J Mater Sci

Creating three-dimensional (3D) fiber networks

with out-of-plane auxetic behavior over large
deformations
Amit Rawal1,2,3,*, Vijay Kumar4, Harshvardhan Saraswat5, Dakshitha Weerasinghe3,
Katharina Wild3, Dietmar Hietel2, and Martin Dauner3

1
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, India
2
Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Mathematics (ITWM), Kaiserslautern, Germany
3
Institut für Textil- und Verfahrenstechnik, Denkendorf, Germany
4
University of Borås, Borås, Sweden
5
MLV Textile & Engineering College, Bhilwara, India

Received: 26 August 2016 ABSTRACT

Accepted: 31 October 2016
 Springer Science+Business
Media New York 2016
Fiber networks with out-of-plane auxetic behavior have been sporadically
investigated. One of the major challenges is to design such materials with giant
negative Poisson’s ratio over large deformations. Here in, we report a systematic
investigation to create three-dimensional (3D) fiber networks in the form of
needlepunched nonwoven materials with out-of-plane auxetic behavior over
large deformations via theoretical modeling and extensive set of experiments.
The experimental matrix has encapsulated the key parameters of the
needlepunching nonwoven process. Under uniaxial tensile loading, the aniso-
tropy coupled with local fiber densification in networks has yielded large neg-
ative Poisson’s ratio (up to -5.7) specifically in the preferential direction. The in-
plane and out-of-plane Poisson’s ratios of fiber networks have been predicted
and, subsequently, compared with the experimental results. Fiber orientation
was found to be a core parameter that modulated the in-plane Poisson’s ratio of
fiber networks. A parametric analysis has revealed the interplay between the
anisotropy of the fiber network and the out-of-plane Poisson’s ratio based upon
constant volume consideration.

List of symbols Cj Mean force experienced by the

b Mean distance between the contacts microelement at contact point in
bj Projection of b on j direction direction j

bk Projection of b on k direction Cjn, Cjp Normal and tangential components
of Cj respectively

Address correspondence to E-mail: amitrawal77@hotmail.com; amit.rawal@itwm.fraunhofer.de

DOI 10.1007/s10853-016-0547-7

Ef Fiber modulus
If Area moment of inertia of the fiber
Kj, Kk Directional parameters representing
the projection of b in directions j and
k, respectively
ml Proportion of free fiber length
mjj, mjk Geometric coefficients associated
with two component of deformation
caused by Tj in directions j and k,
respectively
Tj Total external load applied in
direction j
V0 Initial volume of the nonwoven
material
V Volume of the nonwoven material
under a defined level of applied
strain
c Nonwoven volume expansion
(contraction) coefficient
ejk Transverse strain of nonwoven along
k direction for the applied stress in
direction j
ejl Transverse strain of nonwoven along
l direction for the applied stress in
direction j
ejj Longitudinal strain in nonwoven
along j direction for the applied stress
in direction j
d, daxial, dbend Overall, axial and bending
deformations of the fiber segment,
respectively
djj , djk Statistical mean projection of the
bending deflection of all
microelements due to Cjn in
directions j and k, respectively
mjk, mjl In-plane and out-of-plane Poisson’s
ratios of nonwoven, respectively
/, h In-plane and out-of-plane fiber
orientation angles, respectively
X(h, /) Probability density function
X(/) In-plane probability density function
Subscripts
j Direction of the applied stress
ij Nonwoven plane or in-plane orientation of fibers
jk Plane perpendicular to the nonwoven plane and
along the direction of applied stress (j)
jl Plane mutually perpendicular to the nonwoven
plane and along the direction of applied stress (j)
J Mater Sci
Introduction
Conventional materials having positive Poisson’s
ratio tend to be thinner in lateral directions due to the
applied longitudinal (tensile) strain. Although there
are certain materials that can expand in at least one
lateral direction on stretching. These materials exhibit
negative Poisson’s ratio, also known as auxetic
materials [1]. In the past, a variety of auxetic mate-
rials and structures with length scales spanning from
the macroscopic to the molecular levels have been
discovered, fabricated, synthesized or improvised
[2–6]. Anomalous properties (physical, mechanical,
electro-magnetic, thermal) of auxetic materials not
only stimulated scientific research interest but trig-
gered host of practical applications [7]. One of the
easiest ways to tailor an auxetic material is to alter the
geometry and/or deformation mechanism [8].
Accordingly, the negative Poisson’s ratio of materials
with regular or periodic structures has been investi-
gated widely based on the geometry and deformation
mechanism of the microstructures [9–12]. Designing
non-periodic auxetic materials in the form of fibrous
networks is fairly complex, which is due to the lack of
understanding of governing micro-mechanisms
exhibited by such materials. Nevertheless, special
attention has been paid for understanding the out-of-
plane auxetic behavior of randomly orientated mats
prepared from stainless steel fibers [13–16]. The
auxetic stainless steel mats suffer two major limita-
tions: first, high level of fiber volume fraction is
required for obtaining large negative Poisson’s ratio,
and second, the desired response of auxetic behavior
is exhibited over a narrow range of strains (less than a
few percent) [16]. Alternatively, cellulosic and syn-
thetic fiber networks in the form of paper and non-
wovens can yield giant negative Poisson’s ratio over
large deformations in the out-of-plane direction using
low fiber volume fraction [17–21]. Large negative
Poisson’s ratios of nonwovens in the out-of-plane
direction have been attained through heat-compres-
sion treatment [20–22]. The heat-compression treat-
ment not only induces artificial ‘auxetic’ behavior but
also increases the cost of processing nonwovens.
Further, synthetic fibers and their blends can only be
processed through heat-compression treatment.
Therefore, the creation of fiber networks in the form
of nonwovens with ‘inherent’ out-of plane auxetic
behavior is still a challenging task and remains an
open question.
J Mater Sci
Nonwoven materials consist of complex network
of short staple fibers or long lengths of filaments
arranged in a random or in a preferential manner
bonded either by friction, and/or cohesion and/or
adhesion [23]. Needlepunching is the most cost-ef-
fective technique for fabricating nonwoven materials
with fibers arranged both in the in-plane and out-of-
plane directions leading to a ‘true’ three-dimensional
(3D) structure with a thickness of few millimeters
[24]. Needlepunched nonwoven materials (NNMs)
have myriad applications ranging from filtration,
automotive, biomedical to composites. The list of
applications can be further enhanced for NNMs by
inducing out-of-plane auxetic behavior but it requires
a clear understanding of the relationship formulated
between the structural parameters and process con-
ditions. Thus, the main objective of the research work
was to systematically investigate the out-of-plane
auxetic behavior of NNMs through theoretical mod-
eling and extensive experiments. An experimental
matrix was designed in a manner that key process
conditions of needlepunching process have been
incorporated, and subsequently, their effects have
been analyzed on the out-of-plane auxetic behavior of
nonwoven materials. A theoretical model of in-plane
and out-of-plane Poisson’s ratios of NNMs has also
been proposed and validated with the experimental
results.
Theoretical analysis
Fiber networks in the NNMs are arranged in 3D
manner but majority of the fibers are aligned in the
in-plane direction [25]. However, the structural
integrity in NNMs is primarily derived from the
fibers present in the out-of-plane direction [26, 27].
Under uniaxial tensile loading, the transverse forces
are generated in the in-plane fibers due to the
presence of out-of-plane fibers. According to Hearle
and Sultan [27], there would be a rough balance
between the transverse forces developed in the
directions normal to the fiber axis during tensile
loading. In order to maintain such balance of
transverse forces, considerable levels of contraction
in width and increase in thickness are required [27].
Accordingly, the in-plane fibers are required to be
bent for increasing the thickness of NNMs due to
the generation of sufficient transverse forces
imposed by the out-of-plane fibers. Therefore, a
simple two-dimensional (2D) model of Poisson’s
ratio of NNMs is proposed through bending defor-
mation of in-plane fibers, as illustrated in Fig. 1.
Under uniaxial tensile loading, the contraction of
nonwoven material in the width-wise direction
would inevitably lead to increase in the thickness
based upon either constant volume or volume
expansion consideration. Therefore, it is of para-
mount importance to predict the in-plane Poisson’s
ratio of nonwoven materials, which would effec-
tively allow us to compute the out-of-plane Pois-
son’s ratio. In order to simplify the analysis, the
following key assumptions have been made in
developing the model for predicting the Poisson’s
ratio of nonwoven materials.
• Constituent fibers have uniform physical dimen-
sions and are linearly elastic in nature.
• Fiber segments between the two neighboring
contact points are considered to be straight.
• Frictional effects between the fibers have been
neglected and accordingly, the deformation of the
contact points is neglected.
• New contact points do not occur during the
tensile loading as the strain level is assumed to
be small.
Before we propose the model of Poisson’s ratio of
NNMs, it is pertinent to define fiber orientation and
its distribution, a key structural parameter that
influences the physical and mechanical properties
[28]. Fiber orientation is defined as the angle formed
between the tangent to the fiber waviness and one
of the principal directions [29]. Assuming the fibers
to be cylindrical rods having a defined pair of ori-
entation angles (h, /) in a typical spherical coordi-
nate system, where h and / are the out-of-plane and
in-plane angles, respectively [30]. The probability
that a fiber direction lies in the infinitesimal range of
angles, h and h ? dh, and / and / ? d/ is given by
X(h, /) sin hdhd/, where X(h, /) is a probability
density function with the following normalization
condition, i.e.,
Zp Zp
d/ sin hXðh; /Þdh ¼ 1: ð1Þ
0 0
For a planar network of fibers with a sheet-like (2D)
assembly, i.e., h = p/2 such that X can be expressed

Figure 1 Nonwoven
materials under a unstrained
b strained state during uniaxial
tensile loading. The
magnifying images show the
microscopic schematics of in-
plane and out-of-plane fibers
under unstrained and strained
states.
using Dirac’s delta function, i.e., X(h, /) = X(/)
d(h - p/2), where X(/) is the in-plane orientation
distribution function [29]. Thus, Eq. (1) can be
accordingly modified as shown below.
Zp
Xð/Þd/ ¼ 1: ð2Þ
0
Considering a planar network of fibers that has a
representative volume element (RVE) defined by the
mesodomain of a fiber (microelement) connected
with two neighboring contacts bounded by upper
and lower planes of unit cross-sectional area, as
defined in previous publications [23, 31]. Based upon
the principles of continuum mechanics, the strain
experienced in the RVE would be same as that of the
deformation that occurs at the macroscale during the
application of tensile loading [30]. A tensile load, Tj,
in the direction, j, acts on the fiber network whereby
the load is transmitted through the fiber–fiber
J Mater Sci
contacts. Since the orientation of the fibers varies
within the network, accordingly it is cumbersome to
determine the realistic direction and magnitude of
force, C, acting on each contact point. According to
Pan et al. [30], the cross section of the fiber network
can be sectioned which allows the forces acting on
all the contact points to be analyzed in the direction,
j, such that the resultant component of the force in
this direction is Cj. These forces can be further
resolved into the tangential component, Cjp, in the
direction of fiber axis and the normal component,
Cjn, orthogonal to the fiber axis (see Fig. 2). Cjp acting
on the contact points is responsible for stretching the
fiber segment resulting in axial deformation (daxial),
whereas Cjn creates a torque couple at the contact
point that bends the fiber segment leading to bend-
ing deformation (dbend). Thus, the overall deforma-
tion (d) is given by
d ¼ daxial þ dbend : ð3Þ
J Mater Sci

Similarly, the statistical mean of the deformation of

all the microelements (djk ) present inside the meso-
domain in j direction is given by
Zp
ðCj sin /ÞXð/Þm3l b3 Cj b3 m3l mjj
djj ¼ sin /d/ ¼ ; ð7Þ
3Ef If 3Ef If
0
Rp  
where mjj ¼ 0 Xð/Þsin2 /d/:
Poisson’s ratio of the mesodomain can be described
as the relative amount of microelement contraction
that occurs transversally as a result of the applied
longitudinal strain. Here, the transverse strain or
longitudinal strain is defined as a ratio of the statis-
tical deformation of the microelement in the given
direction with respect to its original length (distance
Figure 2 Illustration of the resolution of forces at the fiber–fiber between the two neighboring contact points projected
contact points and projection of fiber elements between the
in a defined principal direction). Thus, the in-plane
contacts on the in-plane principal directions.
Poisson’s ratio (mjk) of fiber networks can be calcu-
lated using the following equation:
djk
According to Pan et al. [30], fiber bending defor- 
mation is dominant in modulating the modulus and ejk b
mjk ¼  ¼  k ; ð8Þ
Poisson’s ratio of fiber networks. Assuming the level ejj djj
of the applied tensile strain to be low, bj
R
dbend  daxial : ð4Þ where bj ¼ bK  k , Kj ¼ p Xð/Þjcos /jd/, and
 j , bk ¼ bK
Rp 0

Now considering the fiber segment as a beam with Kk ¼ 0 Xð/Þjsin /jd/, where ejk is the transverse
built-in ends, the bending deflection of a fiber seg- strain that occurs in the width-wise direction as a
ment is given below [30]. result of applied longitudinal strain (ejj), Kj, and Kk
are the directional parameters representing the pro-
Cjn m3l b3 jection of mean length between the contact points in
dbend ¼ ; ð5Þ
3Ef If the defined principal directions.
where ml is the proportion of free fiber length, Ef is Combining Eqs. (6)–(8) along with the above
the fiber modulus, If is the area moment of inertia of considerations,
the fiber, and b is the mean distance between the mjk Kj
mjk ¼ ; j 6¼ k: ð9Þ
contacts. mjj Kk
Since the microelements have variable alignments The above expression of Poisson’s ratio is similar to
within the network, and hence, the forces at the that of the formulation proposed by Lee and Lee [32].
contact points are distributed based upon the fiber For 2D uniform random fiber networks, X(/) attains a
orientation density function. Accordingly, the statis-
constant value, i.e., X0, which is equal to p1 [29] and
tical mean of the deformation of all the microele-
hence, mjk ¼ p2  0:64.
ments (djk ) present inside the mesodomain in the
Under uniaxial tensile loading, the relative volume
given direction, k, as a result of normal component of
change of a nonwoven material is given by [33]
applied force, Cjn or Cj sin / (see Fig. 2), can be    
V
computed through simple orientation averaging ¼ 1 þ ejj 1 þ ejk 1 þ ejl ; ð10Þ
V0
approach, i.e.,
Zp where V0 is the initial volume of the nonwoven
ðCj sin /ÞXð/Þm3l b3 Cj m3l b3 mjk material, V is the volume of the nonwoven material
djk ¼ cos /d/ ¼ ; ð6Þ
3Ef If 3Ef If that corresponds to the applied longitudinal strain
0
Rp (ejj), and ejl is the transverse strain that occurs in the
where mjk ¼ 0 Xð/Þjsin / cos /jd/. out-of-plane or thru-thickness direction.
 J Mater Sci

Also, to the machine direction (also known as cross-ma-

ejk ¼ mjk ejj ; ejl ¼ mjl ejj ; ð11Þ chine direction) using a cross-lapper to form cross-
laid webs and subsequently, passed through the
where mjl is the out-of-plane Poisson’s ratio of non- needlepunching process to fabricate NNMs of nom-
woven material. inal mass per unit area of 230 g/m2. Here, the
Combining Eqs. (10) and (11), direction of needling along with process parameters
V     including punch density (number of needle penetra-
¼ 1 þ ejj 1  mjk ejj 1  mjl ejj : ð12Þ
V0 tions per unit surface area) and depth of needle
penetration (distance between the upper surface of
For constant volume deformation,
the bed plate and the tip of the needle when placed at
V     the extreme bottom or top dead center during the
¼ 1 þ ejj 1  mjk ejj 1  mjl ejj ¼ 1 ð13Þ
V0 transfer of fibers [34]) are the key factors considered
or for altering the structural characteristics of NNMs.
" # Typically, two needle boards were used for
1 1 needlepunching and four combinations of direction
mjl ¼ 1   : ð14Þ
ejj 1 þ ejj 1  mjk ejj of needling were chosen in this research work (see
Fig. 4). Table 1 shows the experimental matrix for the
Alternatively, if the volume of the nonwoven preparation of sixteen nonwoven samples by con-
expands or contracts by a coefficient (c), then sidering two levels of punch density and depth of
" #
1 c needle penetration along with the four combinations
mjl ¼ 1   : ð15Þ of direction of needling. On-line Poisson’s ratio
ejj 1 þ ejj 1  mjk ejj
measurements were determined both in the machine
Equation (14) or (15) in combination with Eq. (9) and cross-machine directions using tensile testing
can be used to predict the out-of-plane Poisson’s ratio equipment (INSTRON 4301) by capturing the images
of nonwoven material under a defined level of lon- in the width-wise and thru-thickness directions
gitudinal strain (ejj). under defined levels of strains (5, 10, 15, 20%) using
two orthogonally placed digital cameras, as shown in
Fig. 5. These images were then analyzed through
Experimental work ImageJ, a public domain image processing software
for determining the changes in the width-wise and
A set of sixteen NNMs was prepared from polyester thru-thickness directions. Here, the virtual rectangles
fibers (length: 60 mm, linear density: 3.3 dtex, diam- were constructed at the center in order to define the
eter: 17.5 lm) by varying key process parameters. boundaries of the nonwoven sample, as illustrated in
These polyester fibers were opened by means of Fig. 6. Accordingly, the changes in the dimensions of
opening rollers and subjected to the process of virtual rectangles were recorded under defined levels
carding resulting in a fibrous web, which consists of of engineering strains for determining Poisson’s ratio
majority of the fibers being aligned preferentially in both in the in-plane and out-of-plane directions. In
the machine or production direction, as illustrated in addition, the fiber orientation distributions were
Fig. 3. These fibers were then orientated orthogonally determined by capturing the images using low

Figure 3 Schematic illustration of needlepunching nonwoven process.

J Mater Sci

Figure 4 Direction of
needling in needlepunching
nonwoven process. a Top to
bottom. b Successive.
c Bottom to top. d Alternate
wise.

Table 1 Experimental matrix,

Sample Punch density Depth of Needling Mass per Strain in Tenacity in Volume
properties, and volume
ID (Punches/cm2) needle Direction unit area CD CD expansion
expansion (contraction) penetration (g/m2) (%) (N/tex) (contraction)
coefficient of NNM samples (mm) coefficient
NNM1 50 11 250 99.8 0.028 1.12
NNM2 100 11 237 83.8 0.044 1.12
NNM3 50 16 215 87.5 0.041 1.12
NNM4 100 16 224 71.1 0.047 1.12
NNM5 50 11 224 94.8 0.036 0.98
NNM6 50 16 223 82.4 0.044 0.98
NNM7 100 16 230 64.9 0.050 0.98
NNM8 100 11 246 77.8 0.049 0.98
NNM9 50 11 230 103.8 0.029 1.08
NNM10 100 11 223 94.8 0.043 1.08
NNM11 50 16 237 98.6 0.034 1.08
NNM12 100 16 223 84.1 0.048 1.08
NNM13 50 11 241 100.8 0.031 0.92
NNM14 50 16 221 90.1 0.038 0.92
NNM15 100 16 215 78.1 0.052 0.92
NNM16 100 11 241 93.1 0.052 0.92
CD: cross-machine direction

optical magnification microscope and subsequently,
analyzed through ImageJ software. Figure 7 shows
a typical fiber orientation distribution of a NNM
displaying preferential alignment of fibers in the
vicinity of cross-machine direction.
Results and discussion
Various types of fiber networks in the form of paper
[19], adhesive bonded nonwovens [17], and stainless
steel [15, 16] have displayed auxetic behavior in the
out-of-plane direction. The common mechanism of
such a behavior was explained in terms of bending or
buckling of in-plane fibers [15–17, 35]. To look at this
issue rigorously, the proportion of fibers in the
through-thickness direction of NNMs needs to be
computed using the approach of Watanabe et al. [25].
In this analysis, we have used the similar needle
geometry which was considered in Ref. [25], the
proportion of fibers in the through-thickness direc-
tion of NNMs was found to be in the range of 2–3%.
Therefore, majority of the fibers are aligned in the in-
plane direction and accordingly, the chances of
increase in the thickness of NNMs can be either
caused by bending or buckling of in-plane fibers. On
the other hand, the mean distance between the con-
tact points is significantly lower than the original
 J Mater Sci

Figure 5 Digital picture of cameras placed orthogonally to each

other on tensile testing equipment.

fiber length [29], which means considerable level of

loads are required to be applied at the contact points
to cause fiber buckling based upon Euler’s column
theory. This shows that the buckling of in-plane fibers
could not be a postulated mechanism for out-of-plane
auxetic behavior of fiber networks specifically at a
lower level of strain. Accordingly, the bending of in-
plane fibers has been considered as a deformation
mechanism for predicting the Poisson’s ratio of
NNMs. Nevertheless, Figs. 8 and 9 show the in-plane
Poisson’s ratio of NNMs under defined level of
applied (longitudinal) strain in the cross-machine
Figure 6 Determination of in-plane and out-of-plane Poisson’s
and machine directions, respectively. Generally, the
ratios by measuring changes in a width-wise and b thru-thickness
magnitudes of in-plane Poisson’s ratio are signifi- direction, respectively.
cantly higher in the cross-machine (preferential)
direction as compared to the machine direction. sample NNM4, which was prepared when both
Since, significant level of anisotropy existed in the needle boards acted from top to bottom side under
prepared NNMs due to the preferential alignment of high levels of punch density and depth of needle
the fibers in the vicinity of cross-machine direction. penetration. In general, when both needle boards
Given the fact that the in-plane Poisson’s ratio is acted in the same direction, i.e., from top to bottom
higher in the cross-machine (preferential) direction, side resulting in the fabrication of NNM1-NNM4
the tendency of bending of in-plane fibers is signifi- samples or from bottom to top side leading to the
cantly higher in the corresponding direction. This formation of NNM9-NNM12 samples, significant
allowed us to aim at the out-of-plane negative Pois- level of out-of-plane auxetic effect existed in such
son’s ratio of NNMs primarily in the cross-machine materials. It is anticipated that the local fiber densi-
direction. Figure 10 illustrates the out-of-plane Pois- fication has occurred when both needle boards acted
son’s ratio of NNMs under defined level of applied in the same direction. Since, the applied (longitudi-
(longitudinal) strain in the cross-machine direction. nal) strain in the cross-machine direction inevitably
Intriguingly, the negative Poisson’s ratio in the out- resulted in the large contraction in the width-wise
of-plane direction was found to be as high as -5.7 for direction, which subsequently generated significant
J Mater Sci

Figure 7 Fiber orientation 0.06

distribution of NNM1 sample.
Here 0 represents the machine 0.05
direction.

Relative Frequency
0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

-85
-80
-75
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
Fibre Orientation Angle (°)

Figure 8 In-plane Poisson’s ratio of NNM samples under defined needleboards acted from top to bottom side, successively, bottom
level of applied (longitudinal) strain in the cross-machine direc- to top side and alternatively using two levels of punch density and
tion. Insets samples NNM1–NNM4, NNM5–NNM8, NNM9– depth of needle penetration.
NNM12, and NNM13–NNM16 were prepared when both

level of transverse forces in the in-plane fibers via
out-of-plane fibers [27], as depicted in Fig. 1. Increa-
ses in punch density and depth of needle penetration
further enhanced the process of fiber densification
[34]. Although increases in punch density and depth
of needle penetration can cause fiber damage and
arguably, can yield ‘‘artificial’’ auxetic effects. In
order to reject such a hypothesis, the tensile strength
of NNMs should increase by increasing the magni-
tudes of punch density and depth of needle

Figure 9 In-plane Poisson’s ratio of NNM samples under defined
level of applied (longitudinal) strain in the machine direction.
Insets samples NNM1–NNM4, NNM5–NNM8, NNM9–NNM12,
and NNM13–NNM16 were prepared when both needleboards
penetration. Table 1 shows an enhancement in the
tensile strength with the increases in the punch
density and depth of needle penetration. Perhaps,
this is the rationale for obtaining maximum negative
Poisson’s ratio in NNM4 and NNM12 samples for a
range of applied strain levels. On the other hand,
when one of the needle boards acted alternatively or
in a successive manner (see Fig. 4b, d), local densifi-
cation occurred sporadically due to the increases in
punch density and depth of needle penetration, as
shown in Fig. 10b, d. Interestingly, there is also an
increase in the volume of the NNM1-NNM4 and
NNM9-NNM12 samples with the increase in applied
strain, as depicted in Fig. 11.
Through theoretical modeling (see Eq. 9), fiber ori-
entation is found to be a key parameter that modulates
the in-plane Poisson’s ratio of NNMs, also observed by
Lee and Lee [32]. It should be noted that the Poisson’s
ratio is not a constant value as it varies with the applied
J Mater Sci
acted from top to bottom side, successively, bottom to top side and
alternatively using two levels of punch density and depth of needle
penetration.
strain. Thus, the fiber orientation should be updated
with the applied strain either experimentally or theo-
retically via affine or nonaffine deformation. Since we
have not determined the fiber orientation under
applied strain, we have validated our models of Pois-
son’s ratio with the results obtained at a minimum
level of strain, i.e., 5%. At higher levels of strains ([5%),
it is significantly important to consider the frictional
effects between the fibers, reorientation of fibers,
stretching of fibers and the formation of new fiber–
fiber contacts for predicting the Poisson’s ratio of
NNMs. Assuming the effect of fiber reorientation due
to bending is indiscernible on the Poisson’s ratio of
NNMs at 5% strain level, a comparison has been made
between the theory and experiments, as shown in
Fig. 12. In general, a reasonable agreement has been
observed between the theoretical and experimental
values of in-plane Poisson’s ratio of NNMs. For out-of-
plane Poisson’s ratio of NNMs, a reasonable
J Mater Sci
Figure 10 Out-of-plane Poisson’s ratio of NNM samples under
defined level of applied (longitudinal) strain in the cross-machine
direction. Insets samples NNM1–NNM4, NNM5–NNM8,
NNM9–NNM12, and NNM13–NNM16 were prepared when both
agreement was also obtained between the theoretical
(using Eq. 15) and experimental results, as shown in
Fig. 13. Here, the optimized value of volume expan-
sion (contraction) coefficient was computed by mini-
mizing the error between the actual and predefined
value of out-of-plane Poisson’s ratio of NNMs, as
shown in Table 1. As aforementioned, the direction of
needling has a pronounced effect on the out-of-plane
auxetic behavior of NNMs. Consequently, the prede-
fined value of volume expansion (contraction) coeffi-
cient was computed by considering the influence of
direction of needling only.
In the past, anisotropic fused fiber networks have
displayed large in-plane Poisson’s ratio (*4) in the
preferential direction [36]. To assess the auxetic
behavior of fiber networks with large in-plane Pois-
son’s ratio, a virtual experiment was carried out in
the form of parametric analysis. Figure 14 illustrates
the preferential alignment of planar fiber networks in
needleboards acted from top to bottom side, successively, bottom
to top side and alternatively using two levels of punch density and
depth of needle penetration.
the form of Gaussian distributions. Under constant
volume deformation, considerable level of contrac-
tion has occurred in the preferential (0) direction
that inevitably led to large negative value of out-of-
plane Poisson’s ratio in the corresponding direction.
Interestingly, 2D random fiber network has yielded
non-auxetic behavior in comparison to the corre-
sponding anisotropic materials. Therefore, out-of-
plane auxetic behavior of fiber networks can be
simply designed by inducing anisotropy in these
materials and subsequently, examining the out-of-
plane Poisson’s ratio in the preferential direction.
Conclusions
A design strategy to create 3D fiber networks in the
form of NNMs with out-of-plane auxetic behavior
has been proposed through theoretical modeling and
 J Mater Sci

Figure 11 Change in volume of NNM samples under defined needleboards acted from top to bottom side, successively, bottom
level of applied (longitudinal) strain in the cross-machine direc- to top side and alternatively using two levels of punch density and
tion. Insets samples NNM1–NNM4, NNM5–NNM8, NNM9– depth of needle penetration.
NNM12, and NNM13–NNM16 were prepared when both

Figure 12 Comparison
between theoretical and
experimental results of in-
plane Poisson’s ratio of NNM
samples in the cross-machine
direction.
J Mater Sci

Figure 13 Comparison
between theoretical and
experimental results of out-of-
plane Poisson’s ratio of NNM
samples in the cross-machine
direction.

Figure 14 Relationship
between fiber orientation and
in-plane and out-of-plane
Poisson’s ratios of fiber
networks under constant
volume deformation. Here l
and r represent mean and
standard deviation of a typical
Gaussian distribution,
respectively.

extensive set of experiments. In general, the aniso-
tropy in fiber networks is a pre-requisite for obtaining
out-of-plane auxetic behavior. NNMs possessed
negative Poisson’s ratio in the out-of-plane direction
by modulating the direction of needle boards in a
typical needlepunching process. The auxetic behavior
of NNMs was further enhanced when the magni-
tudes of key process conditions including punch
density and depth of needle penetration were
increased. Bending of in-plane fibers has been pro-
posed as a deformation mechanism for attaining the
out-of-plane auxetic behavior in NNMs. Accordingly,
the in-plane Poisson’s ratio of NNMs has been
predicted via fiber orientation and its distribution.
Similarly, the out-of-plane Poisson’s ratio of NNMs
has been computed through semi-analytical
approach by accounting for the volume expansion
(contraction) in fiber networks. In general, a reason-
able agreement has been observed between the the-
oretical and experimental results of in-plane and out-
of-plane Poisson’s ratio of NNMs. Through para-
metric analysis, we have demonstrated that signifi-
cant levels of contraction in the width-wise direction
can occur in the preferential direction of highly ani-
sotropic fiber network during uniaxial tensile load-
ing. This has resulted in large negative out-of-plane

Poisson’s ratio in the preferential direction of aniso-
tropic fiber networks on the basis of constant volume
deformation.
Acknowledgements
One of the authors (AR) wishes to acknowledge the
Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for the
research fellowship for experienced researchers at the
Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Mathematics
(ITWM), Kaiserslautern, Germany and Institut für
Textil- und Verfahrenstechnik, Denkendorf,
Germany.
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