5% in 1999
and 2000, respectively. In 2001 the male students` performance declined by
0.5%, while the performance rose to 79.8% in 2002 and 91.8% in 2003. The
performance of the females in 1994 was 83.6% and this declined to 79.7% in
1996 and further declined to 66% in 1997. In 1998, there was 0.6%
improvement, while in 1999 the female students’ performance reduced to 52.6%
and further declined to 48.4%. In 2001, the female students recorded an
improved performance of 56.6%. However, there was a sharp improvement in
2002 and 2003 as their performances were 81.6% and 90.9%, respectively.
Iyewarun (1989) and Mezieobi (2000) stated that lack of and non-
utilization of appropriate methods in the teaching of social studies contributes to
the poor performance of students in the subject. However, a more student-
centred approach in social studies would incorporate multiple and varied sources
of information, active interaction with the environment, and encourage student
generated questions to guide inquiry. Social studies teaching and learning
become more interesting, involving and captivating when it is actively taught and
it is learner centred. This is because active social studies teaching requires
reflective thinking and decision making, development of new understanding
through a process of active construction of knowledge, interactive discourse
which facilitates the construction of meaning required to develop important social
understanding. In addition, social studies teaching emphasize authentic activities
that call for real life application using the skills and content of the field (National
Council for Social Studies, 1992).
Okunloye (2000) identified two basic methods of social studies teaching
along with their operational techniques and strategies namely: content
9
transmission method and inquiry or problem solving method. According to

Jekayinfa (2005) content transmission is a teaching device where the teacher
unfolds a body of information or knowledge to his students who listen and take
down notes. This method of teaching is teacher-centred and does not promote
deep learning. On the other hand, the major focus of inquiry method is the
learning of social studies concepts through verification of a body of knowledge or
an adventure into the unknown by the students. Okunloye (2000) noted that
field trip is one of the inquiry based social studies teaching and learning method
which allows students to interact with their environments. Iyewarun (1989) also
observed that students’ experience with their immediate environment constitutes
one of the most valuable resources for learning which effective teachers can use
for students’ intellectual development as well as personal growth.
According to Abdullahi (1982) and Okunloye (2000), field trip is an
excursion taken outside the classroom for the purpose of making relevant
observations and also for obtaining some specific information. They also add that
a well-planned field trip affords the students the opportunity to become actively
engaged in observing, collecting, classifying, studying relationships, and
manipulating objects. This view is also supported by Jekayinfa (2005) when she
noted that field trips are usually planned to take students not only to places of
interest but also to places where relevant materials, information or knowledge
are available for better teaching and learning of a particular subject matter. Field
trip is not only peculiar to social studies; it is much used in other subjects in the
humanities and natural sciences such as geography, geology, archaeology,
history, and so on. Hence, its relevance shall be appreciated and understood
better when it is used in social studies given its objectives and its scientific
affiliation. Agun and Imogie (1988) stated also that field trips will bring a break
to the monotonous way of our verbal classroom instructions. However, he
stressed that it must be an approved, planned educational activities that involves
students in learning experiences difficult to learn in a classroom situation.
Scheurman (1998) observed that the application of field trip to social
studies would result in the development of deeper understandings of man’s
interaction and relationship with the environments. It also fortifies students with
needed knowledge on problems and procedures in social studies and defensible
beliefs about important issues in the discipline which include concepts awareness
and understanding of the child’s social, physical, economic, political and religious
environments, and also problems arising from these interactions and
interrelationship, and man’s endeavour to solve these problems. He also opined
that field trip has the capacity to make learning more immediate by bridging the
gap between the outside world and the classroom environments by means of the
experience that educational resources can provide. According to Alexandre
(2002) dedicated teachers are always looking for better ideas for meeting the
many challenges they face in schools. However, it should be noted that efforts
should be made to employ a method or methods that will ensure and enhance
better academic performance of the students in the subject. It is in the
10
Yusuf, AbdulRaheem
researcher’s opinion that if teachers employ field trip which will equip the learner
with first hand information, reflective thinking and problem solving tools, they
will be able to perform better in the subject.
Many educators, such as Omosewo (2004), Jekayinfa (2005), Okunloye
(2000) and Ogirima (2006) are of the opinion that field trip method of teaching is
time consuming, and that it is expensive to use. However, Yusuf (1995) points
out that there is need to provide learners with rich experience through mediated
instruction because they can provide authentic data for the study of man and his
relationship with his environment. He stressed further that given the various
stimulus that are competing for learners attention, it becomes imperative for
social studies students to be provided with valid and specific meaningful
information about social, political, economical and structural developments within
their environment. Talat (1996) called for the use of other teaching methods that
can enliven and arouse students’ interest rather than the long addicted method
of lecture approach.
Jekayinfa (2005) stated that there are five stages in the effective handling
of field excursions. These include the need to obtain the factual background and
technical skills required to understand the specific purpose of the trip,
preparation and orientation prior to the trip, the trip itself, the follow up or post
field trip activities and the students’ observation to later learning. Other
researchers such as Orion and Hotsein (1994) refer to “novelty space” as a factor
also to be considered as this affects the amount a students is able to learn on a
given field trip. The three components of students’ novelty space he identified
were geographic novelty, which refers to the students’ familiarity with the field
trip site; psychological novelty, which refers to the extent to which students
make previously considered field trip to be social rather than learning activities;
and cognitive novelty, which refers to the skills and concepts the students
encounter and are expected to master on the field trip. Valerie and Nicole (2002)
while commenting on these novelties observed that the higher the novelty levels
the less likely it is that the students will have a meaningful learning experience.
Recent innovation in instructional technology (IT) on the field trip could be
further used to back up the experience, for example, virtual field trip. The virtual
field trip is a field trip that students and teachers take via the internet using the
computers, to access up-to-the minute information right in the classroom about
places such as museums, cities or countries or local businesses (Valerie & Nicole,
2002). It can also be effectively used to reduce the “novelty space” of students
before the actual visit. It should be noted that while electronic field trip
addresses some educational issues it also raises up some others.
When we observe the performance of students in social studies, for
instance in Table 1, it is seen that poor performance is not restricted to any
gender. In other words, gender has no significant statistical influence on student
performance. Ojo (1982) observed that the gender of the student does not
mediate in the performance of students in Chemistry, while Osakwe and Itedjere
11
(1993) also acknowledges that gender has no significant effect on the students’
spatial conceptualisation in social studies.
In addition, academic ability of the students has been found to play a
major influence on the performance of students. It is noted that high ability
students do perform better than low ability students. Probably, that is why Price
(1993) stated that gender is not the issue but the academic ability. To him,
gender does not play any significant role. He stated that both male and female
students of high ability do perform well, while low ability male and female
students perform woefully in their various subjects.
Statement of the problem

The use of trip has been found suitable and effective for students in
Europe and America under different conditions (Ogirima, 2006). Also Olarewaju
(2004) found field trip more effective than lecture method in Ibadan. However,
the extent of the effect of these strategies on students’ performance is yet to be
fully confirmed in many parts of Nigeria. This study, therefore, investigated the
effect of field trip method of teaching on students’ performance in social studies
in Ilorin East and Ilorin South Local Government Areas of Kwara State.
Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study was to find the effect of field trip method
of teaching on students’ performance in social studies. Specifically, the study
examined:
(a) the effectiveness of field trip method of teaching on male and female
students’ performance in social studies.
(b) the effectiveness of field trip method of teaching on students’
performance in social studies based on their ability.
Research Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were formulated and tested in this study:
Ho1: There is no significant difference in the performance of students taught
using the field trip method of teaching and students taught using
conventional method of teaching in social studies
Ho2: There is no significant difference in the performance of male and female
students taught using field trip method of teaching.
Ho3: There is no significant difference in the performance of high, medium and
low ability students taught using field trip method of teaching.
12
Yusuf, AbdulRaheem
Methodology
Design
The 2 x 2 x 3 quasi-experimental, non-randomised and non-equivalent pre-test and
post-test control group design was employed in the study. The layout of this research is
shown in Table 2:
Table 2: Research Layout
Group Pre-test Treatment Post Test
Experimental Group I O1 X O2
Control Group O1 O2
Key: O1 represents Pre-test X represents treatment
O2 represents Post-test
Table 2 shows the experimental group and the control group. Subjects in
the two groups were pre-tested on social studies performance test prepared by
the researcher. The experimental group received the treatment using field trip
while the control group was taught using lecture method. After the treatment,
all the groups were tested using a parallel version of the questions used for the
pre-test as post-test. The study used the following instruments to gather
information from the samples.
1. Social Studies Performance Test (SSPT): The researcher made use of
social studies performance test to determine the effect of cooperative and
competitive instructional strategies on students’ performance in social
studies. Social Studies Performance Test (SSPT) is a multiple choice
objective test which consists of 50 items with four options (A-D)
constructed by the researcher to cover the aspects of social studies, that
is, topics selected for this study.
2. Teaching Instruments for the two groups; Field trip Instructional Package
(FIP) and Conventional Instructional Package (CIP): The study used
teaching instruments as applicable for the two groups. The researcher
personally taught the experimental group students. Although the
researcher used the normal social studies teacher in the selected school
for the control group, he was retrained to conform to the required skills
needed to teach according to specification. This was to reduce the
variation, which might have existed among the teachers used in the study.
Thus, similar instructional strategies were employed uniformly across the
treatment and control groups.
3. Scoring Level Test in Social Studies (SLTSS): SLTSS was used to
determine the status of students in social studies. This was used to
classify students into different scoring/ability groups. The test consisted of
50 multiple-choice items designed and used to group the learners into
high, average and low scoring abilities. The maximum score was (100).
The classification of students was done as follows:
High scoring Students - Upper 25%
13
Medium scoring Students - Middle 50%

Low scoring Students - Bottom 25%
4. Scheme of work and lesson notes prepared by the researcher: The
scheme showed the area of social studies curriculum (National Economic
Life), which the researcher selected for use in this study. To ensure the
face and content validity of the instruments used in this study, assistance
of experts in test construction, social studies educators, and social studies
teachers in the secondary schools were sought and through split- half
method, the reliability co-efficient of 0.67 of the instrument (SSPT) was
obtained using Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistic.
Sample
In this study a sample of 77 JSS III students drawn from two secondary
schools in Ilorin East and South Local Government Areas of Kwara State
participated in the study. The two schools were selected using purposive
sampling technique. The selected schools had 37 students and 40 for students in
field trip and conventional groups respectively. The subjects consisted of 46 male
and 31 female students in JSS III that were regular at school during the
experiment.
Procedure for Data Collection

The researcher visited the schools used and sought permission for the use
of the schools from the appropriate authorities. The study covered a period of
three weeks. During the first week, the researcher personally administered the
treatment on the experimental group. This is because exceptional permission
was granted by the school for lesson to take the last two hours on specified days
and usually the last three periods. The control group teacher was given
instructions to teach following the conventional method as stipulated in the
teaching instrument for the control group. During the week, first period, SLTSS
was conducted to classify the students into groups based on scoring ability. The
SSPT was administered on the subjects as pre-test at the second period.
Treatment commenced and lasted for two weeks. The students in the treatment
group were taken to Unity Bank plc. Market Branch, Ilorin, Global Soap and
Detergent Limited, Ilorin, and Baboko Market, Ilorin. The third period of the last
week was used for post-test.
Data Analysis Technique

The data collected were analysed using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
statistics from SPSS software to test the three null hypotheses. The pre test
score of the sample was used as covariate in testing the hypotheses.
14
Yusuf, AbdulRaheem
Results
Ho1: There is no significant difference in the performance of students taught
using field trip and those taught using the conventional method of
teaching in social studies
The result from data collected related to this hypothesis is as shown in
Table 3.
Table 3: ANCOVA for post-test score of students taught using FTM and CM
Source Type III Sum of squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 5964.218a 2 2982.109 66.408 .000
PRETEST 5838.837 1 5838.837 130.023 .000
TREATMENT 444.919 1 444.919 9.908 .002
Error 3323.055 74 44.906
Total 312260.000 77
Corrected Total 9287.273 76
a. R squared=.642(Adjusted R squared= .633)
From Table 3, it is shown that at 0.05 significance level, the value
produced F(2, 76) = 9.908 > .002. This implies that a significant difference
existed between the two groups of students exposed to FTM (x=64.O54) > CM
(60. 923). The analysis revealed that those students taught using the field trip
method performed better then those taught using the conventional method.
From Table 3 the treatment produced a significant difference, therefore
hypothesis one was rejected.
Ho2: There is no significant difference in the performance of male and female

students taught using field trip method of teaching in social studies
Result of the analysis related to this hypothesis is as shown on Table 4.
Table 4: ANCOVA for post-test score of male and female students taught using FTM
Source Type III Sum of df Mean Square F Sig.
squares
Corrected Model 2689.764 2 1344.882 14.428 .000
Intercept 2649.918 1 2649.918 28.428 .348
PRETEST 2684.796 1 2684.796 28.803 .000
TREATMENT(Male) 17.647 1 17.647 .189 .666
Error 3169.263 34 93.214
Total 196804.000 37

The analysis in Table 4 indicated that there was no significant difference in the
performance of male and female students taught using field trip in social studies. The
15
analysis revealed that there was no significant difference as the value F (2, 37) = .189<
.666. Therefore, the null hypothesis was accepted.
Ho3: There is no significant difference in the performance of students of

different ability level taught using field trip method of teaching social
studies.
Table 5: ANCOVA for post-test score of students taught using FTM based on
ability
Source Type III Sum of squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 3576.930 3 1192.310 17.241 .000
Intercept 2181.695 1 2181.695 31.548 .000
PRETEST 96.434 1 96.434 1.394 .246
Ability 904.812 2 456.406 6.541 .004
Error 2282.097 33 69.154
Total 196804.000 37
The analysis in Table 6 indicated that there was a significant difference in
the performance of students of different ability levels taught using field trip
method in social studies. The analysis revealed that there was a significant
difference at a value F(3,36)= 6.541> .004. Therefore, the hypothesis was
rejected.
Summary of Findings
The major findings of this study revealed that there was a significant
difference in the performance of students taught using the field trip and
conventional methods of teaching in social studies; there was no significant
difference in the performance of male and female students taught using field trip
method of teaching in social studies; and the use of field trip method of teaching
did produce significant difference in the performance of high, medium and low
scoring students when taught using the field trip method of teaching in social
studies .
Discussion on Findings
The main focus of this study was to examine the effects of field trip
method of teaching on the performance of Junior Secondary School Students in
Social Studies. One of the effects is that the students taught using the field trip
method had mean a gain score significantly different from those students taught
using conventional method. This finding is in line with Iyewarun (1989),
Olarewaju (2004) and Talat (1996) who observed that students taught using
16
Yusuf, AbdulRaheem
field trip method had enhanced performance which made the students different
and outscore their counterparts in the other groups. The finding of this study is
an indication that performance of students in social studies would be greatly
improved if students are allowed to interact actively with their environment using
field trip method of teaching. This is also an indication that field trip was
particularly more superior to lecture method.
Another finding of this research revealed that male students taught using
the field trip method did not performed better than female students that were
also exposed to the field trip method. This agreed with the finding of Nussbaum
(2000). This is because there was no significant differences between male and
female students’ performance taught using the field trip method.
This study revealed that there was a significant difference in the
performance of students on the basis of scoring ability when they were exposed
to field trip method. The analysis of covariance in table revealed significance in
the mean gain sores of high, medium and low scores taught.
Conclusion and Recommendations

It has been asserted that the students’ performance in social studies is
poor despite the importance of the subject as a way of influencing the
intellectual, social and personal growth of youth and more as an instrument of
developing critical thinking in students. The major cause of the poor performance
is attributed to inappropriate method of teaching employed by social studies
teachers. It is against this problem that this study is conducted to investigate the
effect of field trip method in the teaching and learning of social studies.
This study has contributed to knowledge in the area of method of
teaching to be employed in the teaching of social studies. It showed that
students’ exposure to field trip which provides room for interaction, enhance
students’ performance in social studies. In other words, the use of activity-based
field trip can improve the performance of the students either male or female who
have been observed to perform poorly in social studies. It is observed that the
field trip method of teaching provides opportunity for the students to
constructively interact with their environment and provides a more productive
learning environment which stimulates students towards higher achievement.
The following recommendations are made based on the findings of this
study.
1. Teachers should expose students to field trip which will promote and
encourage social interaction, active engagement in learning self
motivation, discovery learning, learning by doing and learning by
experience.
2. The teacher education program should be geared towards the preparation
of social studies teachers that will enable them to acquire and maintain
appropriate instructional strategy, which could be needed after training
17
and which will promote effective teaching and learning. Curriculum

developers should develop instruction that will bring about development
and acquisition of critical thinking, problem solving and performance skills
in students.
References
Abdullahi, A. (1982) Science teaching in Nigeria. Ilorin: Atoto Press Limited.
Adebisi A. (1995). An overview of methods of teaching social studies. In J. A.
Olawepo (Ed.), Notes on curriculum and instruction in social studies (pp.
). Ilorin: Editor.
Agun, I & Imogie I. (1988). Fundamental of educational technology. Ibadan. Y.
Book.
Alexadre, D. (2002). Cooperative learning: Response to diversity. Retrieved
December 6 2004, from http://www.ed.state.nh.us/social studies/k-
126.htm
Hope, W. C. (1996). It’s time to transform social studies teaching. The Social
Studies, 3, 149 - 151.
Iyewarun, S.A. (1989). The teaching of social studies. Ilorin: Omoniyi Ayeni
Press.
Jekayinfa, A. A. (2005). Fundamentals of instructional methods. Ilorin: Olives
Production Ltd.
Mezeiobi, K. A. (2000). Social studies teaching methods and teaching. In G. W.
Joof & H. C. Amadi (Eds.), Social studies in schools: Teaching methods,
techniques, approaches and perspectives. Onitsha: Outright publishers.
National Council for Social Studies (NCSS, 2001). National standard for social
studies teachers. Retrieved July 13, 2003, from
http://www.socialstudies.org/Washington
Ogirima, I. A. (2006). Teachers’ attitude to the use of field trip method of
teaching social studies in Kwara State. Seminar proposal presented at the
Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education, University of Ilorin,
Ilorin.
Ojo, M.O. (1992). The differential effectiveness of co-operative, competitive and
individualistic classroom interaction patterns on students’ chemical
problem-solving skills. The Nigerian Teacher Today. 1 (2), 121 – 129.
Okunloye, R.W.(2000). Teachers’ perception of the concept and purpose of
social studies in secondary school in Ilorin L.G.A. of Kwara State.
Unpublished M.Ed. Project, University of Ilorin.
Olarewaju, I. A. (2004). Effects of field trip on economic students in secondary
schools in Ibadan. An Unpublished B. Sc. (Ed.) project, University of Ilorin,
Ilorin.
Omosewo, E. O. (2004). Laboratory, demonstration, and field trip method of
instruction. In I. O. Abimbola & A. O. Abolade (Eds.) Fundamental
principle & practice of instruction (pp. 41 – 49). Ilorin: Department of
Curriculum Studies and Educational Technology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
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Yusuf, AbdulRaheem
Orion. N. & Hofstein A. (1994). Factors that influence learning during a scientific
field trip in a natural environment. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 31 (10) 1097 – 1119.
Osakwe, E.O. & Itedjere P. O. (1993). Social studies for tertiary students in
Nigeria. Enugu. New Age Publishers.
Price, J. (1993). Is gender an issue in current education practice. Education
Today. 43 (1), 111-123
Scheurman, G. (1998). From behaviourist to constructivist teaching. Social
Education, 62, (1) 6-9.
Talat, S. (1996). Manual for curriculum guides: An Islamic perspective of Islamic
heritage. Saudi-Arabia: Umm Al-Qura University.
Valeries, W. & Nicole E. (2002). Electronic field trips. Michigan: Michigan State
University College of Education and Ameritech.
Yusuf, M. O. (1995). Instructional materials in social studies. In J. A. Olawepo
(Ed.), Notes on curriculum and instruction in social studies. Ilorin: Editor.
Yusuf, A. (2004). Effects of cooperative, competitive instructional strategies on
junior secondary school social studies in Ilorin, Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.
D. Dissertation, Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational
technology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
Yusuf, A. (2005). Effects of cooperative, competitive instructional strategies on
junior secondary school social studies in Ilorin, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of
Social Studies, 8 (1&2), 23-36
19
PRINCIPLES, PRACTICE AND TECHNIQUES OF CASTING “BINI”

BRONZE: A TRADITIONAL ARTIFACT OF BENIN-CITY, EDO
STATE
Uwaifo, Victor Oziengbe

Department of Vocational and Technical Education,
Faculty of Education,
Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State, Nigeria.
uwavic@yahoo.com
23408035472684
Abstract
The thrust of this paper is to critically examine Vocational and Technical
education of the pre-colonial Africa. X-raying some basic traditional trades and
craft widely practiced in pre-colonial Nigeria. It particularly looked into the “Bini
Empire” and identified the crafts and trades prevalent amongst her people. It
looked into the technique and method of the Benin traditional bronze casting
operations, the materials involved, its sequence of operation and finally came up
with the uses of Bronze casting in Nigeria and world at large.
Introduction
In pre-colonial Africa, that is the era before the introduction of western
Education, Nigeria had, as in other parts of the African continent, developed and
perfected her system of vocational education very much like that of medieval
Europe. Some of the traditional trades and crafts widely practiced in Nigeria
included pottery, textiles, blacksmithing, gold smiting, wood carving, basket
making, calabash preparing and decorating, painting and decorating, leather
work, processing of beads, shells bones, traditional building technology,
vocational agriculture (as against subsistent type) by way of fishing, animal
husbandry, farming, amongst others.
Traditional medicine was another vocation that was very widely practiced,
and there were specializations in aspects such as orthopedics, dentistry and
general medicine, which involved the use of herbs for treating different types of
ailments.
Form of Operation
There were, and there still are two forms of traditional vocational
education -: Informal and non-formal. In the informal traditional vocational
education, children unconsciously acquire relevant vocational skills from their
parents; observation and direct telling were common features of this type of
learning. However, questioning and answering methods seem to have been more
effective in ensuring learning.
20
In non-formal (out of school) education, there is a conscious effort on the

part of both the source of information (e.g. parents, relatives or master
craftsman) and the learner to promote learning (Evans, 1981). So it was that
children, particularly boys were apprenticed to relatives, friends or master
craftsmen for a given period to vocational training.
The traditional trades and crafts earlier listed above can further be
roughly divided into three groups:
(1) Agricultural education: for example, farming, fishing and veterinary
science (animal care and animal rearing).
(2) Trades and crafts: for example weaving (baskets and cloth), smiting
(iron, silver, gold, etc), hunting, carving (wood and bronze), sculpturing, painting
and decorating, carpentry, building, bordering, drumming, dancing and
acrobatics, hair plaiting, dress making, boat making, leather working, soap
making, singing, pottery making, mat making, bead working, gold washing, iron
ore working, threshing, glass making, brass working, dying, “Esusu” collecting
(local banking), catching (frying, baking, grinding), food selling, wine selling,
wine tapping and trading in all kinds of merchandise (manufactured goods and
agricultural products).
(3) Profession: for example, native doctors, priests, witch doctors, civil
servants village heads, chiefs and kings, tax-collections, heralds judges,
Councilors, police and messengers, shrine-keepers, soldiers, etc. (Fafunwa,
1980).
Nature of Training
The promotion of traditional education was done out of school, informally
and non-formally, and essentially at home, the center for character training was
the base for the introduction of vocational education. ”Parents took the
preparation of their children for future career very seriously. Thus, a father,
versed, say in native medicine or drumming, would encourage his children to
adopt his profession. Indeed, during the dedication of the child or the naming
ceremony, parents often invoke the spirit of the profession on the child or
acknowledge the intervention of the gods of the profession in bringing luck to
the child. This is the background to traditional names like “Fayemi” (Ifa, the god
of divination, has blessed me), “Ogundele” (Ogun, the god of iron has come to
stay with the family) and so on (Omolewa, 1981).
By and large, however, vocational training in the traditional society is
largely run on the apprenticeship system and it was at that time, a honored
device for educating millions of Nigerian youths and adults. Usually the children
are not trained by their parents but by relatives and master craftsmen in
particular fields and with particular friends in order to ensure discipline and
concentration. In this apprenticeship training, indigenous societies in Nigeria
passed on their cultural heritage from one generation to the next. “The skills”
owned by a family were highly valued, and in some areas such as native
medicine, secrets were zealously guarded as they are indeed evident today. An
21
iron blacksmith on the Jos Plateau or a Yoruba one in Ibadan will say that
members of his family have been blacksmiths for generations beyond memory
and even an ordinary village will usually show that pottery-making, for example,
centers around certain families with the skills taught by a mother to her daughter
or niece, or a father to this son or nephew, depending on the customs of the
area.
Learning a craft often began with personal service to the master. Young
boys would become house servants to a close relative, who would feed and
clothe them and after some years of promising usefulness they would gradually
be introduced to the craft of the guardian (Fafunwa, 1974).
Influence of Geographical Location

Nigeria is a heterogeneous society with diverse tribes and tongues,
cultural heritages and contrasting geography. This has made for the various skills
and the many diverse kinds of materials. Prominent objects are wood, calabash,
shines, fibrous bark, raffia, cotton, beads, bamboo, and resins. Animal materials
that are utilized are horn, skins, wool, feathers, shells, ivory and teeth, while
minerals used include bronze, brass, iron, aluminum, stone, clay, glass and dyes.
It is apparent that the geography of the area was a great determinant of
the traditional trades and crafts of the people of that area.
Let us take Edo State, which is made up of the “Bini’s”, for an example.
Edo State is located in the middle belt of Nigeria, sharing boundaries with Kogi
State in the North, Benue and Anambra States in the North-East, Imo State in
the East, Ondo State in the West and Delta State in the South. Edo State is
blessed with thick rain forests and she has many rubber plantations. Therefore,
one major vocation of the people is hunting in her thick forests. Also, from the
thick forest, the state gets wood in several species and so the people are
talented wood carvers and carpenters. People are known to come from all
around Nigeria and beyond to buy furniture from Benin City. They also carve
decorative ornament and jewelry from ivory got from elephant tusks. Edo State
is a major exporter of Rubber from her vast rubber plantations, and also of palm
oil from palm trees that grow lavishly in the state and farm plantations made of
them. Minerals, which can be mined from the state, include: bronze, brass, iron,
aluminum and clay. From these, the indigenes make works various ornamental
using clay to first cast.
The soil in Edo State is on a very fertile one. Almost anything put on it
grows richly, and so the people are predominantly farmers.
People and History

Benin City is the capital of Edo State. It is also referred to by the mass
media as the “the heartbeat of the nation” because of its central location
with respect to road connections from Benin City to the North, South, East and
West of Nigeria. The major traditional vocation of the people is in metal works,
22
particularly bronze and brass castings, a vocation, which dates back to the 13th
century.
The ancient Benin Kingdom was one of the best known of the ancient kingdoms
of the Guinea Forest and it enjoyed an Empire of some 500 miles radius when it
was at its peak. To the west, the Benin Empire extended into Dahomey (Republic
of Benin), with Eko (Lagos) inclusive and to Asosa in the East. It ended at the
Atlantic Ocean in the South and at the upper Benue River in the North.
The nearest ethnic groups to her boundaries were the Yoruba people to
the West, the Ibo people to the East, the Ebira and Igala peoples to the North,
and the Urhobo, Ijaw and Itshekiri peoples to the south in the coastal swamp.
The people of the Benin kingdom are Edo speaking, the largest of which are the
Bini’s as distinct from the people of Ishan, Etsako and Owan. This whole empire
was held strongly together by the heads and rulers of the kingdom called “OBA”
i.e., the hereditary divine king of Benin. For 800 years the kingdom has enjoyed
continuity and this has been made possible by a successful “kingship succession
practice” based on the principles of primogeniture i.e. the system according to
which property owned by a father goes after his death to the eldest son. The
palace societies and guild system are part of the institutions of the Oba.
The Guild System

The word guild is defined in the long man Dictionary of Contemporary
English as “An association for businessmen or skilled workers who joined
together in former times to help one another and to make rules for training new
members”. The guild system is very important in the Benin Traditional, political,
social and economic life, thus serving as a fillip to the Benin traditional greatness
and survival as an independent state until the earlier mentioned British
expedition of 1897. The people identification with the guild system and the
propensity to obey the regulations of the Oba as the central authority made
them not to fall completely after the expedition, but to survive and still largely
function even till today.
The guild system in Benin came into existence during the reign of “Oba
Ogiso Ere”. He was of the last of the sky kings before the Eweka dynasty, which
rules Benin till the present day. The establishment of the Guild system gave the
different craftsmen the state right to monopolize their trade and form
associations to safeguard their interest. This was to bring together the scattered
craftsmen all over the kingdom and make their administration easy. The guilds
were to produce only by royal commission and ensure that their products were
of the required standard. “Ogiso Ere” did not only ensure that the guilds were
formed and that they organized monopolies, but he also made sure that they
lived in the quarters established for them.
The following are some of the guilds that were formed:
(1)“Owina” (wood workers): they fetched the wood used for preparing doors
and other furniture work for the Oba’s palace to use the modern expression;
they were both cutters and carpenters.
23
(2)“Igbesanmwan” (carvers): they produced the famous Benin ivory tusks

scattered in several museums around the world.
(3)“Ohue” (Hunters): they provided the required meat for the royal court.
They also provided the fresh elephant tusks, which the Igbesanmwan worked on,
as well as the leather, which the Isohien (leather workers) needed.
(4)“Isohien” (Leather workers): the hides and skins, which the hunters
removed from their game, were passed on to the leather workers to produce
ceremonial drums for the Oba. These drums were used for the different palace
ceremonies.
(5)“Isekpoki” (Also leather workers): They also used leather from the Ohue’s
animal hides and skins to produce Ekpoki (errand boxes or containers made from
leather) which were used in delivering articles from the royal court to people the
Oba wished to make such gifts.
(6)“Owina N’Ido” (Weavers): They weaved the native cloth (Ukhuen) and
other similar material used in the royal court.
(7)“Imakhe” (Pot makers): They provided containers made from clay, some of
which were used in the Osun Shrine. They also make clay pots for cooking and
storing water.
(8)“Igun Eronmwon” (Bronze casters): Made the famous traditional brass and
bronze castings that are known all over the world.
(9)“Igun Ematon” (Black smiths): Made spears and several other traditional
weapons of war that the fearless Benin warriors used to fight their wars,
conquering other lands and expanding their empire.
The guilds of traditional metal workers; “Igun Eronwom” (bronze casters
guild) and “Igun Ematon” (blacksmiths guild) were a part of a complex and
properly organized system. Kaplan (1993) observed that Benin was one of the
most prosperous and best-organized cities in Africa; south of the Sahara at the
time the first European visited that kingdom in 1485/1486. She declared that
even as early as that time, the guilds of bronze workers and blacksmiths were
already in place. Benin trade with the Europeans, particularly during the reign of
“Oba Esigie” (1504-1550) enabled the Oba to obtain increased and steady supply
of metal in Bronze and Iron. This led to increased output of metal works with
improvement on forms and designs. The technical skill of the castings, their
refinement and modeling ranked at par with sculptures of Europe’s own classical
antiquity. An early German Africanist, “Felix Von Lushan” in 1919 praised Benin
metal art works highly when he said in his own words “Benvenuto Cellini could
not have cast them better, and nobody else either, before or since Cellini, these
bronzes are technically of the highest quality”. (Akansbiemu, 1989).
There are two types of metal works in Benin, namely, Bronze (Brass) work
and Ironwork. The better known of the two is the Benin Bronze work, and it is
under the royal guild called “Igun Eronmwon”. Founded by “Oba Ogunola” in the
14th century, the Igun Eronmwon now lives in the street bearing that name in
Benin City under the leadership of chief Inneh. Under the guild leader, there are
ten chiefs who are in charge of the different sub sections of the guild. These are
24
Ehanire, Obadolaye, Ihama, Akenuwa, Ebagua, Olague, Obasoyen, Obazogun,

Obasogie and Osasenwenoyennwen (Inneh, 1877).
Bronze Casting Technique

In Benin, Bronze and Brass seem to be interchangeably used, although
the chemistry of both is different. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc while
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. The Benin natives never got involved in the
process of creating brass or bronze i.e. the technology of making copper with
zinc or tin. They used already processed brass or bronze pieces.
The technique of bronze casting is an intricate one and it is by the lost
wax process. It involves the creation of a core, which defines in shape and form,
the object that the artist wishes to work on
The core is prepared from red earth (laterite), which is the main earth all
over Benin land. It has mails or iron red pieces stuck into it as interior support
and are left for some days to dry. Over the dried core, the detail form that the
artist wished to represent is constructed in bee wax. Modeling is carried out with
the aid of iron knife, cam wood spatula, table and some modeling tools.
When the artist is satisfied that he has nothing more to add, he will then
invest the art work (now in bees wax formation) with mud and the mould is left
to dry for some days. In the mould, wax extensions or spruces are added to
provide spaces or channels to let out molten wax and to pour in molten bronze
to replace the “lost wax” during casting. Large moulds may be held together
from disintegration by metal bands.
The artist then proceeds to the final process of casting by placing the
mould on fire which has been prepared with fire wood or charcoal and heating it
to the point that molten bee’ wax runs out of the mould. The cavity occasioned
by the evacuation of the molten wax is where molten bronze is introduced during
casting. To introduce molten bronze into the mould, two sets of fire are prepared
simultaneously, one with wood and the other with charcoal. The mould is placed
in the fire prepared with firewood while a crucible containing bronze pieces is
placed on the red-hot charcoal fire. This is heated with the aid of bellows
blowing through the fired charcoal till the bronze pieces melt. Lifting either the
mould or molten bronze from fire is done with the aid of iron tongs.
The artist uses a piece of stick (utere) to determine the readiness of the
molten bronze and when judged ready, the mould is lifted out of the Bonfire,
while the crucible containing molten bronze is lifted from the blaze of burning
charcoal and poured into the red-hot mould to replace the “lost wax”. This is a
very intricate process and it takes a lot of energy and caution to work out. The
mould is then left for about an hour for the heat level to come down. When the
investment is removed, what you find beneath is precisely in bronze form what
was originally constructed in bees wax. Cast copper alloy objects (bronze and
brass) were the most prestigious work of art in Benin Court and this has been
credited to the artistic and technical achievement of Bini’s (Bryna, 1987,).
“Exactly where the supplies of metal came from, before the Portuguese period is
25
not known,” (Attenborough, 1976). In the past, non-bronze casters were not
allowed to be present when the mould was broken open, they sang and praised
their leaders for every successful casting. The casters sonorously chorused, “Oba
gha to Kpere” meaning, “long lives the Oba.” They sang songs of praise for their
leader and the guild:
“lvb, Igun N, Eronmwon uyaruya (twice) No ye’ eken khian Igho Yaruya
(twice)”
This praise song means that “Igun Eronmwon” children have the capacity
to turn sand into money. Polishing tools, which the bronze workers use, are the
hammer (Umomo), cutters (Afian), punches, (also called Afian but much smaller
than the cutters), file (Olima), scrapper (Ohiagha) and sand convenient for the
caster. No salaries were paid to members of the bronze casters guild for services
to the Oba or the chiefs in the guild. Rather, they got served with food, drinks
and received support from the leaders on maturity to marry wives, build their
homes, and establish their own workshops. They are all closely linked as children
of “Igueghae”, the first bronze casters and to whom chief Inneh their leader is a
direct descendant.
Conclusion
The Benin kingdom operated closed guild systems and trades were
guarded jealously, with families confirming themselves to their trades and the
guilds to which they belonged. It was therefore unusual for apprenticeship to
come from other families who had their own trades and belonged to specific
guilds, to learn another vocation from another guild. Rather, it was still more
usual for guilds to train new entrants from their own families. These new
entrants were their own direct children or children of brothers or sisters, uncles
or aunties or some other close relative who all belonged to the same guild.
The Bronze casters guild, “Igun Eronmwon” still exists today in the street
bearing that name in Benin City. The workers live there with their families and
have their workshops there. The children are born there and grow up there.
They are born into the vocation and as they grow, they graduate into the
vocation to become natural brass and bronze casters. Their shops line up “Igun
Eronmwon Street” where they display bronzes ornaments for sale to tourists and
make bisque and lucrative business.
Till the present day, Benin enjoys a foremost position in Africa regarding
bronze works. The various aspects of the life of the people of Benin were
represented in many of the bronze works. During the war between Britain and
the Benin kingdom of 1897 in which Britain gained the upper hand, art works of
Benin including wood carvings, metal, silver and ivory ornaments, bronze and
brass works were carted away and stored in major museums in Europe and
America in substantial quantities. In auction rooms in these countries, Benin art
works were well contended for. The British foreign office sold some of the looted
art works, while some members of the expedition retained their own personal
collections. Some private collectors also bought some pieces.
26
Attempts have been made to sustain and improve the quality of output by
brass workers. In 1927, Oba Eweka II, Oba of Benin (1914-1933) sent the Ine N’
Igun and head of the brass casters guild to Achimota College in the then Gold
Cost (Ghana) to learn the Art of modern Bronze casting in order to improve the
traditional methods. The Oba there after established the Benin arts and Crafts
school making the Ine N’ Igun, the principal. With the establishment of formal
school for Arts and crafts, and coupled with the facts that the present Oba of
Benin, “Oba Erediauwa” himself is now the principal patron of the Bronze
workers and Iron Worker, the Igun “Eronmwon” and the “Igun Ematon” guilds
have been preserved, protected and even propagated till the present day.
References
Archibald, C. (1964). Nigeria’s indigenous education: The apprenticeship system.
Journal of African Studies, 1 (1), 27 – 38.
Attenborough, D. (1976). The tribal eye. London: British Broadcasting
Corporation.
Akansbiemu, M. (1989). Benin art culture. Tokyo: The Seibu Museum of Art.
Evans, D. (1981). The planning of non-formal education. Paris: UNESCO.
Fafunwa, B. A. (1974). History of education in Nigeria. London: George Allen and
Unwin Ltd.
Fadamiro, J. A. (1989). The effect of history and culture on the standard of
technical education in Nigeria: Book of readings on quality in Nigerian
education. Benin City: Supreme Ideal Publishers International Ltd.
Inneh, D. E. (1981). The palace societies and guild system in pre-colonial Benin.
Unpublished B.A. Research Project, University of Benin.
Omolewa, M. (1981). Adult education practice in Nigeria. Ibadan: Evans Brothers
Nigeria Publishers Ltd.
Kaplan, F. S. (1981). Images of power: Art of royal court in Benin. New York:
New York University.
27
Social Studies and International Relations: Challenges for Citizenship

Education in the Nigerian Junior Secondary School Social Studies
Curriculum
R. W. Okunloye (PhD)
Department of Arts and Social Sciences Education,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin
Abstract
This paper examined the concepts of social studies and international
relations, the bases of, and changing phases of International relations and
advanced rationale for integrating additional content of International relations in
the junior secondary or basic school social studies curriculum. Topical elements
in the existing Junior Secondary School Social Studies Curriculum were identified
for the proposed integration as a way of renewal of the curriculum to meet new
challenges facing the learners in the emerging all-inclusive one world community
of humans.
Introduction
Social studies is an integrated school subject that focuses on the study of
human-environmental relationships for the purposes of citizenship education.
International relations is the act and study of all dimensions of international
interactions between or among international actors, including states or nations,
private international or supranational companies, intergovernmental
organizations, individuals and groups in the international system. International
relations has been a major area of specialization in the political science discipline.
international relations as an act of international interaction at bi-lateral or multi-
lateral level between or among international actors is multi-dimensional. Hence,
International relations experts (Morgenthau, 1968, Ofoegbu, 1980) distinguished
among political, economic, cultural, recreational, private and public international
relations. This explains the use of interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary approach
to its study.
All states are inevitably involved in international relations on four related
bases: First, international actors are located in one wholistic international arena
or system where they found themselves as neighbours or co-players. Second,
international actors, no matter how distantly located from their neighbours or co-
players in the system, are directly or indirectly affected by happenings in the
system where each actor constitutes a part. Third, the emergence of worldwide
problems or issues of common concern that transcend the artificial boundaries of
states or nations which also require concerted efforts for solutions or
management warrants international relations. Fourth, the proliferation of
international organizations and increasing globalization of the modern world,
28
R. W. Okunloye
since the establishment of the United Nations Organizations (UNO) in 1945 have
made international relations inevitable.
Social Studies and International Relations

Social studies and international relations shares broadly similar
characteristics with respect to their integrated nature, thematic focus on human-
environmental relationships, humans in society as the primary unit of analysis,
and goals and objectives. First, Social studies and International relations are
integrated in nature because they both study humans in society from different
dimensions. This explains why Social sciences, which political science and its
subsidiary-International relations constitute a part, are referred to as the social
foundation of curriculum planning in social studies (Kissock, 1981; Okunloye,
2001).
Second, the central organizing theme of human-environmental
relationships is similar in Social studies and International relations. Human-
environmental relationships theme helps Social studies and International
relations experts to organize different facets of human-environmental
relationships, such as economic, cultural, political, historical and geographical
dimensions around this theme to explain how humans in society influence their
environment and how they are also influenced by their environment (Okunloye,
1994).
Third, humans in society as the primary unit of analysis are shared by
Social studies and International relations. The gregarious nature of humans as
social beings is responsible for their living in societies and these human societies
at domestic or international plane are inevitably involved in multi-faceted
relationships of association, cooperation, and competition as individuals and
groups.
Fourth, social studies and international relations share broadly similar
goals and objectives of citizenship education, peaceful coexistence, and societal
development. Social studies is aimed at ensuring effective citizenship through the
acquisition of abilities, and competencies, both mental and physical, skills and
attitudes that enables the individual to live in and contribute to the development
of his/her society (Federal Republic of Nigeria [FRN], 2004). Although, for
exponents of power perspective in international relations, war is the continuation
of international relations by other means, the primary focus of international
relations is peaceful coexistence among neighbouring states in particular and
world peace and progress in general (Ofoegbu, 1980).
Rationale for Integration of International Relations in Citizenship

Education
Citizenship education is a model and strand of purpose of social studies
curriculum aimed at developing good citizenship qualities in the learners so that
they can become responsible citizens in adulthood. Citizenship education in the
context of the global society has domestic and international dimensions.
29
International relations capture both dimensions. International relations is already

part of social studies in a unified integrated framework in two respects. First,
politics, the mother discipline of International relation is part of the constituent
Social sciences content in social studies.
Secondly, the broadly similar elements of international relations and Social
studies show that they are not mutually exclusive. However, the elements of
international relations in the existing junior secondary school social studies and
citizenship education curricular are grossly inadequate in the light of four
interrelated developments in the contemporary international system. This
inadequacy stems from globalization, increasing international dependency,
increasing integration of some states toward supranational states or institutions,
and growing concern for world peace and human welfare. Globalization, as a
product of rapid advances in science and technology reveals a growing trend of
international interconnection of different countries of the world into one and all-
inclusive human society has virtually remove the artificially imposed boundaries
among humans in different nations or states (Okunloye, in Press). Globalization
has universalized and virtually merged these countries into one global village
where domestic relations within and International relations among humans of
different nationalities or state are much more imperative (Chase, 2000; Obiora,
2002).
In related vein, nations or states in the international system have become
much more interdependent on one another by virtue of universalizing forces and
institutional arrangements in the international system (Okunloye, 2007). Hence,
the concept of citizenship is not just restricted to membership of a nation or
state, but extends to membership of the world community of humans. Thirdly,
there has been, in the international arena, since the inception of the UNO in
1945, the trend of integration of sovereign states or nations into supranational
group of states or at worst the emergence of international institutions where
member states surrendered some elements of their sovereignty to permit some
level of interference in seemingly domestic affairs of the constituent autonomous
states or nations. For example, the European Union (EU) G8 nations (Group of
eight leading industrialized nations) Economic Community of West African State
(ECOWAS) African Union (AU) and so on. The AU is currently undergoing some
institutional re-structuring that may ultimately lead to the emergence of the
United States Africa (USAF) with the exception of newly emergent states. When
fully actualized the USAF may be a confederacy of African States, in which each
of the existing 36 states in Nigeria may become a Local Government Area.
Therefore, citizenship education should have a wider conception beyond Nigerian
citizenship in the face of the evolving international states. Fourthly, there has
been growing concern for world peace and human welfare. The UN is leading the
campaign and intervention efforts in this regard.
The United Nations Organizations major organs, particularly the Economic
and Social Council (ECOSOC) and its specialized agencies such as World Health
Organization (WHO), Untied Nations Scientific and Cultural Organization
30
R. W. Okunloye
(UNESCO), United Nations Children Education Fund (UNICEF) and so on, are
most active in these regard.
The UN had passed several resolutions, covenants and convention for the
purpose of maintaining world peace, promoting human welfare and
establishment of peacekeeping missions in troubled spots in world. For instance,
International Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Racial Discrimination
(ICERD), convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women (CEDAW), Convention Against Discrimination in Education (CDE) among
others. Many of these international conventions have been domesticated in
member states of the UN, including Nigeria. These are clear signals that most
countries of the world are moving towards achieving consensus on shared
aspirations and values about human dignity and welfare as well as shared
collective responsibility in addressing global human problems (Okunloye, 2006a)
Therefore, citizenship education should be addressed at different levels in human
society from the smallest local setting to the most encompassing global world
community of humans.
Conclusion and Recommendations

In accordance with the tradition in curriculum development, when the
societal milieu and the challenges facing the learners change, it becomes
imperative to rework some aspects of the curriculum again for the purpose of
curriculum renewal or reform to make the curriculum fit the learner. Hence, in
the light of the existing relationship between Social studies and International
relations and the changes in, and challenges of the relatively new international
system, it has become imperative to inject some additional contents of
international relations into the existing social studies and citizenship education
curriculum in the Nigerian basic schools.
Accordingly, the following areas of integration of international relation into
the junior secondary school (JSS) social studies curriculum are proposed. First,
international actors and organizations should be introduced as sub topics under
social environment – social organization in JSS 1 syllabus. Secondly, international
cooperation should be introduced under cooperation and conflict in the JSS 1
syllabus. Thirdly, the evolving one world community of humans should be
introduced under social change and science, technology and society in the JSS II
syllabus. Fourthly, levels of social environment – the family community to world
community should be introduced as sub-topics under social environment in JSS
III syllabus. Fifthly, international organizations should form part of institutions
(domestic and foreign) in JSS III syllabus.
Finally, levels of citizenship (local, state, nation, sub-regional, regional and
world) should form part of the world and its peoples in JSS III syllabus. It is
hoped that these innovations in Social Studies syllabus will equip students with
adequate knowledge, skills, attitudes and values of international relations for
effective living in an increasing interconnected global world community of
humans.
31
References
Chase, K. A. (2000). Globalisation and national politics. K.

Chase01@tults.eduT.5-6, W4-6.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2004). National policy on education (4th ed)
Lagos : Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council Press.
Kissock, C. (1981). Curriculum planning for social studies. Toronto : John Wiley.
Morgenthau, H. (1968) Politics among nations. New York: Knopf.
Obiora, L. A. (2002). Feminism, globalization and culture: After Beijing,
International Journal of Global Legal Studies, 61 (5), 355.
Ofoegbu, R. (1980). Foundation course for international relations for African
universities. London: George Allen & Unwin.
Okunloye, R. W. (1994). The concept of integration in social studies. In M.
Awoyemi (Ed.), Book of readings in social studies. Ilorin: Institute of
Education , Unilorin.
Okunloye, R. W. (2001). National rebirth programme through social studies
curriculum. In F. O. Fasanmi, M. Ogunsanya & S. F. Ogundare (Eds),
National rebirth and poverty alleviation in Nigeria. Ile-Ife: Social Studies
Association of Nigeria .
Okunloye, R. W. (2006a) Human rights provisions in Nigerian Constitution
(1999) and the United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights:
Comparative analysis and challenges for civil liberty democracy and
citizenship education in Nigeria. African Journal of Educational Studies
(AJES) , 4 (1), 185.
Okunloye, R. W. (in Press). Globalization, human rights and the challenges for
the Nigerian junior secondary school social studies curriculum. Sokoto
Educational Review.
32
ICT-based Library: A Redefinition of Library Services
SANNI, Moronkola Munir

Saki Satellite Campus, The Polytechnic Ibadan
Oyo State
msanni1@yahoo.com
2348033661212
Abstract
The world is going through information revolution through the deployment
of information and communication technology (ICT) infrastructure. This paper
compares the requirements for the delivery of library services and ways of
achieving them in the manual and ICT-based libraries. It analyses the challenges
facing the librarians in their pursuit to move education forward through
deployment of ICT infrastructure, also policy guidelines to be employed by the
academic libraries in switching to ICT-based libraries are enumerated.
Introduction
Since a long time ago, the basic needs of individuals have been
determined to include food, clothing, shelter and security. However, the quality
of these basic needs is pivoted on the wealth creation, usage, and management.
The requirement to obtain human needs at relevant place and time led to the
establishment of information on when, why, and how to buy and sell goods and
services using the appropriate technology available at any time. These
technologies then start evolving after industrial revolution in some part of Europe
and later spread across the globe. Some of the technologies that had improved
the world economy are steam power, canals, rail, roads, air, transport, radio,
pharmacology, television, computer, and information communication technology
(John, 2000).
But the latest technology (ICT) has become the mother of all inventions
since it touches all aspects of human life from production to consumption and
waste disposing. The tentacles of ICT covers all major areas of human
endeavour such as philosophy, religion, social science, pure science, applied
sciences, arts, languages and literature, history and human geography. Any
information whatsoever on the above aspect of educations learning can be found
in the custody of academic library anywhere or anytime today.
Technology continues to have a dynamic impact on the roles of librarians,
libraries and library services, in meeting the information needs of both lecturers
and students. Thus, librarians are now promoting the use of computer networks,
thereby combining library and information technology services. The relevance of
ICT to library can be seen as the new technology that permit new forms of
services, generates new data analysis and support new tools for research work.
The fact that there is vastly increased data about the resources, the users and
new research tools means that there may be new ways to address old problems
33
(Buckland, 2003). Learning new facts and the mastering of previous facts learnt,
tackling of assignment, and preparation for examination or knowledge update is
better done in an ICT environment.
The techniques of delivery of library services have changed but the role
has remained. The conducive change in technique apart from provision of
convenience/enabling working environments for librarians also makes it possible
to attract the students to love the library in order to embrace correct reading
culture as well as providing up to date citing and referencing for research work.
Thus, the new technique in the ICT-based library activities and services will
involves library automation, information storage and retrieval system, office
automation and resource sharing network routines (Manjunath, 2006).
Information and knowledge must be available and accessible to the bulk of
everybody that desires it (“massification of education”). For instance, China
doubles its students in the early 1990s, so also India, two decades ago and
improved their educational sectors by the deployment of ICT (Adegbola, 2007).
As the needs and expectations of library users change in the digital
environment so also the libraries are trying to adjust by looking for the best ways
to define their users communities, understand their values, and evolve digital
collections and services to meet their demands. Academic reading is a study-type
reading that deals with problems-solving such as learning to analyse the contents
of various documents, explore, discover and make adequate use of reference
materials and glean Information from all types of printed and non-printed media
(Keefer, 2001). Academic libraries have been saddled with the following
responsibilities
(i) How students and staff find information?
(ii) The type of resources needed by the library patrons that the Library does
not provide?
(iii) What are the levels of demand for these unavailable resources and why
these resources?
(iv) What are the bye products of such resources being sought after?
All the answers to the listed questions above can be obtained from good
library activities within or outside academic institution through the deployment of
ICT library as the most relevant on the task of information/data gathering,
processing, storage and dissemination such as those related to commercial,
social, economic and industrial development. In fact, library makes provision for
learners who want to tackle assignments or prepare ahead for experiments, or
want to be exposed to new facts and the mastering of previous lessons, or
workers expecting unscheduled interview or promotion examinations. So also
group of professionals that want to update their knowledge skill can peruse new
findings from researches already conducted that are available in the library’s
various formats and platforms.
Library as recognized infrastructure in the tertiary institution has a leading
role in the information service, which has a definitive and positive contribution to
academic development. The libraries together with the librarians are part of
34
action centre in the academic progress of all tertiary institutions and if our
education system will tow the line of global information services in the future,
there will be need for a redefinition of library services as against what obtains
now.
Library should be a facilitating centre for the spread of knowledge that
helps in practically every activity that touches on the culture and Information
activities of the nation. But one may be a bit worried about the inability of our
manual academic library services to match the current developmental trend. This
inability can be overcome by linking to a network of libraries within or outside
academic institution through the deployment of ICT infrastructure. Once the
tertiary institution can invest more money and time on relevant infrastructure,
then the sky could be the only barrier to academic development. Thus, librarians
are now promoting the use of computer networks thus combining library and
information technology services.
Comparison between Conventional and ICT-Based Academic Libraries

Conventional Academic Library Requirements
It involves acquisition of all published and unpublished indigenous and
foreign informational materials that are of high interest, and relevance to
academic circle. This include policy and technical documents, books,
monographs, journals, pamphlets, conference papers bibliographic tools, such as
indexes abstracts, literature reviews, patents, research results, theses and
dissertations, newspaper recording of indigenous technological processes, audio-
visual, annual reports, directories, technical catalogue and so on.
The organization of the above listed materials are achieved by the use of
cataloguing and classification schemes, as well as subject headings,
terminologies, thesauri and system of cross referencing. However the retrieval of
information is done manually and on site.
ICT – Based Academic Library Requirements
In the creation of ICT-based libraries there is need to make a list of high-
level requirements which includes what information the library will contain, how
that information will be generated, what audience the information is intended
for, and how the data will be accessed. Setting up of ICT-based library will
involve that all library data be first gathered through the computerised database
in the various units, while all external information will be generated by following
the steps below:
Creation of network of computers in the library,
Connection of the tail end of library network to all other network in the
academic community through a device called router,
Subscription to Internet Service Provider (ISP),
Hiring of an exchange carrier
35
The requirements of the two types of libraries for library routine services
are compared in Table 1 below. Management and academic considerations in the
library organised with and without ICT are depicted in Table 2 below.
Table 1: Comparison of Library Routine Services in ICT-Based and

Conventional Academic Library
ICT-Based Library Conventional/Manual Library

1 Little manpower and paperwork may A lot of paper works and skilled
be needed in the ICT–based manpower is needed in the conventional
requirements library requirements
2 Acquisition, organization, and Acquisition, organisation, documentation
documentation can be and circulation of library materials are of
complemented by a micro manual operation
electronic–based combination of
computing and telecommunication
3 Administrative effectiveness depends To promote organisational effectiveness,
on the availability of appropriate infrastructure like cataloque, cabinet,
software packages. journals, Kardex, cataloque machine and
typewriter are needed.
4 Resource retrieval is virtual Retrieval is subject to item being on the
shelf/correctly located on the shelf
5 Available when network is available Available during library opening hours.
6 Accessing can be done remotely. Personal access require visit to library
7 Simultaneous user access as Single user access for same item
licensed
8 Library items can be linked to Catalogue records and resources have no
catalogue records easily direct bearing.
9 Desktop downloading and printing Reproduction requires time consuming

require little time (due to multi photocopying operation
tasking benefit)
10 Cut and paste of downloaded text is Photocopying reproduces inert text
possible
11 Individual chapter or article may be Book retrieved wholly while article via
directly retrieved issue.
12 Necessary equipment (including PC) No special equipment cost is required.
must be available
36
Table 2: Management and Academic consideration in the manual and

ICT based Libraries
ICT Library Manual Library

1 No physical mutilation or damage Damage, loss, theft and mutilation is
to the library materials common to library items
2 Space saving allowance Space consuming is noticeable
3 No shelving task is required Shelving and shelf reading task and
user reliance on item being on shelf
and correctly shelved.
4 No physical handling cost There is physical handling cost
5 Location (URL) changes may be Location changes are within the
beyond control of the library control of the library
6 No expedited delivery cost Cost of air mail for expedited delivery
7 Subscription of ICT items may Subscription for printed copies may
require acceptance of print be accompanied with free soft copy
8 Single subscription serves all Multiple subscriptions may be
required
9 Cataloguing and bibliographic Controls are more stable and
control standard are less stable standardized.
10 Frequently not licensed for Document delivery permitted to other
document delivery to other libraries.
library.
12 Potential for linking direct to an Cited articles have to be looked up
academic cited paper. manually.
13 Text can be subject to Definite text
interference
14 Duplication It may not prevent documentation
and duplication
ICT Techniques/Approaches to Information Management

There is equally the need to compare the library routines between the
conventional academic and ICT-based libraries. The routines include: selection,
acquisition, cataloguing, storage and preservation and usage.
Selection Services: Selection exercises are done before books purchase, gift
and donation but the criteria for prints are as follows:
Level of demand by users,
Suitability of titles to the needs of the institutions,
Impact factors based on analysis of citation indexes,
Reputation of publishers,
37
Price.
On the other hand, new factors must be taken into considerations for ICT-
based materials selection, which are:
• Format of files (e.g. HTML/PDF)
• Types and quality of delivery
• Price (based on factors that vary from that of prints such as potential
Users, simultaneous users, bundle with other journal titles, etc.).
• Condition of use (Contractual restrictions)
Acquisition Services: The acquisition of printed item and ICT-based ones is
different in that the former are purchased outright, whereas the ICT-based items
are acquired under license and most of them are released (on the website)
earlier than prints copies.
Cataloguing Services: In the conventional academic library, catalogue records
and resources are not directly linked, while in the ICT-based catalogue records
can be hot linked using hyperlink to allow direct access. While cataloguing the
digital version other media specifications are allowed apart from print version
such as audio, images, motion pictures and interactive functionalities among
others.
Storage and Preservation Services: The system of information storage gives
the library control over the information and its accessibility. Regardless of the
cost to the institutions, the development, maintenance and storage of library
item are fundamental to the library existence. Most of the ICT items will remain
at the supplier site for direct access by users to allow long-term preservation.
Electronic Collection Online (ECO) service guarantees permanent access to
contents that has been acquired as well as the future migration of these contents
to new platforms and format. While some items can be kept in computer Hard
disk, CD ROM, magnetic tape among others, the printed items will remain on
shelves or in a restricted storage area. Thus, librarian in the library without ICT
takes care of the shelves, while librarians with ICT based-libraries take cares of
virus attack, accidental erasures and general care of ICT storage devices.
Usage/Access Services: It is more interesting for the beginners to go through
an article that catches their eyes or else leaf through the issues scanning titles of
summary from paragraph to paragraphs. But an article of interest is located the
eyes glance over it, reading the summary first, the authors credentials, the
section headers, the bibliographies and so on. If at this level of analysis, the
article is deemed to be of interest, the user begins to read it or perhaps
photocopy it for future reading. The ICT- item publishers also realized that the
user must be given the opportunity to perform all those rituals, thus an example
of e-journal usage may start from Home Page to give access to the current
issues as well as other recent issues and older volumes. Once an issue is
chosen, a table of content allows the user to decide to go through or select an
38
aspect or a whole article from the issue. HTML and PDF are the two commonest
format currently used for e-journal presentations.
Challenges of ICT to Librarians

It is the duty of librarians to acquire and preserve the accumulating store
of collective knowledge and intellectual heritage. They also have to introduce
some organization and order into the welter of materials and dissemination for
the use of individuals through whose use the society on the whole benefits in
various forms like generation of new knowledge and new guides to action.
Therefore, librarian believes that information management system could have
and has proceeded without the aid of computers, telecommunications, networks
and the like. The activities that constitute information management may not
have been labelled as such, if there is no information communication technology
infrastructure, like the form that we know it today. Albeit, the techniques and
approaches to information management may be different in the two cases but
the core function is information storage and retrieval system. Therefore, the
deployment of ICT into Library services delivery and the conventional techniques
include the following (Rowley 1988):
1. Methods of and tools for recording for posterity in material forms such as
books, journals, etc,
2. Methods of keeping records about activities such as in-house filing
systems, book-keeping practices among others,
3. Methods of indexing documents and information so that they can be
retrieved at any location identified anywhere in the world,
4. Methods of communicating knowledge within different communities which
may be in form of letters, journals, books, telephone, radio and television,
Information Communication Technology is a relative latecomer to this
scene and offer new methods in all the fours areas earlier mentioned as:
1. Methods of and tools for recording knowledge now include computer
storage media, databases among others,
2. Methods of keeping records about activities now include storage media
coupled with software for designing, creating and editing databases,
3. Method of indexing documents and information now include creation of
inverted or index files and other special files to facilitate rapid retrieval by
the use of terms or condition of terms in records management,
4. Methods of communicating knowledge now include data communication
network facilities like e-mail, facsimile transmission, teleconferencing, e-
journal publishing and so on.
ICT Capabilities and Potential Benefits

Meaningful academic program that is well planned to survive the test of
time must have a sound information base back up with ICT. The deployment of
ICT infrastructure to deliver library services will bring dynamism when thrusted
on the academic community especially by exploiting the following capabilities:
39
• Access information that is unlimited,

• Education through ICT,
• Enjoining social side of learning,
• E-leaning opportunity,
• Reading books and non books,
• Listening to live radio programs from different countries,
• Taking part in video conferencing without leaving one’s local environment.
Thus the potential benefits of ICT based library services delivery include
the following:
• Increase innovation and varieties in service delivery,
• Settlement of local and foreign invoices using credit or debit cards (safety
cards),
• Online access to library services and activities (references, circulation,
payment of fines),
• Enlargement of library users and collections without physical expansion of
the building,
• Opportunity for full-fledged distribution channeled for Library services.
ICT Packages
There are many ICT packages that handlers of ICT-based library delivery
services must be accustomed with, but the ICT training should cover the
following modules:
• Introduction to integrated automated library system,
• Information seeking at an electronic environment,
• Data base design information storage and retrieval,
• The internet as an information resource,
• Web page concept and design.
Library sites can be developed for a management information system to
compile and manage statistical data by wrestling with how long data should be
kept, how data should be archived and whether one system can manage data
from different kind of assessment. The library staff can generate ad hoc reports
from data extracted and update them regularly from the integrated library
system. Users can query the data and run cross-tabulation. The reports obtained
may be useful for variety of purposes including analysis of collection
development materials, expenditure and the productivity of cataloguing
departments. ICT system can be used to assemble all data from all library
units, departments, and faculties within and outside the institution and easily
generate texts and graphics and multi year trend lines which are important
feature of virtual library and information services in an academic arena (Denise,
2002).
40
Procedures Desires for Switching From Manual to ICT Based Library

Services
Switching from manual to ICT-based library is normally characterised by
the following problems:
1. Lack of functional ICT policies based on acts as in the developed
countries,
2. Lack of knowledge and technical know-how on installation, security and
maintenance of the infrastructure.
3. Lack of ICT awareness in some academic settings and difficulties in
spreading awareness on the need to switch without delay,
4. Inadequate funding for tertiary institution,
5. Time delay involved in policy formulation stage to eventual execution.
Policy Guidelines in the Changeover

The process of cutting over from an existing system to a new system
following the acceptance testing is called a changeover.
• It involves project costs and time scales of change, requests and
assessment.
• There is need to select appropriate hardware and software for ICT-based
library services.
• There is need to review the policy guidelines before its implementation by
examining its contribution to academic objectives, its usability, operating
costs and reliability.
• The review will look at the quality of the estimate and the effectiveness of
the new system or organization, procedure and technique to use.
Conclusion
The ICT-based library is indeed a redefinition to library services and it has
shown that the longstanding relationship among researchers, university staff,
publishers and libraries can now be re-evaluated as well as goal and objectives
of academic world may eventually be realized with ICT- based infrastructure.
Nevertheless the role of librarian has not changed despite new methods
offered by the information communication technology infrastructure. The
effective goal of librarian is to have access to knowledge by recording, keeping,
retrieving and communicating it as a service to those seeking or expected to
need such access thereby promoting the use of computer networks thus
combining library and information technology services.
References
Adegbola, E. (2007, 10th April). Imperatives of world-class university in Nigeria.
Nigerian Tribune.
Alex, B. (2003). Digital libraries: Barriers or gateways to scholarly information.
Paper presented on Digital Libraries at IATUL Conference, Ankara, Turkey.
41
Buckland, M. K., Gey F. C. and Larson R. R. (2002). Going places in the

Catalogue: Improved geographical access. Retrieved June 22, 2006, from
http://www.sins.berkeley.edu/buckland/catplace.pdf
Denise, T. C. (2002). Usage and usability assessment: Library practices and
concern. Retrieved June 22, 2006, from http://www.clir.org
Greenspan, R. (2002). China pulls ahead of Japan in cyber stlas. Retrieved June
22, 2006, from http://www.cyberatlas.internet.com.
John, K. (2005). Technology and wealth creation: Where we are, where we are
going. Retrieved June 22, 2006, from
http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml
Manjunath, B. & Shoba, P. (2006). E- learning and its impact on library and
information services. Paper presented at DRTC Conference on ICT for
Digital Learning Environment, Bangalore.
Rowley J. E. (1998). The basics of information technology. London: Clive Bingley.
42
TEACHER EDUCATION IN NIGERIA AND THE MILLENNIUM

DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Professor Adebayo Lawal

Department of Arts and Social Science Education,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigerian
Abstract
This paper examines teacher education in Nigeria in the context of the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It begins by clearing the fallacies and
misconceptions built around the millennium as a way of tracking time. It then
proceeds to assess the problems and prospects of teacher education within the
ambit of the educational system in Nigeria as an off-shoot of the economic and
political systems. The paper concludes by proffering the way forward through
specific recommendations towards enhancing the capacity of teachers as
important change-agents for national development.
Introduction: Clearing the Fallacies

On the 1st of January 2000 people around the world celebrated the birth
of a new millennium. However, some observers noted that the Gregorian
Calendar, which most of the world adopts, actually began in AD 1 and the new
millennium truly began in 2001, a date many people found less symbolic and far
less interesting. This explanation failed to stem millennial festivities all over the
world, but the issue has shed considerable light on the arbitrary nature of the
way human beings have measured time and how we often turn fallacies and
misconceptions into superstitions.
Thus, few people seem to care about the untidy aspects of dating the
third millennium. With the same stubbornness with which old civilisations (Greek,
Roman, Egyptian, Chinese, etc.) once clung to lunar calendars and the clergy
turned a blind eye to calendric imperfections or glitches, people appear to have
collectively agreed, if tacitly, to ignore science and history (Duncan, 2003). One
explanation for a near universal willingness to ignore the arbitrary aspects of
tracking time may be a simple infatuation with zero, which has acquired the full
force of obsession turned into superstition. For centuries Westerns (Europeans
and Americans especially) have been obsessed with 10, 50, 100 and 1000-year
markers. In contrast, few people care about the year 13, 19, 63, 117, or 2001, to
mention just a few.
In the view of Duncan (2003), this possibly reflects an infatuation with 10
in the Arabic numeral system, because we have 10 fingers and 10 toes, which
must have seemed a convenient calculator for calendar markers. The Romans for
instance, originally came up with 10 months, organised 10 legions of their
warriors and created a senate with 100 members. But the Romans wrote 10 with
X, not with 1 and 0, which is why Dennis the Little started our Timeline in AD 1
43
Adebayo Lawal
and why the Calendar still jumps from 1 BC to 1 AD without any intervening
zero.
Ignoring these short-comings and granting that the millennium is epochal,
the crucial question is: must it take a whole millennium to accomplish the so-
called Development Goals when God has given no man a millennial longevity, not
even the Bible-fabled Methuselah? Such is the insidious nature of globalised
imperialism as erected on the tripodal structure of (i) free, unfettered flow
information, (ii) free, deregulated trade, and (iii) liberal but regulated Western-
type democracy (Lawal, 2005a).
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were adopted by all the
government of the countries of the world as a blue-print for building a better
global order in the 21st century. The eights (8) MDGs are:
Eradication of extreme poverty and hunger.
Achievement of Universal Primary Education.
Improvement in maternal health.
Promotion of gender equality and women empowerment.
Reduction in child mortality.
Combating HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.
Ensuring environmental sustainability.
Developing a global partnership for development.
We may now examine the MDGs for whatever their face value is and not
in relation to their temporal frame (i.e. 1000 years) or in terms of their economic
or political, ideological underpinnings. In so doing, we may conveniently and
concisely sum them up as an attempt by both the developed and the developing
nations to achieve an appreciable measure of material, intellectual, and
moral/spiritual well-being for the diverse peoples of the world. In a tacit
acceptance of their respective short-comings, poor countries pledged to govern
better and invest in their people through health care and education, while rich
countries pledged to support poorer countries through aid, debt relief, and fairer
trade.
Teacher Education and National Development

The relationship between education and development is best considered
as symbiotic. Quality education engenders national development while in turn
development brings about quality education. This explains why the education
systems in the developed nations tend to be more functional, virile and efficient
than those in the developing world. This would also explain the vicious circle of
under-development and poverty in the Third-World countries (Lawal, 2005a).
The Federal Government of Nigeria (FRN, 2004) has considered education
to be “an instrument par excellence” for effecting national development. It has
also resolved (National Policy of Education, 2004, Article 70) that teacher
education shall continue to be given major emphasis in all educational planning
44
and development, since no education system may rise above the quality of its
teachers. Be that as it may, it should also be noted that no nation can rise above
the quality of her leaders. Development and education, including teacher
education, are products of certain social systems, especially the economic and
political systems. Teacher education can only contribute to national
development, when appropriate economic, political and management structures
and measures are put in place. Put simply, the school can change the society for
the better through the agency of the teacher, but the society has to first
empower the teacher and enrich the climate of the school.
Teacher Education in Nigeria

When compared to other professions, teaching would seem to have a
relatively low status even in some of the developed countries of the world where
it possess most, if not all the characteristics of a profession. This would perhaps
explain why the Webster’s new collegiate dictionary defines “doctor” as one duly
licensed to practise “medicine” but quite intriguingly the same dictionary defines
the word “teacher” as “one who teaches or instructs, especially one whose
occupation is to instruct” (Yoloye, 1992; 347). This sharp contrast raises the
following questions:
(i) Is teaching a process of “instructing” and imparting or a process of
cultivating and facilitating desirable behavioural changes in learners?
(Lawal, 2000, 2004). This question has far-reaching implications for
teacher education. Surprisingly, two of the four national educational goals
as enshrined in the NPE (FRN, 2004) are:
(a) The inculcation of national consciousness and national unity; and
(b) The inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the
survival and the Nigerian society.
Any meaningful and functional education would go beyond mere
inculcation, indoctrination, imparting or fixing in the minds of learners through
rote learning to the level of cultivation, stimulation and facilitation of the
learners’ use of his/her Head, Heart and Hands in discovering himself/herself and
the totality of the environment (Lawal, 2004).
(ii) Is teaching supposed to be a profession or a mere “occupation” or
vocation? This question also has implications for teacher education,
recruitment, remuneration and retention.
(iii) How much education does a person need to become a teacher? Until the
late 20th century, many people, both in the developing as well as the
developed countries, believed that teaching merely required sympathetic
and empathetic disposition and skills rather that a high degree of
instructional expertise that would elevate its status and bestow on it high
standards required of a profession (Ryan, 2003). Hence, people usually
received little formal preparation before entering the classroom,
particularly at the elementary and secondary school levels. This perception
changed dramatically in the 1970s as schools began placing greater
45
Adebayo Lawal
premium on formal training for teachers. For example, some schools both
in the developed and developing nations began to offer higher salaries to
teachers with higher qualifications even at the primary school level.
In Nigeria, teacher education evolved out of the needs of the individual
missionary society operating in the country in the 19th century. Initially, the
pupil-teachers were trained specifically for religious propagation, Christianity in
the South and Islam in the North. The curriculum was heavily religion-based,
intensely denominational and shallow in content because the curriculum
combined theology with teaching methodology (Taiwo, 1980). Another
noteworthy feature of those early attempts at teachers training in Nigeria,
according to Ali (1992), was the variation in experiments in the Southern and
Northern parts of the country, as dictated by prevailing circumstances. For
instance, the influx of Christian missionaries in the South resulted in
uncontrollable expansion of primary schools and teacher training institutions. In
the North, where Islam with its Qur’anic school system was well entrenched, the
establishment of Western-type schools got a slow start and this part of the
country consequently had fewer teacher-training institutions.
The following are the major features and developments in teacher
education in contemporary Nigeria:
(a) The search for qualitative teacher education began in humble attempts of
missionary groups for the mid-19th century and shaded into the colonialist
efforts of the first part of the 20th century. This search became intensified
after independence in 1960 when various commissions were set up
between 1960 and 1977 to seek ways of improving teacher education
policies and practices in the country.
(b) By the time the U.P.E. scheme was launched in the 1970’s (in the oil
boom era) with a crash programme of teacher training, the pendulum of
the image of the teacher had swung from the extreme of a priest (or even
prophet) to that of a slave or underdog. This situation has been
exacerbated by unplanned expansion in teacher education at the College
of Education and University levels from the 1980s to the present.
(i) Since then, low-calibre products of the secondary school level have
always been selected for the Colleges of Education and Universities
without ensuring the necessary aptitudinal, attitudinal and
intellectual screening and sieving required of a noble and nurturing
profession (Lawal, 2000).
(ii) Teaching became a dumping ground and specialists and non-
specialists move in and out of it freely with little or no control or
safeguard (Ogunniyi, 1994).
(iii) Apart from the low professional status of teachers occasioned
especially by the problem of the dregs and flotsam of the
secondary school being input into teaching, the training of teachers
is fraught with weaknesses not associated with other respectable
professions.
46
(iv) There is yet no significant benchmark of training to quality one as a

professional teacher. Instead, there are several hierarchical and
sometimes overlapping qualifications used for categorising teachers
as trained (e.g. Grade II Teachers’ Certificate, A.C.E., N.C.E.,
P.G.D.E., Graduate Certificate in Teaching/Education, P.G.D.E.,
B.Ed., M.Ed., Ph.D.).
(v) The period through which pre-service teachers are practically
exposed to the art, science and technology of teaching is relatively
short. Ironically certain teacher educators (e.g. Okebukola, 2005)
are of the opinion that the B.Ed./B.Sc. (Ed.) concurrent
programmes in Nigerian universities are education-loaded to the
detriment of the teaching subject and have canvassed for a
readjustment in favour of the latter.
(vi) There is no period of internship for newly trained teachers during
which period they can benefit from the mentoring of more
knowledgeable and experienced colleagues.
(vii) Consequent upon (v) and (vi) above, the period for training a
graduate teacher in the university is relatively short when
compared to those of other such professionals as doctors,
pharmacists, lawyers, and engineers.
(c) Due to the low status of teaching and the poor training teachers teaching
has assumed the unwholesome image of an all-comers occupation
without:
(i) a benchmark of systematic body of knowledge, values and skills
which can form the basis of licensing and registering members;
(ii) a high degree of autonomy which can make teachers to make
decisions in the interest of their clientele and on their mode of
operation, and also influence legislations on their general
professional practices and code of conduct; and
(iii) in-service professional development based on new knowledge
being disseminated to members under the auspices of professional
body. Such Trade Unions as NUT, COEASU and ASUU, and
professional associations such as MAN, RAN, STAN and NATAIS, to
mention just a few, are not known to be actively involved in this.
The initiative for such in-service training has always emerged from
government and its agencies such as the National Teachers’
Institute, National Universities Commission (NUC) and National
Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE). This further
strengthens the relative over-dependence of teachers on
government when compared with other professionals.
Where the Rain Started To Beat Us

As suggested in the introductory part of this paper, the potentials of
teacher education, and indeed of the whole educational system to radically bring
47
Adebayo Lawal
about development relative to the MDGs has not be fully actualised in Nigeria.
This has been due largely to a lopsided, mono-cultural oil-based economy, which
has produced an unhealthy political system. The hallmarks of the polity have
been competitive ethnicims and cut-throat rivalry for oil-derived wealth leading,
until very recently, to incessant coups, general political instability and capital
flight.
The poor example of the political leadership has led to the general
collapse of institutional management as evident in such counter-productive
behaviour as sharp practices, red-tape and other forms of corporate barrier and
administrative lethargy. In sum, there has been a general erosion of the good
old ethnics of service and sacrifice and this has in turn produced widespread
infrastructural decay. Apart from the decimation of education (Fitzrcy, 2003),
other manifestations of institutional inefficiency include disruption and dislocation
in the health-care and power supply system, perversion of law and justice, and
bastardisation of cultural values, among others.
48
Figure 1 is a model of the educational crisis as part of the general social

crisis which is contingent upon weak economic and political structures.
Decay of Social Institutions

- Dissemination of education
- Perversion of law and justice
- Institutional disruption and dislocation, e.g.
health-care and power supply systems
- Bastardisation of cultural values
Collapse of Institutional Management

- Square pegs in round holes
- Sharp practices
- Red-tape and administrative lethargy
- Erosion of service
Political System
- Competitive ethnicism and cut-throat rivalry for
oil-derived wealth
- Political instability
- Capital flight
Economic Base
- A mono-cultural oil-based economy
Figure 1: A Model of the Economic and Political Foundations of the Educational

Crisis in Nigeria
49
Adebayo Lawal
The Way Forward

(a) The first major step is to use education, in particular teacher education, to
break the monopoly of oil and diversify the economy especially in the
areas of agriculture and agro-allied industries, low and intermediate
technology and the cultivation of post-school survival skills in learners. As
a corollary, the curriculum of teacher education at appropriate levels of
the school system would have to be correspondingly enriched especially
with regard to the MDGs.
(b) Contrary to the current brain-drain phenomenon in which many Nigerian
professionals are subjected to denigrating conditions abroad a systematic
programme should be put in place so as to be able to gainfully export
surplus expertise to less endowed countries where this would be
appropriately appreciated and remunerated. In this regard the Technical
Aid Corps (TAC) programme is a step in the right direction and should be
expanded to cover several more professions and many other needy
countries.
(c) There is the concomitant need to conceptualise development in a holistic
and broad-based sense and approach teacher education from the
perspective of building human capacity in the domains of relevant and
useful knowledge, skills and values (Lawal, 2005a). Emphasis should be
placed on cognitive development as well as the possession of basic
aptitudinal traits and the acquisition of noble values so that teachers are
found worthy in character and learning before we can expect their
learners to attain this lofty height. A teacher who is physically energetic
and intellectually sound but morally bankrupt can only be a social misfit
and a professional disgrace as he or she cannot be any worthy model for
learners.
(d) There is then the need to establish standards and management
structures. At long last, the Teacher Registration Council (TRC) has
arrived, but only after many of its roles and functions have been
appropriated by such other government parastatals as NTI, NCCE and
NUC. As such, the TRC is only concerned for now mainly with keeping an
inventory or a register of teachers, without the all-important licensing
which is the essence of registration in professional terms (Lawal, 2004).
Thus, there is need for rethinking on the nature, structure and functions
of the TRC vis-à-vis other related parastatals and agencies, especially in the
areas of training benchmarks, professional standards and code of ethics, among
others. To license teachers, there must be a system of post-training professional
examinations in different forms and grades. Until this is achieved, the title
“Teacher” (Tr.) cannot be proudly prefixed to names as is the practice among
many other professionals especially in Nigeria.
The TRC would have to be equipped with appropriate human and material
resources that would enable it to collaborate closely with teacher-training
institutions and teachers’ professional associations in the urgent task of
50
overhauling and expanding the various teacher education curricula. This would
ensure that adequate provision is made for the mastery of both content and
methodology and the requisite internship for the production of different cadres of
quality teachers who can serve as the dynamo for meaningful and sustainable
development.
(e) All these suggestions would require thorough planning, conscientious
implementation and continuous evaluation and feedback and therefore a
fairly long period to be actualised. However, as teachers we need to
realise that the task of building and sustaining teaching as a profession is
a bottom-up process which primarily belongs to us. The current top-down
approach has all along been counter-productive. In this regard;
1. Teachers of all cadres and levels should centrally organise
themselves into a national association which would serve as
umbrella for the different subject teachers’ associations currently in
existence. Through this central organ, teachers can work with the
appropriate legislative organs of government to ensure the
establishment of a National Board for Professional Teaching
Standards as found in developed countries such as U.S.A. The TRC
can be restructured to handle this crucial role which is fundamental
to the professionalisation of teaching in Nigeria.
2. Teachers on their own at the grass-roots:
2.1. should avail themselves of in-service courses within colleges,
polytechnics and universities, and most especially within their
subject association to keep abreast of trends and innovations in
teaching. This implies that every teacher, irrespective of the cadre
and level of teaching, must actively belong to at least one relevant
subject association;
2.2. must learn to network within each schools, village/town/city, L.G.A
and state, by establishing a forum through which better-trained
and more experienced teachers can mentor for the newly trained
and less-experienced ones;
2.3. can apart from pursuing further studies, engage in action research
in the classroom. We should collect from time to time data on the
teaching and learning situation, analyse them and feed our findings
back into the instructional process to enhance our professional
development; and
2.4. must try as much as possible to get registered as examiners with
such Examination Bodies as WAEC, NECO, NBTE, etc. (Abimbola,
2001). We should always avail ourselves of part-time teaching
opportunities in the sandwich programmes of NTI, Colleges of
Education, Polytechnics and Universities. This is another vital way
of keeping close to our professional peers and refreshing our minds
and reinvigorating our spirit.
51
Adebayo Lawal
2.5. Finally, since is central to modern life and professional

development, teachers should develop a healthy reading habit so
as to constantly be in tune with both specialised and general
developments in human development and also serve as a model
learner for their own learners (Lawal, 2005b).
Hopefully, and in conclusion, if foregoing recommendations are pursed
with determination and sincerity of purpose by all the relevant stakeholders, the
poor standards of teaching and the low image of teachers would change
gradually but steadily for the better and this would in no small measure
contribute to enhance capacity-building in all the facets of national life, which is
the very essence of development.
References
Abimbola, I. O. (2001). Professional growth and development of teachers. In I.
O. Abimbola (Ed.), Fundamental principles and practice of instruction (pp.
411 – 422). Ilorin: CSET Department, University of Ilorin.
Ali, H. (1992). Professionalism in teacher education in Nigeria universities: issue
and expectations. Lagos: Evdor Publishers.
Duncan, D. E. (2003). Dating the millennium. Encarta Encyclopaedia Deluxe (CD)
Microsoft.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (F2004). National policy on education. Lagos: NERDC
Press.
Fitzory, N. (2003). The HIPACT programme: Education for development. Paper
presented at the Kwara State Education Summit, November 12 – 13,
2003.
Lawal, R. A. (2000). The art and technology of teaching. In A. Idowu et al.
(eds.), A guide to teaching practice (pp. 11 – 20.). Ilorin: Faculty of
Education, University of Ilorin,
Lawal, R. A. (2004). Meaning without mean-ness. The 74th Inaugural Lecture,
Ilorin: University of Ilorin Publications Committees, 31 – 34.
Lawal, R. A. (2005a). Globalisation, education and development in Africa: The
bedevilling dilemmas. A Guest speaker paper presented at the Moi
University First Annual Internal Conference and Partners Meeting, Moi
University, Eldoret, Kenya, 14th – 17th of February.
Lawal, R. A. (2005b). Ensuring quality in teacher education for national
development. A lead paper presented at the 1st Annual Conference of Oyo
State College of Education, Oyo Chapter of COEASU 16th – 19th of August,
2005.
Ogunniyi, A. O. (1994). Professionalism and teacher education in Nigeria in Olu
Obafemi and Bayo Lawal (Eds.), Issues in contemporary African social and
political thought (vol. 2) (pp. 167 – 173). Lagos. Academia Publishers.
Okebukola, P. (2005). Quality assurance in teacher education in Nigeria. The
roles of faculties of education. A lead paper presented at the 2005 meting
52
of Committee of Deans of Education in Nigeria Universities held at the

Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin (18th – 23rd July, 2005).
Ryan, K. (2003). History of teaching. In Encarta Encyclopaedia Deluxe 2003 (CD)
Microsoft.
Taiwo, C. O. (1980). The Nigerian education system: past present and future.
Ikeja: Thomas Nelson.
Yoloye, E. A. (1992). Challenges of teacher education in Nigeria. In B. Ipaye
(Ed.), Education in Nigeria: Past, present and future. Lagos, Macmillan,
306 – 366.
53
ACADEMIC STAFF PERCEPTION OF QUALIFICATION ON

ADMINISTRATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF HEADS OF ACADEMIC
DEPARTMENTS IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITIES
Don Omoike (PhD)

Department of Educational Foundations and Management,
Faculty of Education, Ambrose Alli University,
PMB 14, Ekpoma 31001,
Nigeria
dononode@hotmail.com
Abstract
This study was on the administrative effectiveness of Heads of Academic
Departments in Nigerian universities. It was to find the significant differences (if
any) in administrative effectiveness of Heads of Academic Departments with
respect to academic qualification of the Head of Department. In order to direct
the investigation, one hypothesis was formulated and tested. An ex-post-facto
research design (N=1,326) was used. The HODAEQ questionnaire was
administered. The results of investigation revealed that though there was no
significant difference between Heads of Departments who have Ph.D. and those
without Ph.D., there was, however, a significant difference in the critical area of
administration of staff between Heads of Departments who have PhD and those
without Ph.D. Based on the findings, recommendations were made, which
include appointing mainly Ph.D. holders as Heads of Departments
Introduction
The academic department is the core unit in the administrative structure of
universities. It is therefore crucial for effectiveness to be assured in departmental
headship. However, the state of administration in higher education has been a
source of concern to the stakeholders. The mandate of the university as specified
in section 8 of the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004 edition) is to teach,
conduct research development and provide community service. These
organizational goals of the university seem no longer realisable due to obstacles
that include alleged poor performance of Heads of Departments who are no
longer performing their functions effectively.
The National Universities Commission (NUC) in its 2002 report on the
state of university education in Nigeria alleged that universities in Nigeria
perform below expectation. Some stakeholders, especially parents and employers
of labour also alleged poor performance of graduates from universities in Nigeria.
Aghenta (2001) equally observed that not more than 30 percent of the normal
period of teaching is used for actual teaching. Lecturers do not submit
examination questions early neither do they mark the scripts and submit results
without one request after another being made by the Head of Department. It
54
Don Omoike
was, therefore, imperative to examine the qualification of Heads of Departments

as it affects their administrative effectiveness.
Administrative effectiveness is the level of performance of administrative
tasks or functions by Heads of Department in order to achieve the objectives of
the departments and the goals of the university. A mean rating of 3.1 on the
effectiveness rating represents effectiveness of the Heads of Department in
departmental administration.
Most Heads of Department are excellent scholars. According to Huber
(1995) many Heads of Department were pressed into service based primarily on
their reputation within their discipline. Many of them are well recognized in their
field for their research efforts and for excellence in teaching. However, Bogue
(1994) believes that the skills needed for excellence in an academic discipline are
not the same ones needed to provide leadership within a college, faculty or
department level. Whereas, most academic units are well able to clarify what
distinguishes them from any other discipline and most academics develop a line
of scholarship uniquely theirs, leadership, according to Lucas (1994) is a more
integrative endeavour. Disciplinary reputations are built on specialization and
competition among peers while departmental leadership demands a more
collaborative approach.
In her report on quality leadership training programme, Huber (1995)
listed topics offered to Heads of Department. These included how to write
recommendation letters for promotion, where to find instructional resources,
when to seek counsel with university lawyers regarding staff layoffs, and how to
communicate more effectively with difficult people.
Thus, the heads of academic department tend to need much more than
academic qualifications to be administratively effective. According to Fogg (2001)
some universities have now recognized that in other to be effective as a
departmental head, academic staff members are prepared for headship positions
through the creation of programmes. Such programmes are created to
emphasize the crucial position of the Heads of Department to the universities
overall success. Fogg continued by saying that the training programmes offer
staff both “straightforward advice and a support network”. The emphasis here is
not the success of such training programmes but on the premise that certain
academic education received for lecturing may not be adequate enough for them
to perform effectively as Heads of Departments. Headship of department,
therefore, does require that the position occupant needs certain types of training
for effective performance. These types, according to Okoh (1998), must include
acquiring a mixture of human, technical and conceptual skills.
A training programme organized for heads of department by Rutgers
University in 1997 emphasized commitment, communicability, ability to delegate,
a knowledge of operating procedures and how at the same time to keep up their
teaching and research.
55
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to find out the significant difference (if any)
in administrative effectiveness of Heads of Departments who have Ph.D. and
those who have no Ph.D.
Research Hypothesis
Hypothesis: There is no significant difference in administrative effectiveness of
Heads of Department who have PhD and those who have no Ph.D.
Method
This is a descriptive research based on the ex-post-facto design. There
were two reasons for the choice of this design. The first is that data used for the
study already existed. They were only collected from the appropriate sources.
The second reason is that the variables of study were not manipulated.
The population of the study comprised all the academic staff in the 1,520
academic departments in the 36 public universities in Nigeria as at the time of
this study, 2004/2005 academic session.
A total of 1,326 academic staff made up the sample that rated the 362
Heads of Department for the study. The sample was chosen using the multi-
stage, stratified and simple random sampling methods. In the first stage, the
universities were stratified on the basis of the variable of ownership, age and
type of university. This was followed by randomly selecting 10 percent of the
total number of universities under the sub group of federal (2 out of 24) and
State (1 out of 12) universities; the sub group of old (1 out of 14) and new (2
out of 22) universities; and the sub group of conventional (2 out of 23) and
specialized (1 out of 13) universities. In all, nine universities were selected which
include six federal and three State universities; four old and five new
universities; and six conventional and three specialized universities. In the
second stage, the selected universities were brought together to give 362
academic departments. Academic staff in these departments rated all the 362
Heads of Department in these nine universities. Finally a total of 1,326 academic
staff representing 25% of the population was selected from among the academic
staff through a simple random sampling procedure to rate all the Heads of
Departments in the 362 departments for the study.
The main instrument that was used for data collection was the
questionnaire titled Heads of Department Administrative Effectiveness
Questionnaire (HODAEQ) constructed by the researcher. The purpose of the
questionnaire was to request the respondents to rate the performance of the
Heads of Department in Nigerian universities in order to determine their
administrative effectiveness. The questionnaire was developed after the review
of literature. The questionnaire was made up of two major sections. The first
section sought background information (ownership, age and curriculum of
university and qualification, rank, sex, experience and discipline) of the Head of
Department. The second section contained 30 administrative duties of the Heads
56
Don Omoike
of Departments on which academic staff were asked to rate the performance of

their Heads of Department on a five point Likert type scale. The items were
grouped into seven functional areas that included Heads of Departments’
administration of instructional programmes, staff, students, facilities, finance,
external relations and office. Five of these groups had four items per group
whose responses were to determine the administrative effectiveness of the
Heads of Departments. The other two groups had five items each.
To ensure the achievement of the face and content validity the instrument
‘Heads of Department Administrative Effectiveness Questionnaire (HODAEQ)’ was
designed to reflect the problem and the hypotheses of the study. Two professors
in educational management corrected the instrument before being used for the
study. This was to ensure that the questions raised were clear, unambiguous and
understandable.
A test-retest study was carried out to ascertain the reliability of the
instrument. This was done by administering the questionnaire twice on 26
academic staff available at the time of study in the Faculty of Education, Delta
State University, Abraka. The university was used for the reliability test because
it was not part of the nine universities used for the study. A four-week interval
was allowed for the conduct of the two tests. The data obtained was statistically
analyzed to obtain the reliability coefficient. The Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient (Pearson ‘r’) was then used to correlate scores that gave
an r-value of 0.80.
The questionnaire was administered on academic staff under the Heads of
Department studied in the nine universities used for the study. A total of 13
research assistants (mainly graduate assistants in these universities) were given
orientation and used to administer the questionnaire to the respondents in the
sampled universities. Out of the 1,450 copies of the questionnaire administered,
a total of 1,326 were recovered and used for the study. In other words, a total of
1,326 academic staff responded to the questionnaire to rate the administrative
effectiveness of the Heads of Department. This gave 91 percent recovery rate.
The administration of the questionnaire lasted for 21 weeks in 2005.
The data collected were analysed with the use of the study were analyzed
using the z-test statistics.
57
Hypothesis one: There is no significant difference in administrative effectiveness

of Heads of Department who have PhDs and those who have no
PhDs in universities in Nigeria
The hypothesis was tested by applying the z-test statistics. The result of
analysis is presented in Table 1.
Table 3: z-test in Administrative Effectiveness between Heads of Department

with Ph.D. and those without Ph.D. in Universities
Qualification N X SD df Z z- Remark
value s
Administrative Ph.D. 879 3.63 7.4 Not
Effectiveness Significant
1324 0.65 +1.96 P>0.05
No Ph.D. 447 3.68 6.3
The data showed that 240 Heads of Department had PhD and 122 Heads
of Departments had no Ph.D. and with their respective rating by 879 and 447
respondents and mean ratings of 3.63 and 3.68.
The result of the z-test analysis showed that the calculated value of 0.65
is greater than the table value of +1.96 at 0.05 alpha level. This falls within the
acceptance region of 1.96. The null hypothesis is, therefore, retained that there
is no significant difference in administrative effectiveness between Heads of
Department who have Ph.D. and those who do not have Ph.D.
58
Don Omoike
Table 2: Administrative Effectiveness of Heads of Department with Ph.D. and

those without PhD in the Functional Areas
Administrative Qualification N X SD df Z Z- Remarks
Functions value
Administration of No PhD 879 3.68 7.6 Not
Instructional 1324 1.24 +1.96 Significant
Programmes PhD 447 3.63 7.0 P>0.05
Administration No PhD 879 3.61 7.8 +1.96 Significant
of Staff 1324 -2.21 P>0.05
PhD 447 3.66 6.0
Administration No PhD 879 3.61 7.4 Not
of Students 1324 0.83 +1.96 Significant
PhD 447 3.53 6.9 P>0.05
of Facilities 1324 0.95 +1.96 Significant
PhD 447 3.69 6.0 P>0.05
of Finance 1324 1.06 +1.96 Significant
PhD 447 3.66 6.1 P>0.05
of External 1324 0.91 +1.96 Significant
Relations PhD 447 3.64 6.1 P>0.05
Administration No PhD 879 3.58 7.7
of Office 1324 -2.13 +1.96 Significant
PhD 447 3.69 6.0 P>0.05
Analysis was carried out to determine the functional areas in which there
were significant differences in administrative effectiveness of Heads of
Department who have Ph.D. and those who have no Ph.D. The results in Table 2
indicated that there was a significant difference in administrative effectiveness of
Heads of Department with Ph.D. and those without Ph.D. in the areas of
administration of staff with a calculated value of -2.21; and administration of
office with a calculated value of -2.13. The Heads of Departments with Ph.D. had
higher means 3.51 and 3.66 as against 3.58 and 3.69 in administration of staff
and office respectively. This means that Heads of Department with Ph.D. had
significantly higher administrative effectiveness rating in these two functional
areas of administration. However, no significant differences were found in
administrative effectiveness of Heads of Department with and without Ph.D. in
their administration of instructional programme (1.24), students (0.83), facilities
(0.95) finance (1.06) and external relations (0.91). These results are shown in
Table 2.
59
Findings
The result of the study on qualification of the Head of Department has
shown no significant difference in the administrative effectiveness of Heads of
Departments who have Ph.D. and those who have no Ph.D. The finding has
shown that the acquisition of a Ph.D. does not influence the administrative
effectiveness of Heads of Department. With means of 3.68 and 3.63 for PhD
holders and no PhD holders respectively, it can be asserted that appointment of
Heads of Department need not be based on acquisition of PhD. Perhaps this is
only relevant in the area of academic enhancement of the academic staff and not
in their appointment as Heads of Department. Significant differences were found
in further analysis of the functional areas as they affect the administrative
effectiveness of the Head of Department. There was a significant difference in
administrative effectiveness of Heads of Department who have PhD and those
who have no PhD in the administration of staff and office. These are quite
revealing especially when it is realized that the possession of PhD is a strong
consideration in the promotion of most academics into the higher level of the
academic staff ladder. The Head of Department cannot effectively carry out
some activities if he does not possess the PhD especially in the administration of
staff. Such activities include appraisal of academic staff in the higher category. It
is a normal regulation in the universities that Heads of Department who do not
have PhD (except in exceptional cases) are not members of appraisal panels set
up to assess certain higher levels of the academia such as senior lecturers and
readers. The Head of Department may not also be capable of performing
effectively in a department with high caliber academic staff who are his super
ordinates. This result is in consonance with the finding of Huber (1995) that
many Heads of Department may have been pressed into administrative duties
based primarily on their reputation within their academic discipline and not
necessarily their administrative expertise. It also confirms the belief of Bogue
(1994) that the skills needed for excellence in an academic discipline are not the
same ones needed to provide leadership within a college, faculty or department
level. Thus, academics develop a line of scholarship uniquely theirs while
leadership is a more integrative and collaborative effort. This is why in some
universities (such as University of Benin) newly appointed Heads of Department
come into the position after undergoing some form of management training or
leadership education. This finding also confirms what Fogg (2001) observed that
some universities now have recognized that in order to be effective as a Head of
Department, the academic staff is usually prepared for leadership position by
creating one form of training programme or another, which include straight
forward advice and a support network. The premise is that certain academic
education received for lecturing may not be adequate enough for them to
perform effectively as Heads of Department. The lecturer before becoming Head
of Department spends his time managing his career.
60
Don Omoike
Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study, it was concluded that there was no
significant difference in administrative effectiveness of Heads of Department that
have Ph.D. and those who have no Ph.D. However, there was a significant
difference in the critical functional area of administration of staff.
The significant difference in the critical administrative functional area of
administration of staff is indicative of the fact that certain categories of staff
especially those with Ph.D. need to be appointed as Heads of Department.
Administration of staff is a critical area in Head of Department’s administrative
effectiveness. The significant difference found in this area has implication for
human resource management and management of teaching and learning process
in universities. Contemporary administration is skill oriented and requires
adequate training especially in human resources or personnel management. It
may not be possible for a non Ph.D. holder to manage a department that runs a
Ph.D. programme because you cannot give what you do not have.
Recommendations
To ensure a continued and sustainable high administrative effectiveness of
Heads of Departments in Nigerian universities, it is, therefore, recommended
that preference should be for the appointment of Ph.D. holders as Heads of
Department. The research has shown that Heads of Departments with Ph.D. are
administratively effective, especially in the administration of the critical function
of staff administration.
References
Aghenta, J.A (2001). Educational planning: A turning point in education and
development in Nigeria. The 58th Inaugural Lecture Series. University of
Benin, Benin City.
Bogue, E.G (1994). Leadership by design: Strengthening integrity in higher
education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Fogg, P. (2001, Oct 19). Can department heads be trained to succeed? The
Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved January 4, 2004,
http://chronical.com
Huber, N.S. (1995) Leadership in higher education: Engaging the department
heads. Planning for Higher Education, 24, 25-32
Okoh, A.O (1998). Personnel and human resources management in
Nigeria..Lagos: Amfitop Books
Olomu, J. M. (2006). Strategies for promoting culture of reforms in the
universities. A paper presented at the ETF Capacity Building Workshop for
University Lecturers in Nigeria held in University of Benin.
61
SUPERVISOR’S FACTOR IN THE ACHIEVEMENT OF UNIVERSAL

BASIC EDUCATION (UBE) OBJECTIVES IN NIGERIA
Y. A. FASASI (PhD)
Department of Educational Management, University of Ilorin,
Ilorin, Nigeria
Abstract
This paper focuses on supervisory roles of Nigerian heads of primary and
secondary schools in the achievement of UBE objectives. The UBE programme
contains certain innovations which are meant to encourage 100% enrolment and
retention in primary schools, and 100% transition to junior secondary schools.
Thus, pupils are to enrol in Basic one and stay in the education system till they
complete Basic Nine. In the process of implementation, additional teachers are
employed, more facilities are procured and more pupils are admitted into the
schools. Complexity in the school system, brought by these changes could be
counter productive and prevent the achievement of UBE objectives. Heads of the
schools should be able to cope with these challenges if they are alive to their
supervisory responsibilities. They should acquire relevant skills and constantly
update their knowledge. The government should provide relevant and adequate
facilities and ensure favourable welfare services for teachers.
Introduction
In Nigeria, provision of Universal Basic Education (UBE) was proposed IN
the first edition of the National Policy on Education. It was stated in the
document that, “universal basic education, in a variety of forms, depending on
needs and possibilities, will be provided for all citizens” (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 1977, p.5). The proposal was actualized in September, 1999, when the
Federal Government announced the commencement of UBE. The Government’s
commitment to the programme was reaffirmed in the fourth edition of the policy
(Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004, section 1, subsection 9 (e), p.9).
The Government has realized that education was characterized by low
literacy level. The rates of enrolment, retention and transition from primary to
junior secondary schools were also low. Therefore, the Government became a
party to the 1990 Jomtien declaration on “education for all by the year 2000”
(Federal Ministry of Education, 2003). When the goal could not be realized at the
target date, Nigeria joined other nations at Dakar, Senegal, to declare “education
for all by the year 2015” (Charles, 2002). UBE is a strategy for achieving
“‘education for alls” in Nigeria.
With the introduction of UBE, it is expected that in the nearest future, the
nation’s primary schools would experience 100% enrolment rate. Also, transition
from primary to junior secondary schools would be 100%. The belief is that
62
Y. A. Fasasi
when Nigerian citizens are educated, the problem of ignorance, illiteracy and
poverty will be tackled (Babalola, 2002).
Education in general and UBE in particular, will be performing its role as a
potent solution to societal problems and an agent of national development, when
its programmes are successfully implemented. Educational administrators,
especially supervisors have the responsibility of ensuring that the nation’s
resources on education are not wasted, and that Governments’ objectives for
national development are achieved, using education as a tool. This is probably
the reason why the Government stated that efficient administration, among
others, is a necessary condition for the success of any education system. It
stated further that, “administration is a function of organization and structure,
proprietorship and control, inspection and supervision” (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 2004, p.55).
In this paper, the roles which primary and junior secondary school
administrators can play in the achievement of the objectives of UBE, are
examined. The school heads are the supervisors of education at the grassroot.
Their interaction with, and assistance to members of their school organization
are vital to the success of UBE in particular and the entire education system in
general.
UBE and National Development

Basic education is an education programme which provides a foundation
for acquisition of knowledge, skills and competencies in reading, writing,
numeracy and other fields of human endeavour. It is designed for all Nigerian
children of school age. The children are expected to acquire a nine year free and
compulsory education. That is, they are to spend six years at primary level and
transit automatically to junior secondary schools to spend three years. Also
included in the programme, is adult and non-formal education at primary and
junior secondary levels (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004 P.13). In essence, the
programme is universal as all categories of people in the country are to benefit
from it, their socio-economic, religious, political, ethnic and other differences not
withstanding.
As an instrument for effecting national development, UBE has the
following objectives:
i. To live meaningful and fulfilled lives;
ii. To contribute to the development of the society;
iii. To derive maximum social, economic and cultural benefits from the
society, and
iv. To discharge civic responsibilities competently (Federal Ministry of
Education, 2003, p.70).
The objectives of UBE constitute four different aspects of human
resources development. When they are well addressed, the human resources
become agents for further development in various sectors of the nation’s
economy.
63
In the first instance, national development starts from the development of

an individual. Through UBE, the individual undergoes a process of self-
development. The skills and competencies in him become manifest and he is able
to utilize them for his well being. Thus, he becomes a useful and productive
member of the society. This would make him live a meaningful and fulfilled life.
Further more, a well developed individual automatically becomes an agent
of development. That is, he will be able to assist other people to develop their
skills and competencies. The nation’s natural and material resources are also
developed by the skilled and competent members of the society. Hence,
development of the society would be achieved through the educated individuals.
Through UBE, the Government intends to develop an enlightened citizen
who will be aware of what goes on around and be able to derive maximum
benefits from his environments. Ability to adapt to new inventions and
discoveries, knowledge of what goes on in the environment and ability to
influence the life of others become better in the educated member of the society.
Another important objective which the Government wants to achieve
through UBE is to enable an individual discharge civic responsibility competently.
The programme is expected to assist the beneficiary to be aware of
governments’ policies, understand his rights and perform his duties as good
citizen of the country.
However, achievement of UBE objectives can not be accidental. The
programme has to be consciously and consistently pursued by all stakeholders in
general and by the educators at the grassroots in particular. Specifically, the
heads of primary and junior secondary schools who are the supervisors of their
schools have to ensure that right things are done at the right time.
Implementation of UBE
Both primary and secondary level of education experienced changes as a
result of the implementation of UBE. Many public primary schools introduced pre-
primary sections within their premises. This was to ensure a smooth transition
from home to school, to provide solid foundation for primary education and to
ensure a 100% enrolment of school-age children into Basic one (primary one)
(Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). Teachers’ acquisition of relevant skills for
this category of learners will be required for the success of this programme.
Also, all children of school-age were encouraged to attend schools and
stay till they complete primary education. After completion, they would move
into junior secondary classes and they would be encouraged to stay till the end
of basic nine (junior secondary three).
Implementation of these policies has resulted into pupils’ population
explosion, an increase in number of teachers and demand for more facilities. For
example, in Nigerian secondary schools, the 4,003,915 student population in
1998 increased to 4,866,420 in 2002 (Ibukun, 2004, p.5). This was an increase
of 21.5% over that of 1998, a year before the commencement of UBE. Primary
schools, being the level where UBE actually took off in 1999, would be expected
64
Y. A. Fasasi
to attract more pupils, and consequently a higher percentage of learners’

population. Also, demand for teachers and facilities increased within the last
eight years.
Table1: Primary School Teachers (2003-2005)
Years No of qualified No of unqualified Total Percentage of

teachers teachers unqualified teachers
2003/2004 492,280 45,122 537,402 08.40
2004/2005 593,876 45,309 639,185 07.10
Source: Adapted from: Teachers registration Council of Nigeria (June, 2006).

Statistical Digest 2003/2004 and 2004/2005. Abuja: TRCN
In Table 1, the number of primary school teachers increased from

537,402 in 2003/2004 to 639185 in 2004/2005. This implies that 101,783 new
teachers were employed within the two sessions. The table also showed that in
2003/2004 session 45,122 teachers (8.4%) were not qualified to teach. In
2004/2005 session 45,309 (7.1%) of the teachers were not qualified.
Table 2: Secondary School Teachers (2003-2005)
Years No of qualified No of unqualified Total Percentage of

teachers teachers unqualified teachers
2003/2004 137,445 42,923 180,368 23.80
2004/2005 141,529 48,815 190,344 25.65

In Table 2, 9,976 new teachers were employed into secondary schools

between 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 sessions. The Table also showed that in
2003/2004 session 180,368 (23.8%) teachers in secondary schools were not
qualified. In 2004/2005 session 190,344 (25.65%) were unqualified.
65
Table 3: Primary and Secondary Schools in Nigeria (2003-2005)
Schools 2003/2004 2004/2005 No of Increase Percentage

Increase
Primary schools 47,125 60,028 12,903 21.5
Secondary 10,608 10608 00 00
schools

In Table 3, there was an increase of 12,903 (12.5%) in the number of

primary schools in 2003/2004 session compared with that of 2003/2004 session.
There was no increase in number of secondary schools between 2003/2004 and
2004/2005 sessions.
The increase that was witnessed in number of pupils, teachers and
facilities as a result of UBE, has posed a challenge to school administrator.
Primary and secondary schools, more than before, have witnessed different
categories of teachers. These are qualified, unqualified, old, new, experienced,
inexperienced, male and female teachers who are working in schools located in
rural and urban areas. Each of these categories has his peculiarities which
demand the attention of school supervisors.
Supervisory roles in the Realization of UBE Objectives

Supervision is a professional service, rendered to teachers with a view to
improving teaching and learning in schools. The headmasters of primary schools
and the principals of junior secondary schools, have the administrative
responsibilities to supervise their teachers so that the pupils can acquire relevant
and adequate knowledge. Since the supervisors are always present in the
schools with the teachers, they are in good position to understand the needs of
different categories of teachers in their working environment. Therefore,
supervisory roles towards the achievement of UBE objectives can not be
overemphasized.
Qualified teachers are those that are trained and are having the required
teaching qualifications. They need the attention of the supervisor so as to be
able to match learning and administrative theories with practices on the field.
The unqualified teachers are of two types: the untrained teachers in the arts and
science of teaching and the untrained teachers in the subject they handle in
schools. Both of them are present in the school today, and they need the
attention of the supervisor. They are to be assisted in learning the appropriate
methods of teaching their subjects.
Experienced teachers need the attention of the supervisor so that they do
not take things for granted. Awareness has to be created in them that things
keep on changing, so that they do not base their expertise on experience only.
66
Y. A. Fasasi
Instead, they continue to acquire new knowledge and skills. The inexperienced
teachers could have got no background in teaching and classroom management.
Skills in communication, human relations and problem-solving, could be acquired
over time with the assistance of the supervisor.
A teacher may be old in age. He may be old in the school or he may be
old in the teaching profession. The old teacher, of whatever type needs
supervisory assistance to be able to adapt to innovations and make up for
inadequacies. Moreover, a new teacher needs to be inducted into specific
peculiarities of the school environment.
Also, there are rural and urban characteristics which a supervisor should
consider while assisting teachers to do their jobs better. Urban centres have a lot
of facilities, attractions and detractions. Rural areas are lacking in many facilities.
Supervisors should encourage teachers to choose relevant facilities and methods
that will neutralize the negative effects of technology in urban centre. Teachers
in schools that are located in rural areas need encouragement to make the best
use of what they have in the schools.
Conclusions
The following conclusions could be drawn from the discussion:
1. Administration of primary and secondary schools in Nigeria is getting
complex as a result of increase in number of pupils, teachers and
educational facilities.
2. Effective supervision of UBE programme could enhance the achievement
of its objectives.
3. Internal supervisors, that is, heads of schools, could be very effective in
ensuring the achievement of UBE objectives.
Recommendations
1. School heads, that is the headmasters and principals should be alive to
their supervisory duties. They should identify all aspects of UBE
programme and attend to them adequately.
2. Regular supervision by the school heads should be accompanied by good
human relations, competence and favourable leadership style.
3. The school heads should be trained in the art of supervision so that they
will be able to discharge their duties competently and confidentially.
4. The Government should encourage regular and continuous academic
session. This can be done when teachers welfare are adequately catered
for.
5. There should be sufficient teaching and learning facilities to cope with the
increasing demand from UBE intakes.
67
References
Borishade, B. (2002). Foreword. In H.J. Charles & E. Iheme (Eds.), Nigerian
private sector and education for all. A report on the private sector round
table. Abuja: UNESCO Publication.
Charles, H.J. (2002). Introduction. In H.J. Charles & E. Iheme (Eds.), Nigerian
private sector and education for all. A report on the private sector round
table. Abuja: UNESCO Publication.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1977). National policy on education. Lagos: Federal
Ministry of Information.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th ed.). Lagos:
Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council.
Federal Ministry of Education (2003). Historical background on the development
of education in Nigeria. Abuja: Education Sector Analysis. UNESCO/Japan
Trust fund project 532/NIR1010.
Ibukun, W.O. (2004). Management of secondary education in Nigeria: Problems
and challenges. In E.O. Fagbamiye, J.B. Babalola, M. Fabunmi & A.O.
Ayeni (Eds.), Management of primary and secondary education in Nigeria.
Ibadan: Codat Publications.
Teachers Registration Council (2006). Statistical digest 2003/2004 & 2004/2005.
Abuja: TRCN.
68
Ilorin Journal of Education, Vol. 25
25 August, 2006
EFFECT OF COUNSELLING ON EXAMINATION ANXIETY AND

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AMONG UNIVERSITY OF
MAIDUGURI DIPLOMA STUDENTS
Bulama Kagu (PhD)

Department of Education, University of Maiduguri
&
Mohammed Hassan
Department of Education and Counselling Psychology, IBB University
Lapai
ambajam@gmail.com
Abstract
The study investigated the effect of Counselling on examination anxiety and
academic performance among University of Maiduguri diploma students. Two
objectives and two null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The
target population consisted of all the diploma students in the diploma students in
the university and through stratified sampling technique, a total of 240 students
with some forms of examination anxiety participated in the study. The sampled
subjects were divided and assigned to experimental and control groups. The
instrument used for the study was part of the study Habits and Examination
Techniques Inventory (SHETI) developed by Carew and Hamman-Tukur (1995)
with reliability index of 0.87. Mean, standard deviation and analysis of variance
(ANOVA) were employed to analyse the data collected. The results revealed that
counselling effectiveness on anxiety was significant and it improved the GPA
scores of the students. Based on the findings some recommendations were
made.
Introduction
The concept of anxiety has been described as a subjective internal
emotional conflict, the cases, which may not be apparent to the person himself.
Much research has gone into anxiety. Studies show that anxiety is created or
aroused by expectations or thinking which has been associated with cognitive
interference (Maclead, 1996). Furthermore, experience and research have shown
that about 19% of students in a class of 40 people suffer moderate cases of
examination anxiety; 5% suffer serious forms of anxiety that require medical
attention (Kagu, 1999).
However, several studies have proven the efficacy of counselling in
reducing anxiety and subsequent improvement of students’ grade point average
(GPA) scores. Kirkland and Hollandsworth (1980) studied a skills–acquisition
treatment for test anxiety was compared with two anxiety–reduction conditions,
cue-controlled relaxation and mediation and relate it to test performance. Results
69
Bulama Kagu & Mohammed Hassan
indicated that the skills-acquisition group was superior to the other three
conditions in terms of performance on the analogue test as well as grade point
average.
Similarly, the studies of Vagg (1976) and Maxwell and Wilkerson (1982)
recommended and made use of numerous therapies – desensitization, modeling,
cognitive modification, rational emotive, etc, for the treatment of anxiety
including that of examination. It is against this background that the paper
investigated the effect of counseling on examination anxiety and academic
performance among University of Maiduguri diploma students
Objectives of the study

The following are the objectives of the study:
1. To determine the effect of counselling on examination anxiety and
academic performance of University of Maiduguri diploma students.
2. To determine whether the effect of counselling on examination anxiety
and academic performance is related to gender, diploma level and
diploma programme.
Hypotheses
The hypotheses of the study are:
Ho1 Counselling has no significant effect on examination anxiety and academic
performance of University of Maiduguri diploma students.
Ho2 There are no significant gender, diploma level and diploma programme
differences as a consequence of counselling on examination anxiety and
academic performance.
Methodology
The design of the study is an experimental research involving
experimental and control groups. All the diploma students in the University of
Maiduguri constituted the population. Through stratified sampling technique, a
total of 240 students (40 each) from six diploma programmes with defective
study habits participated in the study. The sampled subjects were divided and
assigned to experimental and control groups.
The instrument used for the study was part of the Study Habits and
Examination Technique Inventory (SHETI) developed by Carew and Hamman –
Tukur (1995) with reliability index of 0.87. The procedure for the treatment was
conducted in three phases.
Phase I: Pre-treatment phase, during this stage the SHETI instrument was
administered to all the accessible students during regular lecture period. Their
responses were scored and analysed according to the inventory’s scoring key and
through mean and standard deviation respectively. The results indicated that
some of them were anxious of examination. During this stage too, their academic
results were collected.
70
25 August, 2006
Phase II: The treatment stage was conducted in sessions. The

experimental group was exposed to counselling on simple relaxation technique
by mapping out a hierarchy of examination anxiety and the triggering conditions.
At the end of every skills training, the participants were appropriately evaluated.
The control group was given placebo.
Phase III: The Post–treatment stage dealt with the re-administration of

the SHETI instrument to both groups upon the completion of the treatment.
During this period also their examination results were collected. Responses to the
SHETI instrument were appropriately scored. Mean, standard deviation and an
analysis of variance was used to determine the effect of counselling on anxiety
and academic performance of the subjects along gender, diploma level and
diploma programme.
Results
The results of the study were presented in the following tables:
Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation of the Effect of Counselling on

Examination Anxiety and Academic Performance.
Status x SD
Control 16.777 10.5361

Experimental 27.052 10.7233
GPA (Pre-counselling) 1.7411 0.07473
GPA (Post-counselling) 2.8154 0.06840
Table 1 above presented the mean and standard deviation of the effect of
counselling on examination anxiety and academic performance of diploma
students. Results indicated that counselling effect on anxiety was significant for
the experimental group as shown by the X (27.052) and SD (10.7233) scores
unlike the controls with X (16.777) and SD (10.5361) scores.
Counselling effect on academic performance was significant as shown by
the difference in GPA pre-counselling (X 1.7411 and SD 0.07473) and GPA post-
counselling (X 2.8154 and SD 0.06840) scores. Therefore, the hypothesis which
states that counselling has no significant effect on examination anxiety and
academic performance of University of Maiduguri diploma students was rejected.
71
Table 2: Summary of ANOVA for the Effect of Counselling on Anxiety and

Performance along Gender, Diploma Level and Diploma Programme
Source df SS MS F P
Status 1 6321 6321 0.47 0.495
Gender 1 10222 10222 0.76 0.386
Dip. Level 1 12441 12441 0.92 0.339
Dip. Programme 5 75023 15005 1.11 0.356
Error 232 3139395 13532
Total 239
The summary of results of ANOVA of the above table revealed that there
was no significant gender difference (P>.05) as consequence of counselling.
Also, there were no significant diploma level and diploma programme differences
among the experimental subjects that received treatment as P> .05. Thus, the
hypothesis which states that there are no significant gender, diploma level and
diploma rogramme differences as a consequence of counselling on examination
anxiety and academic performance was accepted.
Table 3: Summary of ANOVA for GPA: Pre-counselling

Source of df SS MS F P
Difference
Status 1 0.0105 0.0105 0.02 0.900
Gender 1 0.3427 0.3427 0.52 0.471
Dip. Level 1 5.6865 5.6865 8.64 0.004
Dip. Programme 5 18.5277 3.7055 5.63 0.000
Error 231 151.9944 0.6580
Total 239
The results of the ANOVA for table 3 showed that prior to the counselling
the differences between status and gender were not significant (P>. 05). While
the differences between diploma level and diploma programme were highly
significant (P<.05).
Table 4: Summary of ANOVA for GPA: Post-counselling

Source of df SS MS F P
Difference
Status 1 74.429 74.429 135.02 0.000
Gender 1 0.618 0.618 1.12 0.291
Dip. Level 1 3.767 3.767 6.83 0.10
Dip. Programme 5 21.138 4.228 7.67 0.000
Error 232 127.341 0.551
Total 239
72
25 August, 2006
The ANOVA results for GPA Post-Counselling in Table 4 showed that as a

result of the counselling, the effects of status, diploma level and diploma
programme were significant (P<.05) except for gender (P<.05). However, no
significant differences were found between the gender, the diploma level and
among the diploma programmes as a consequence of the counselling.
Discussion of Results
It is evident from the first finding of this study that experimental subjects
exposed to counselling demonstrated reduction in the levels of their examination
and considerable increase in their GPA score. The control subjects exposed to
counselling demonstrated reduction in levels of their examination and
considerable increase in their GPA score. The control subjects on the other hand,
exposed to placebo treatment were unable to show any sign of improvements
both in their anxiety level and GPA performance. A closer look at the ANOVA
results showed that status effect was significant (P<.05). Furthermore, the
findings revealed that there were no significant gender, diploma level and
diploma programme differences as a consequent of counselling (P>.05).
Several studies seemed to agree with these findings (vagg, 1976;
Wilkerson, 1982, and Kirkland & Hollandsworth, 1980). In a skill-acquisition
treatment for test anxiety, Kirkland & Hollandsworth (1980) found, for example,
subjects that were exposed to cue-relaxation and mediation techniques
performed significantly higher than the control groups both on the analogue test
and general grade point average. Similarly the works of Pindar (2000), Kagu
(1999) and Kolo (1980) showed the efficacy of counselling in improving study
habits and academic performances experiment group than controls.
Conclusion
Indeed, examination anxiety is debilitating too many students that
jeopardized their academic performance in the school system. The symptoms
among others include rapid heart beat, jittering, fighting, nervousness and
sweating. The paper upholds that this situation contributes to defective study
habits especially among the diploma students. It is therefore advocated that
counselling be given premium in the school system by providing counselling
materials, recruiting qualified counsellors, etc. When this is put in place,
numerous problems affecting students (social, academic, personal) including test
anxiety can be tackled.
References
Carew, P. F. C. & Hamman–Tukur, A. H. (1996). Study habits and examination
technique inventory (SHETI). Maiduguri: Saloue Psycho-Educational
Services.
Kagu, B. (1999). The effect of group-study-habit counselling on academic
performance of diploma students in the University of Maiduguri.
Unpublished Ph.D. thesis University of Ilorin.
73
Kirkland, K. & Hollandsworth, J. G. (1979). Test anxiety, study skills and

academic performance. Journal of College Student Personnel, 20, 431 –
436.
Kolo, F.O. (1989). Fostering school subject choice of secondary school students
in Nigeria Journal of Research in Counseling Psychology. 1 (1) (103) –
107.
Maxwell, J.W. & Wilkerson, J. (1980). Anxiety reduction through group
instruction in rational therapy. The Journal of Psychology. 112:135 – 140.
Pindar, J. (2000). A comparative study of the effectiveness of client – centred
and rational emotive group counselling models on the study habits of low
achieving NCE students. Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Maiduguri.
74
Ilorin Journal of Education,
Education, Vol. 25
25 August, 2006
2006
OPTIMAL STRATEGIES FOR THE GAME OF SQUASH
Talabi, A. E. (PhD)
Department of Physical and Health Education,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
Abstract
Squash playing is an act, which has a scientific and logical procedure. This
paper researched into and discussed optimal strategies essential to playing and
winning in squash. Twenty-two nationally rated male players were used as
research sample. Mean and simple percentage was used for statistical analysis.
Result showed that squash is essentially a game of drives (55%), volleys
(16.8%), drops (13.7%), boasts (10.2%) and lobs (4.2%). It also showed that
75% of the shots were played low and 25.5% shots played high on the front
wall. Also, most of the shots were played close to the sidewalls (83.5%). The
basic component of the game, the rules, the court and the research findings
were then used to evolve strategies that can engender maximum enjoyment and
success at the game of squash.
Introduction
Squash is a game very similar to Tennis and Badminton. It is played with
a racket smaller than Tennis racket but bigger than the Badminton racket and a
smaller rubber ball about one quarter the size of a tennis ball. Essentially the
game consists of a service procedure and then a rally for point between two
players. In service, the ball is hit into specific areas after which subsequently
returns can be hit to any where within the court, provided it touches the front
wall each time. The aim of the game is to make the ball bounce off the front wall
so that the opponent cannot return it from the air or after the first bounce. Play
is by alternate hitting of the ball and the ball can be hit in the air (volley) or after
the first bounce on the floor (drive) (International Squash Racket Federation
[ISRF], 1999)
Like in Tennis, the skills of drive, volley, lob, drops and a combination of
these are in used in squash. However, another skill called ‘boast’ makes a
distinction for squash. This is a shot played to the front wall via the sidewall. As
in all racket games, the orderly arrangement and use of strokes, good shot
placement and correct positional play, among other things, are essential to
excellent play. Since the skills of playing a game involves not only the actions
taken at any one time but also the actions taken over the whole period of activity
(Knapp, 1997), strategy forms an important part of the over all squash skill.
Strategy involves the over-all general pattern of the game, which includes
arrangement of strokes, ball placement and the use of court space among other
75
Talabi, A. E.
things. Knapp (1997) describes tactics and strategies as higher units of any
game.
The purpose of this study was to determine the use of strokes and ball
placement, by national rated squash players. A primary concern was to
determine a pattern of play that could be used as reference by other up-and-
coming squash players, and others who desire to improve their game.
Methodology
Sample: Twenty-two national rated male players in Nigeria were used for this
study. All players participated in the National Squash Open where the study was
conducted. This championship is for prize money and also for national ranking of
players.
Data Collection Procedure: None of the players was aware of the study as it
was done while play was in progress. The order of play and arrangements of
playing pairs were as charted by the officials of the championship using previous
national seeding. All readings were taken as play progressed between playing
pairs.
The following measurements were taken:-
a) Number of hits per rally per time.
b) Type of strokes used by both players, for example, volleys, drops, boast,
lobs, and so on.
c) Ball placement areas on the front wall.
d) Ball placement areas on the floor
a. Number of hits per time: This was measured by counting the number
of hits made within a given time by both players. A hit here means any
racket contact with the ball. This was done within the duration of the
game.
b. The type of the strokes played: This was measured by breaking the
shots into five major types (Drive, Volley, Drop, Boast and Lob).
A volley is a ball intercepted in the air.
A drop is a ball played to die in the frontcourt.
A boast is a shot played against the sidewall to the front wall.
These were counted for both players for the duration of a game.
c. Ball placement on the front wall: The front wall was divided into two
by the front court service line. Shots above the line were regarded as high
and shots below were regarded as low (Figure 1). The numbers of high
and low shots by both players were counted for the duration of a game.
d. Ball placement on the floor: The floor space was divided as shown in
Figure 1: shots in the shaded part (close to the side wall) were called A-
shots while shots to the unshaded position were called B-shots. The
numbers of A- or B- shots played during one game were counted each
time.
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Education, Vol. 25
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2006
Some basic assumptions

1. Since the understanding of the rule and regulation of any game is
essential to be strategies to be used, it is assumed that the Interference
Rule No. 12 (ISRF, 1999) is one of the most important in strategy
formulation. That makes it mandatory for one player to give the other
player a fair view of the ball after playing and also to give an ample room
for each other to move to and away from the ball. Violation of this rule
leads to penalty points against the offender. In squash, penalty point
could mean a loss of point, game or match depending on the seriousness.
2. Those top-level players, especially national players, are custodian of
techniques and strategies for their respective sports and as such
measurements were limited to them.
3. That studying the players under the natural environment of competition
and uninformed will be the best way to see strokes and strategies
adopted for the game by them.
Results
Mean and simple percentages were used for data analysis. The results are
as shown in Tables 1 to 3
Table 1: Mean Hits per Time (N=22)

Games No. Of Hits Time in Sec Hits/ Min.
1 71 101 42
2 93 130 43
3 101 143 42.4
4 77 105 44
5 57 79 43.3
6 334 449 44.3
7 44 50 44.0
8 384 519 44.4
9 242 355 40.9
10 209 294 42.3
11 242 331 40.0
Mean SD 168.55 233.3 42.8 +1.37
As shown in Table 1, the mean number of hits per minute was 42.8 shots
(SD+1.37). As the game get into final rounds, there was a gradual decrease in
the number of shots per minute.
77
Talabi, A. E.
Table 2: Number and Types of Squash Strokes (N= 22)

Drive Volleys Drops Boast Lob
Game
1 91 39 37 17 14
2 61 27 15 19 9
3 121 12 17 24 7
4 124 40 34 13 8
5 81 33 30 13 4
6 68 22 21 17 7
7 211 73 36 32 23
8 102 43 43 18 6
9 54 14 10 12 2
10 75 10 14 13 1
11 112 25 18 26 3
Mean 100.2 30.7 25.0 18.5 7.6
As shown in Table 2, the mean numbers of drives, volleys, drops, boast,

and lobs were 100, 30.7, 25.0, 18.5, and 7.6, respectively. The highest strokes
used by all players were the drive and the lob was the least played stroke.
Table 3: Ball Placement on the Front Wall and the Floor

No. of Front Wall Shots No of Floor Shots
Game
High Low A- Shots B- Shots
1 108 148 107 14
2 76 189 92 54
3 26 89 112 24
4 34 116 180 22
5 87 245 100 22
6 56 225 187 41
7 60 106 112 16
8 68 233 234 28
9 52 150 166 40
10 39 166 - -
11 128 481 256 45
Mean 66.7 195.4 154.6 30.6
The mean value for high shots was 66.7 and the value for low shots was
195.4. The mean value for A-shots on the floor was 154.6 and the mean for B-
shots was 30.6. All players played more low shots than high shots and all players
played more A-shots than B-shots.
Discussion
As indicated in Table 1, the average hit is 42.8 shots per minute meaning
21.4 shots per minute per person, as play is by alternate hitting. With play
lasting between one to two hours per best of five games, each player then
78
Education, Vol. 25
25 August, 2006
2006
approximates to 1284 shots per hour. Up and Coming players must therefore,
first try to cope with this pace of play before giving full play to ball placement, as
speed itself is a factor in strategy (Knapp, 1999).
Table 4: Mean Percentage Composition of Strokes per Game

Strokes Mean No Mean % Comp.
Drives 100 55%
Volley 30.7 16.8%
Drops 25 13.7%
Boast 18.5 10.2%
Lob 7.6 4.2%
As shown in Table 4, top-level players used all the major strokes of

squash during play; however, the percentage composition of each varied. Fifty
five (55) percent of the shots played were drives; 16.8% were volleys, with
drops constituting 13.7%. The three shots together made up 85.5% of the total
strokes played by game. The implication of this is that squash is primarily a
game of drives and secondarily of volleys, drops, boasts and lobs. That is, drive
is the most important skill in squash playing. It should also be given adequate
consideration during training by up and coming players.
Hunt (1995) describes drive as the stroke essential to creating opportunities and
for court stabilization and control. He also describes volleys, drops, boast as
‘finishers’ or ‘winners’.
It is one thing to have the repertoire of strokes, it s another thing to know
how to use them. Good shots improperly placed amount to bad strategy (Hunt,
1995). Table 5 is the shot placement as found for nationally rated squash
players.
Table 5: Mean Percentage Ball Placement

Placement Mean NO. Mean % Comp.
High) Front 66.7 22.5%
Low) Wall 195.4 74.5%
A-Shots 154.6 33.5%
B-Shots Floor 30.6 16.5%
The result showed 74.5% of the shots were played low on the front wall,
while 25.5% of the front wall shots were high. Since boasts and drops are
normally played low and their percentage is just 23.9% (Table 4), one can
reasonably deduce that the bulk of the drives and volleys were played low on the
front wall.
Since the aim of the game of squash is to control the ‘T-junction’,
(McKenzie, 1993) and play balls that keep your opponent wall behind, high balls
should have been preferred as high balls have better chances of reaching the
back wall than low balls. The amount of low balls played in this study, and then
means that shots must be hit hard enough to enable it get to the back wall. The
79
Talabi, A. E.
fact that hard hit low drives are usually difficult to intercept and control has
probably made it the preferred shots of the Nigerian squash champions.
Table 5 also shows that 83.5% of all shots played landed close to the
sidewall (zone A) or (A-shots). This means that almost all the drives, volleys,
drops etc. were played closes the sidewall. In squash the idea is to beat the
opponent to the ball by playing shots that are either difficult to return or cannot
be returned (McKenzie, 1993). The rule also provides that while playing shots,
the opponent must be given a fair view of the ball (ISRF, 1999). Therefore, balls
played close to the walls can serve to.
(a) Make the ball difficult for the opponent to handle, as the possibility of
hitting the racket against the sidewall is high.
(b) Remove the partner from the T-junction, which McKenzie (1993) calls the
operation center- the point of best control (Hunt, 1995).
(c) Give the player command of the T-junction for further onslaught.
(d) Allow the partner enough fair view of the ball as wall balls are well away
from the T-junction.
Conclusion
The result of this study revealed that:
(a) Squash playing is essentially a game of drives, with the addition of volleys,
drops, and boast to consolidate advantages.
(b) That this drives were mainly played hard and low. The author however is
of the opinion that high balls will create better advantages.
(c) Finally, all shots were played close to the sidewall and that the closer to
the wall, the better the advantages and the likelihood of winning.
Recommendations
Based on the finding, a hypothesized dimension for squash training and
playing is proposed. It is recommended that players during training and playing
should aim at putting the balls in the designated areas in Figure 1, Figure 2
shows the front wall. Volleys and drives should be aimed at about 0.61m above
and below the service line. This will allow the balls to reach the back wall with
less hitting force. The drops and boasts should be played about 0.305m (1 foot)
above the tin board and into the designated areas. This will guarantee that ball
does not hit the tin, and also be difficult for opponent to pick.
Figure 3 shows the floor plan. Players are advised to aim all drives, boast,
drops, volleys and lobs to not more than 0.6m away from the side wall, the
closer the better. Balls should not at all be aimed at the danger zone (unshaded
areas). Balls to the danger zone put players into the possibility of:
(a) Infringement of the fair view rule
(b) Not removing the opponent from the vital operational area (T-junction)
and lastly
(c) Haphazard movement into and away from the ball.
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Education, Vol. 25
25 August, 2006
2006
If these guidelines are followed during training and matches, poor shots
will soon be discovered and rejected. There will also be enough time and space
to plan shots and reduced crowding and injuries. Players will have fair view of
the ball at all times and individuals will be able to create and design own
opportunities.
HIGH
CUT LINE FRONT

[SERVICE LINE] WALL
LOW
E
NE
ZO N
Z ON
SQUASH
ZO
COURT
A-
B-
A-
FLOOR
Fig. 1: Squash Court front wall and floor
0.61m DRIVES SERVICE

0.61m DRIVES LINE
0.305m DROPS
TIN BOARD
Fig. 2: Squash Court front wall
81
Talabi, A. E.
R
N GEE
DA ON
Z
0.61m 0.61m
Fig. 3: Squash Court front floor plan
References
Hunt, G. (1995). Playing squash. Australia; Gonde Nest Publication.
International Squash Racket Federation (1999). Official handbook of squash rules
and specification. Wales: Nordic Publication.
Knapp, (1997). Skills in sports. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul ltd.
McKenzie, I. (1993, March). How to get on the attack from a standard play
situation. The squash player international, 7(11),
82
Ilorin Journal of Education, Vol. 25 August,
August, 2006
GLOBALISATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN

EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
Lateef A. Adeniran (PhD)

Department of History,
Oyo State College of Education,
P.M.B. 1010, Oyo.
Abstract
This theoretical paper examined the contribution of external bodies to the

development of Western education in Nigeria, bearing in mind trends on the
global scene. The paper opined that Nigerian leaders have not judiciously utilised
the assistance of these external bodies. The implication for this, according to the
paper is that it would intensify inequalities between the various interest groups in
Nigeria and thus accentuate social crisis and by implication political instability
and undermine national unity.
Introduction
The thrust of this paper is on the contributions of external bodies to the
advancement of educational activities in Nigeria, bearing in mind trends on the
international scene, which are directed towards conformity in certain aspects of
human life. Since the scope of the paper would not permit an in-depth
discussion, one would want to state at the outset that it would be out of place to
attempt to identify all sponsors of educational programmes, as well as the
dimension of assistance. What is to be attempted is a bird’s eye-view of
sponsorship from external sources. It is expected that this effort would stimulate
further works on the external dimension in the funding of education in Nigeria.
The paper rests on the assumption that education confers knowledge and
skill. Knowledge itself has a universal appeal given the fact that it provides the
clue to the dynamics of human existence and progress. Arising from this linkage
between education and development, the provision of education services should
be perceived in the context of a world whose destiny is intractably woven in a
single whole. The import of this is that the funding of education in a particular
country does not necessarily have to be exclusively a national issue. However,
this is not to argue on the reliance of external sources in the funding and
implementation of education schemes. Rather, funding needs to be appreciated
as a desirable added value.
Operational Framework
Studies and discourses on education in Nigeria have been unduly
introverted. This has in a way tended to underestimate the relevance of
education as a universal value and by implication limited the scope of education
as a national issue. This mindset is perhaps best exemplified in the Nigerian
83
Lateef A. Adeniran
national policy on education (Federal Republic of Nigeria [FRN], 2004). In the

section that deals with the ‘financing of education’, the document noted that:
“Education is an expensive social service and requires adequate financial
provision from all tiers of Government for a successful implementation of the
educational programme” (p. 60). A critical analysis of this position reveals this to
be untenable. This is because the developed nations of the world are desirous of
increasing their investments in African nations, particularly in Nigeria, but have
been handicapped by the low literacy rates which in turn, accounts for the
“perceived low quality of the labour force” (Van de Wale, 2000, p. 270). In order
to underscore this, it is germane to draw attention to the following observation
made by him: “Africa’s current social and economic landscape is profoundly
marked by aid” (p. 271). He went further, pointing out that: “Whereas few public
institutions have never received aids, a large proportion of African professionals
have benefited from a donor-founded scholarship at some point in their careers”
(p. 273). Certain national issues which attract international attention have of
recent, been given greater focus. Education occupies a pre-eminent position in
this regard. In order to address the issue of education, which is the focus of this
paper, it is germane that explanation on the current trend in human affairs, that
is globalisation, be given.
Globalisation (internationalism), as a process, is coterminous with the very
beginnings when communities initiated activities which made them to interact
with other communities. In other words, they widen their scope of operation
beyond their immediate environments. Manifestations of this in modern are
found in the 15th century voyages of discovery which led to European
imperialism, and consequently, colonialism. In contemporary times, the
phenomenal technological breakthroughs have led to the intensification of the
integration of certain values. This is the process of exporting ideas. This
phenomenon has come under the generic name, globalisation. The question now
is: In real terms, what is globalisation? Articulation of term largely derives from
the specific interest of the respective scholar. According to Olowude (1998)
globalisation is the “Phenomenon characterised by liberalisation of world.
Economics and economic activities that are free from institutional controls and
which fosters and promotes free market mechanism, private enterprise, open
competition, professionalism and excellence in corporate governance” (p.7). In
the same vein, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as quoted by Olowude
(1998) defined it as the “Rapid integration of economies world-wide through
trade, financial flows, technology spill-over, information networks, across cultural
currents” (p. 7).
One can discern from the above that globalisation is premised on an
economic mindset. A more acceptable definition was that posited by Bohnet
(1999) that it is: “a process of increasing economic and non-economic linkages
across the world” (p. 12). From this, one observes that certain issues which in
political discourse have been identified as ‘public goods’ – to be addressed by
individual countries, have aroused interests in the scheme of the United Nations.
84
August, 2006
This was the basis of the slogans which began in 1975 like ‘Health for all by the
years 2000’, ‘Education for all by the year 2000”.
As far as education is concerned, 1990 was a landmark in terms of its
global networking. This was the year declared by the UN General Assembly as
the International Literacy Year. Similarly, a world conference on education took
place in Jomtien, Thailand in that year (International Literacy Institute, 2002).
Deriving from the examples given above, one can establish a working
definition of globalisation as that phenomenon by which perceived beneficial
cultural values in one part of the world is extended to other parts of the world,
through a linkage of social, economic and political activities. This is the context in
which world leaders in political and intellectual life-have come to hold certain
issues as universal norms. In this category are democratic governance,
upholding the principles of human rights, economic liberalisation, population
control, global security and the spread of education. From this, we can identify
the basic features of globalisation as international regime, universal norms,
standardisation of practices, open competition and networking. It is, however,
instructive to point out that this global trend cannot be divorced from another
form of imperialisms, particularly when one takes into account the uni-polar
nature of the contemporary world, where the United States of America exercises
an over-bearing influence. It needs to be borne in mind that the pace of
globalisation heightened with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. These
observations however, do not detract from the focus of this paper.
Nigeria in the Globalisation

Nigeria assumes a distinctive image in world politics. This derives largely
from its abundant human and material resources. Its reference as the ‘Giant of
Africa’ arises essentially from its demographic configuration – accounting for
about 20 per cent of the total population of Africa. Among this pool of human
capital, a number of Nigerians have distinguished themselves in terms of their
contributions to the advancement of knowledge as well as scientific and
technological developments. There are vast agricultural and mineral endowments
particularly its crude oil reserves. When translated into meaningful terms, these
resources are expected to place Nigeria as a decisive force on the international
scene. In this regard, it is pertinent to draw attention to the address of the
former President of the United States of America during his official visit to Nigeria
between August 26 and 28, 2000. Clinton quoted by Gana (n.d.) declared that
“With one-fifth of Africa’s people, and vast human and natural resources, a
realised Nigeria can be the economic and political Anchor of West Africa and the
leader of the continent. We need your continued leadership in the struggle for
peace” (p. 16).
The import of this is that the international community, apart from the
traditional acknowledgement of the fact of the interdependence of nations, have
a special stake in the fortunes of Nigeria. In fashioning out the process of making
85
Lateef A. Adeniran
Nigeria relevant to their needs, international agencies, multinational as well as

leading nations of the world, owe it a duty to empower Nigeria accordingly.
It needs to be stated here that equipping Nigeria in this regard, needs not
be considered as a act of benevolence by the developed nations. Studies in
contemporary development thinking, reveals that given the phenomenal
advancement in technology, the world has become constricted to the extent that
we now live in a globe village. By implication, the fortunes or otherwise of a
nation has ripple effects on others. Thus, to ensure a peaceful, harmonious and
just world, it becomes imperative that leaders of thought and influence must
work towards ensuring that the resources of the world are broadly distributed.
This is hinged on the premise that “equity is not charity” (Clark, 1991; p. 28). If
this injunction must make any meaningful impact, then emphasis must be laced
on broadening access to education in Nigeria.
State of Education in Nigeria

Educational institutions are numerous in Nigeria. This is based on the
figures of 38,649 (1995) Primary Schools; 6,074 Secondary Schools; 43
Polytechnics and about 42 Universities in 1995 (Esu & Junaid, 2000); and 58
colleges of education.
One would need to state here that mere figures are not enough to
adequately address Nigeria’s educational requirements. A meaningful analysis of
this system needs to take cognisance of such questions like: what is the extent
of its accessibility? How adequate are the human and material resources
available for this vital industry? To what extent is the Nigerian national policy on
education (FRN, 2004) as well as the various existing educational programmes
relevant to contemporary human challenges? The former Minister of Education,
Prof. Tunde Adeniran gave an insight into the state of the nation’s education
system during a meeting between officials of the Ministry and Educational Donor
Agencies. At the occasion, he pointed out that “the country’s education system
was ill-prepared to meet its development challenges” (Adeniran, 2000, p. 4). In a
study carried out be the United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) in 1983, it was
revealed that about 46 and 23 per cent, male and female respectively, adult
population in Nigeria were literate (Obasi, 1986). There is equally the fact by
standards set by the United Nations 25 per cent products of secondary schools
are expected to proceed to universities. Studies have revealed that only 10 per
cent of such, gain admission to universities in Nigeria (Yusuf, 1999).
Developments in contemporary times have however, made it imperative that a
nation’s educational amenities be explained in such a way that it would turn out
to be, especially in developing nations, the channel through which the single
largest budgetary allocation is directed. This is due to the multiplier effects of
education. In fact, the real of education can be appreciated if one takes account
of its heuristic nature. Deriving from this, analysts have identified the premium
placed on education as the most important factor for the prosperity of the Asian
industrial tigers – South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong. Education
86
August, 2006
makes for better judgement. It is the very basis of productive activities. Such is
the relevance of education in the contemporary world that the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) has identified it as one of the tripod (others
being life expectancy, and adjusted real income) upon which the Human
Development Index (HDI) is measured. We therefore want to identify with the
argument that investment in education, which is investment in human capital, is
the best type of investment. Given the size of Nigeria’s population, the existing
educational facilities are grossly inadequate. Available statistics reveal that by
1996, out of about 21 million children of school-going age, only about 14.4
million children were enrolled in primary schools. Investigations reveal that about
64 per cent of this, completed primary schools. Similarly, just about 43.5 per
cent of this proceeded into junior secondary schools (Blue Print for UBE: 1).
External Intervention
Governments at various levels in Nigeria (Federal, State and Local) have
in various forms contributed to the development of education in Nigeria. But
experience has proved that education is about the most capital–intensive social
service. Deriving from this, it stands to reason that, assistance from non-
governmental sources would facilitate educational services. Trends worldwide
have amply demonstrated that the contributions of external forces have widened
the base of stake holders in this scheme. This includes international organisation,
members of the developed nations. Non-governmental organisations as well as
individuals who have instituted foundations aimed at sponsoring educational
programmes. In the same vein, the nature of assistance varies from financial
grant, scholarships, to supply of textbooks, equipment, policy formulation as well
as funding of researches.
The United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) has been a major facilitator in this process. At the inception of its
contributions to education in Nigeria, UNESCO was particularly concerned with
teacher education. Due to massive expansion of educational programme at the
immediate post-independence era, the agency in 1962 initiated the concept of
higher teacher training institutions called Federal Advanced Teachers Colleges
(now called Colleges of Education) (UNESCO, 1996), while indigenous principals
were appointed for the first three of such institutions, (at Lagos, Zaira and
Owerri) they were assisted by UNESCO advisers. These were Mr. S. A. Dawodu
for the Lagos Federal Advanced Teachers College, with Mr. E. Hilton (a Briton) as
the UNESCO Adviser; that of Zaria was Mr. E. E. Soladoye with Mr. G. Wilson as
Adviser. UNESCO’s efforts in the education enterprise can be seen as a
decolonisation process. For instance, the establishment of the National Technical
Teacher Training College (now Federal College of Education-Technical) in Lagos
in 1967 owes largely to the efforts of UNESCO. According to the account, the
NCE Technical Certificate: “Gradully… L. Institute” (UNESCO, 1996).
In this, way, both in conventional teacher education and the technical
teacher education field, UNESCO charted a new trail in English – speaking Africa
87
Lateef A. Adeniran
(UNESCO, 1996). Among other things, UNESCO equally made its impact felt in
the development of Special Education in Nigeria. In 1991, the agency
collaborated with another UN agency, the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and the Federal Government of Nigeria to organise a two-
year training project leading to the award of Master of Philosophy (M.Phil)
degree in Special Education, with the programme supervised by the University of
Birmingham (U.K) (UNESCO, 1996). In order to complement other organisations’
inputs into Nigeria’s educational development, the United Nations Children Fund
(UNICEF), has collaborated with Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) in various
aspects. For instance, between December 1 and 2, 1994, UNICEF in collaboration
with the FGN, sponsored a workshop at the St. Andrew’s College of Education,
Oyo, on the training and retraining of Head Teachers, Education Secretaries and
Local Inspectors of Educations. In 1995, this same agency donated a Toyota
Hillux Jeep and a motor – cycle to this same institution to facilitate the
institution’s project on primary education. UNICEF sponsored studies into basic
education. One of such was the one undertaken by some lecturers at St.
Andrew’s College of Education, Oyo. The Committee worked on the topic:
Improvisation of Instructional Materials for Effective Teaching in Primary Schools.
As a way of facilitating the objectives of the nation’s Second National
Development Plan (1970-1974) as it relates to education, the UNDP made a
financial assistance of E9,375,000 to the FGN (Nigeria: bulletin, 1971:26).
The UNDP and UNESCO have jointly .sponsored a $8,021 million
programme spanning 1995-2000 for a mass literacy programme being
undertaken by the National Commission for Mass Literacy, Adult and Non-formal
Education (NMEC) (Yoloye, 1998). These same agencies have, between 1978
and 1993, jointly funded a project on the computerisation of educational data in
Nigeria (Yoloye, 1998). One must however point out that the FGN counterpart
funding in this regard was equally substantial accounting for N13,460 million
while that of UNDP was $893,278. In the same vein, the World Bank made
available the sun of $120 million credit facility for, among other things, he
training of about 400,000 education personnel for the nation’s primary schools
(Yoloye, 1998).
It is significant to point out that the Wold bank intervention efforts in the
promotion of primary education in the country, is quite apparent. It is manifested
in the pick-up vans distributed to all Local Government Education Authorities
(LGEA) in the country. They all bear the inscription: ‘World Bank, - Assisted
Primary Education Project’.
The British Government occupies a unique position in the process of
assisting Nigeria to develop its education services. This is essentially due to its
status as Nigeria’s colonial master, and by extension the major source through
which Nigeria derived its western values. In considering the period of the rising
tide of globalisation, one observed that the British contribution in this regard
comes under the technical cooperation sector. Thus, between 1988 and 1990,
the British made its contributions by making available, funds “for English
88
August, 2006
Language teachings, public administration, agriculture, and the development of

practical technical skills” (Raison, 1990). The trainings programme also involved
assistance to the Police Staff College at Jos. During the 1989/90 academic
session, about 650 Nigerian were in Britain benefiting from the educational
assistance being sponsored by British government (Raison, 1990). An aspect of
this support involves a Book Presentation Programme, which had run into about
$460,000 by 1990 (Raison, 1990). The United African Company (UAC), which has
as its mother company, Unilever in Britain, has been promoting the nation’s
academic industry through the award of scholarships, which had been instituted
since 1948. The company instituted an annual award of 30 university and 30
secondary school scholarships. It mighty be of interest to add that it funded the
construction of the Trenchard Hall at the nation’s premier university (Babawale,
1992).
Implications
The foregoing, which is a mere highlight of external input in Nigeria’s
efforts to widen access to formal education, reveals that the education industry
has a universal appeal. If so much has been committed into it, then one would
be compelled into asking, to what extent has the goal of Education for All been
met? Observations indicate that government commitment in this regard is yet to
reach an appreciable level. One needs to take into account the insatiable nature
of educational demands. As a manifestation of this, one observes that in spite of
the expenditure on education by the three tiers of government, the Federal
Government worked out additional form of funding through Education Trust Fund
(ETF).
Whatever financial or material input committed into any education
scheme, there will always be further basis for improvement. There is however,
an overriding factor, among others, which has vitiated the realisation of
improved educational services. This has to do with political will. For the most
part, Nigeria has been ruled by military men. By its very nature, dictatorial
regimes tend to be preoccupied with issues of security, survival and self-
preservation in power. The means to effect this are then translated into
guaranteeing national security. Consequent upon this, defence allocation was
usually given prime attention. In fact, expenditure on social services usually
suffers, and thus leading to wave of social disturbances, which became a feature
of the country. In particular, the education sector experienced setback due to
strike actions by teachers at all levels of the education system. Closure of
educational institutions sometimes lasted between three and six months at a
stretch. This irregular academic calendar and the prevailing malaise tended to
depict those who controlled the affairs of the nation as obscurantist. It is
instructive to point out that apart from other values of education; it is distinct in
terms of its significance as an instrument to effecting redistribution of national
resources in any organised community. It effects social mobility and by
implication secures for the recipient equal access to resources of the nation with
89
Lateef A. Adeniran
those who, through their backgrounds have had a head start in life. In other
words the ideals of republicanisms are realised through the means of education.
However, the benefits of these principles have been constricted due to the
inadequate funding of educational services. The above situation has been
compounded due to the rampant financial mismanagement among government
functionaries. Substantial part of funds meant for these services were diverted to
private accounts. For instance, in a news report Dixon (1996) revealed that as a
result of this practice, the World Bank suspended its disbursement of a $120
millions loan to Nigeria. The said amount was meant to “Address qualitative
improvement in the nation’s primary schools through provision of books,
supplementary reader, charts and teaching kits among others” (p. 40).
Arising from this misuse of funds, expansions of educational facilities have
not been commensurate with demands as well ass expenditure. A great number
of existing facilities have deteriorated. Most importantly, teachers employed are
grossly inadequate. This state of education has led to the general
disenchantment with government-established schools. It therefore stands to
reason that the recent proliferation of private schools in the country is as much
the product of people’s indictment of government failure, as it is a feature of the
contemporary liberalisation policy brought about by the process of globalisation.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, one can appreciate the values of education. It
is such that developing countries like Nigeria have not been left fend for
themselves. Contemporary trend of universalism has facilitated contributions
from both governmental and non-governmental bodies in ensuring the expansion
of the opportunity of education. One however observes that Nigerian leaders
have not judiciously utilised this assistance. The implication for this is that it
would intensify inequalities between the various interest groups in Nigeria. This
would accentuate social crisis and by implication political instability and
undermine national unity. From the external dimension, it could further
undermine Nigeria’s opportunity of exercising desirable political leverage in the
competitive world of globalisation. In particular it can seriously hinder Nigeria’s
chances of being accepted as African’s permanent representative on the UN
Security Council.
References
Adeniran, T. (2000, July 4). The Guardian, (p. 4):
Babawale, T. (1992, January – April). A preliminary survey of the UAC’s activities
in post – colonial Nigeria, 1970-75. Nigerian Forum, 29 – 30.
Bohnet, M. (1999, January/February). Thoughts on the future of development
policy: From theory to practice. Development and Cooperation, 1, 12.
Clarke, J. (1991). Democratising democracy: The role of voluntary organisations.
London: Earthscan Publications.
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Dixon, S. (1996, March 4). World Bank suspends $120 million primary education
loan. The Guardian, p. 40.
Esu, A. & Juaid, A. (2000). Educational development: Traditional and
contemporary. H. J. Ajaegbu, J. J., St. Mathew-Daniel, & Uya, O. E.
(Eds.), Nigeria: A people united, a future assured (Vol. 2) (pp. 247 -251).
Calabar: Publishing Company.
Federal Ministry of Education (n.d.). Proposed implementation blue print for the
Universal Basic Education (UBE) Scheme.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4th ed.). Lagos:
NERDC
Gana, J. (2000, September 3). President Bill Clinton’s visit to Nigeria. Sunday
Punch, p. 20.
International Literacy Institute (2002). Literacy assessment practices (LAP) in
selected developing countries. Philadelphia: UNESCO
Nigerian Institute of International Affairs (1971). Nigeria: Bulletin on foreign
affairs. Vol. 1 No. 2, October, p. 26.
Obasi, N. (1986, September 8). Africa’s literacy record. National Concord, p. 15.
Olowude, R. (1998, October 22). Economic focus. The Punch, p. 20.
Oyeleran-Oyeyinka, B. (1997). Technology globalisation and competitiveness:
challenges for Sub-Saharan Africa. Africa Technology Policy Studies-Atps
Network Series of Monograph, 2 (1), 1 - 10.
Raison, T. (1990). Britain, Europe and Africa. Lagos: Nigerian Institute of
International Affairs, p. 16.
Sunday Punch (2000, August 27). The world needs Nigeria, pp. 6 – 29.
The Guardian (2000). ‘Adeniran explains reason for UBE, PAP, April 20, p. 40.
UNESCO (1996). Building Partnerships: UNESCO and Education in Nigeria. P. 11.
Van de Walle, N. (2000). Africa and the world economy: Continued
marginalisation or re-engagement? In Harbeson, J.W & Rothchild, D.
(Eds.) Africa in world politics (pp. 270 – 273). Colorado: West view Press,
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ILORIN

VOLUME 25, AUGUST 2006

The Faculty of Education

3. Format of Submitted Manuscripts

6. Figures and Tables

Professor ‘Raheem Adebayo Lawal (Ph.D.)

Internal Editorial Board Member

Instruction to Contributors………………………..……………………………. iii

Modelling Instructional Strategy and Pupils’ Learning Outcomes

Effect of Field Trip Method of Teaching on Students’ Performance

Principles, Practice and Techniques of the “Bini” Traditional Bronze

Social Studies and International Relations: Challenges for Citizenship

ICT-based Library: A Redefinition of Library Services

Teacher Education in Nigeria and the Millennium Development Goals

Academic Staff Perception of Qualification on Administrative

Supervisor’s Factor in the Achievement of Universal Basic Education

Effect of Counselling on Examination Anxiety and Academic Performance

Optimal Strategies for the Game of Squash

Globalisation and The Development of Western Education in Nigeria

MODELLING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY AND PUPILS’

Background to the Study

- Organize career talk and programmes in which models/known

Data Collection Procedure

To avoid possible sensitization on the part of pupils their regular teachers

Data Analyses and Results

Table 1: t-test Statistics on Post-test Achievement Scores of the Experimental

Analysis of the post-test mean achievement score in Table 1 shows a t-

Table 2: T-test Statistics on Mean Post-test Attitude Scores of the Experimental

Groups N X SD Df t-cal. t-critical

Results of analyses in Table 2 show that t-value of 3.65 is greater than

Implications and Recommendations

Furthermore, conferences, orientation and training workshops on how to

Yoloye, A. (1994). Gender issues in the teaching of science technology and

EFFECT OF FIELD TRIP METHOD OF TEACHING ON STUDENTS’

Yusuf, AbdulRaheem (PhD)

Table 1: Junior School Certificate Examination (JSCE) Performance of Male and

Table 2 reveals that the performance of males in the examination

transmission method and inquiry or problem solving method. According to

Statement of the problem

Purpose of the Study

Medium scoring Students - Middle 50%

Procedure for Data Collection

Data Analysis Technique

Ho2: There is no significant difference in the performance of male and female

a. R squared=.459(Adjusted R squared= .427)

Ho3: There is no significant difference in the performance of students of

Conclusion and Recommendations

and which will promote effective teaching and learning. Curriculum

PRINCIPLES, PRACTICE AND TECHNIQUES OF CASTING “BINI”

Uwaifo, Victor Oziengbe

In non-formal (out of school) education, there is a conscious effort on the

Influence of Geographical Location

People and History

The Guild System

(2)“Igbesanmwan” (carvers): they produced the famous Benin ivory tusks

Ehanire, Obadolaye, Ihama, Akenuwa, Ebagua, Olague, Obasoyen, Obazogun,

Bronze Casting Technique

Social Studies and International Relations: Challenges for Citizenship

Social Studies and International Relations

Rationale for Integration of International Relations in Citizenship

International relations capture both dimensions. International relations is already

Conclusion and Recommendations

Chase, K. A. (2000). Globalisation and national politics. K.