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EE 310 Electronic Circuit Design I

Experiment 3
Power Supply Design Project
Introduction
Power supplies are sometimes viewed as an afterthought in a complex electronic product or system.
Circuit designers often take them for granted, or don’t want to bother with such “low-tech” circuitry when
there are more glamorous and exciting design tasks to occupy their time. But according to studies
performed by the Navy, a very significant fraction of all electronic equipment failures are power supply
related. The root cause of most of these failures, surprisingly, is not due to manufacturing defects or bad
components but rather to poor design. In 1982 they undertook to change this, publishing NAVMAT
P4855-1, essentially a how-to book on designing reliable, state-of-the-art power supplies 1. The results
were dramatic. Engineers designing power supplies and following the design recommendations of this
document, which includes derating criteria (operating electronic components at less than their rated
voltage, current, power, or temperature in order to reduce their failure rates), were able to achieve an 8-
fold increase in the reliability of their power supplies, from 50,000 hours MTBF (mean time before
failure; a statistical measure of the average time that a component works before failure), to over 400,000
hours. Express these numbers in years to understand the real significance of this level of improvement:

50,000 hours = _____________ years 400,000 hours = _____________ years

While we won’t have the time needed to do a first-class power supply design, the fundamental lessons
learned in this lab experiment will nevertheless be important to any future design activity that you choose
to undertake in your career.

This lab experiment is to be completed during two lab sessions. During the first session you will design
the input transformer, rectifier, and filter circuits of a simple linear (as opposed to switching) regulated
power supply. During the second session you will design a Zener diode voltage regulator, and compare its
performance to a commercial 3-terminal IC voltage regulator. At the completion of the experiment you
will have constructed a complete AC to DC low-voltage power supply that is capable of supplying filtered
and regulated DC to a load.

Block Diagram of Power Supply

Let us now consider in more detail the overall requirements for the power supply.
Power Supply Specifications
Your lab TA will assign one of the following designs (A – D) to each team. Your team is to then
implement the assigned design in accordance with the specifications in Table 1 below.
Table 1
Requirement Design A Design B Design C Design D
DC output voltage, VO = VL +5 ± 0.5 V −5 ± 0.5 V +15 ± 0.5 V −15 ± 0.5 V
Nominal DC voltage at regulator input, VC +12 V −12 V +24 V −24 V
Ripple voltage at regulator input, Vr Maximum 15% of VC with rated load resistance attached
Rated load resistance, RL Choose RL to dissipate approximately 1 watt
AC Input Voltage, Frequency 120 V RMS ± 5%, 60 Hz

In a real-world design you are often limited to choosing components that are available in your employer’s
stockroom. The same constraints apply here, although much more so. The selection of components for
each portion of this design will be limited to the ones listed below.

Power Transformer

The transformer to be used is available in the EE stockroom, and is packaged in an enclosure with
attached line cord, power switch, fuse, circuit breakers and output banana jack terminals. A schematic
diagram is shown in the figure below. The transformer turns ratio is 12:1:1, so it may be used in a variety
of configurations to support full-wave center-tapped designs, or full-wave bridge designs using either
one-half of the secondary winding, or the entire secondary winding.

Rectifier

Only full-wave rectifier designs are to be used in this experiment. Available rectifier diodes are limited to
the following devices: 1N4004, 1N4934, or 1N4935.

Filter Capacitor

You will eventually calculate the size of filter capacitance required, and will find that the values are
relatively large (tens or hundreds of microfarads). For this application, the choice of capacitor type is just
as important as the value. Power supply filter capacitors are generally electrolytic capacitors because this
type of capacitor construction results in the smallest physical size per unit capacitance. A non-electrolytic
capacitor would be huge by comparison. For this experiment, the following electrolytic capacitors are
available for your use: 100, 220, and 470 µF, rated at 50 Volts.

Voltage Regulator

The voltage regulator requirements will be discussed in Part 2 of this experiment.

EE 310 Experiment 3 2
Experimental Procedure
The following is the step-by-step procedure for constructing and testing the power supply. Suggestions
for choosing components will be made clear in each step. However, the overall requirement is that you
should be designing for reliability, which means that you should choose components that are
conservatively rated for the application. In general, calculate the voltage, current and power dissipation of
every component that you put into the power supply. Add a design margin by choosing components that
are rated to operate at 1.5 – 2 times the calculated values. For example, if you are going to use a resistor
and have calculated that it will be dissipating 1 watt in the circuit, choose a 2-watt resistor.

1. Power Transformer
The first task is to characterize the transformer by making a few measurements.
a. Measure the open-circuit ac secondary voltage, voc between each pair of terminals (A-B,
B-C, A-C) in volts RMS. Sketch a schematic representation of the transformer in your lab
notebook with the secondary voltages labeled on the diagram.
b. All transformers have winding resistance which should be included in your model.
Winding resistance is represented as a resistor RW in series with each of terminals A and
C. To measure RW, connect a 2-watt resistor, RTest, between terminals A and C. The value
of RTest should be chosen so that the resistor dissipates approximately 1 watt. Measure the
voltage between terminals A and C both with and without RTest attached. Sketch a
Thevenin equivalent and from your measurements, calculate the value of RW.
c. With RW thus determined, model your transformer as having an open-circuit voltage, voc ,
as measured in step 1a, with resistances of RW Ω in series with each of terminals
A and C.

2. Rectifier
a. Determine the transformer/rectifier configuration needed to meet the capacitor DC
voltage specification in Table 1, VC, under the assumption that you will eventually have a
filter capacitor connected in-circuit. In this step you will need to decide whether to use a
full-wave, center-tapped transformer configuration with two rectifier diodes, or a full-
wave bridge configuration using one or both of the secondary windings.
b. Choose a rectifier diode from the list of available parts on page 2. To make an intelligent
choice, get data sheets for each of the diodes and look up the peak-inverse-voltage (PIV)
and the peak and average forward current ratings. Choose a diode that has a rated PIV
value that is at least twice that required by your circuit.
c. Construct the rectifier and connect it to the output of the transformer. For those groups
constructing a circuit using a full-wave configuration with center-tap, the center-tap will
be circuit ground. Therefore, orient your diodes so that the proper output polarity is
obtained. For those groups using the full-wave bridge configuration, one side of the filter
capacitor will be circuit ground, depending on whether you need a positive or a negative
output voltage.
d. Connect an oscilloscope to the output of your rectifier circuit (without the filter capacitor
attached). View the output waveform on the scope and determine the peak output voltage,
VM. Attach a copy of the scope waveform to your lab notebook.

EE 310 Experiment 3 3
3. Filter Capacitor
a. Calculate the capacitance required to meet the ripple specification in Table 1 by using the
following relationship:

VM where: VM, Vr are as defined on the figure below


C= f = ac line frequency (Hz)
2 fRL' Vr R'L = load resistance as seen by the capacitor (Ω)

b. Attach a resistor R'L to the capacitor, chosen to dissipate 1 W (R'L = VC2/1 W). Choose a
capacitor size to meet the ripple specification in Table 1. Because of cost and size
constraints, you should use the minimum value of capacitance that will meet your
requirements. Choose a value from the list of available parts on page 2.
vC Capacitor Voltage vs. time

Vr
Average (DC) capacitor voltage, VC ≈ VM − (Vr/2)
VM
VC
VL

vS

Electrolytic Capacitors:
There are a few characteristics of electrolytic capacitors that you need to be aware of. First, they are
constructed with a dielectric material (electrolyte) that usually is a liquid, and packaged in a sealed
can. Some designs have a safety vent in case the liquid boils. Second, electrolytic capacitors are
polarity sensitive and must be connected in-circuit so that the DC voltage across the capacitor is of
the correct polarity. If you look at the markings on the capacitor body you will see labels for the (+)
and (−) terminals. If you get the capacitor installed backwards, bad things may happen. Be careful of
this! A reverse-polarized electrolytic capacitor may draw excessive current, overheat, and spew
electrolyte out of the safety vent. Sealed designs have been known to build up internal pressure and
rupture violently! Third, electrolytic capacitors have a voltage rating that must be observed. Usually
they are marked with a DC working voltage rating. This is the maximum safe DC potential that can
be applied to the capacitor on a long-term basis. Finally, the tolerance of most electrolytic capacitors
is not very good. A tolerance of +80/-20% is common. Remember this when you are comparing
calculations to measured data. If you need to make an accurate comparison, measure the capacitor on
a capacitance meter.

Construction Hints:

The lead diameter of a 2-watt resistor is too large to be inserted directly into the holes on a typical
prototyping breadboard (protoboard). If you try to force-fit a big lead into a small hole you may
damage your protoboard. Instead, cut the end of the resistor lead diagonally with a pair of diagonal
(wire) cutters. Or, solder a short length of a ¼ watt resistor lead to the end of the large resistor lead
and insert the small lead into the hole. This caution may also apply to rectifier diodes or any other
component with large diameter leads.

EE 310 Experiment 3 4
4. Overall Measurements
With the circuit constructed and connected to a load resistor, RL, chosen per Table 1, make the
following measurements:
a. Measure the average DC output voltage, VO, with a digital multimeter (DMM).
b. Measure and plot the total output voltage, vO, (DC plus ac) on the oscilloscope. Attach a
copy of the scope waveform plot to your laboratory notebook. From the plot determine
VM, VL and Vr.
c. Measure and plot the ac transformer secondary voltage, vS. Make this measurement using
the same oscilloscope settings used for measurement 4b (vertical and horizontal scale
factors the same) so that you can directly compare the ac secondary voltage waveform to
the capacitor voltage waveform.
d. Measure and plot the diode’s current waveform and determine the peak value of the diode
current, iD, max. To display a diode current waveform on an oscilloscope, insert a small-
valued resistor in series with one of your rectifier diodes (1 ohm will give you 1 Volt per
amp on the oscilloscope display). Connect the scope across the resistor. Note: Be careful
when doing this. One side of the oscilloscope input is connected to ground. Do not have
any other part of your power supply connected to ground when making this measurement
or you may short-circuit some part of the circuit. Compare the measured value of iD, max
to the value predicted by the following equation:
VM  VM 
i D ,max = 1 + 2π 
RL  2Vr 
 
Can you explain why the measured peak current is less than the calculated peak current?
e. Calculate the operating voltage, current and power dissipation of each of the components
in your power supply and compare the values with the rating of each component. What
safety margin exists for each component?

Reporting Requirements
Design Proposals (both laboratory sessions):

This is a two-part lab exercise. Modest design proposals are expected for the transformer, rectifier
and filter capacitor blocks for the first session and the voltage regulator for the second session.
Keep them simple, yet informative! The proposal is to be submitted at the beginning of each lab
session. Include the following:
Introduction—explain in your own words what is foreseen as the circuitry to satisfy the
problem;
Proposed Circuit Design—present the circuit diagrams needed to solve the problem, with an
explanation to justify your approach;
Analysis—include supporting calculations.
Prepare this proposal either in typed form or using neat handwriting. Hand written circuit
diagrams and calculations are fine.
Lab Notebook:
The above information also is important for your notebook. As your lab work progresses, include
a wiring schematic, a list of equipment used, all measurements and figures, etc., so that you have
a record of everything that occurred. Also, your thoughts and impressions are important and
should be entered.

EE 310 Experiment 3 5
Part II

Introduction
During the first lab session you designed the input transformer, rectifier, and filter circuits of a simple
linear regulated power supply. You observed the effect of the filter capacitor on the ac ripple component,
Vr, superimposed on the DC output of the power supply.

The supply that you constructed is referred to as an unregulated power supply. The output voltage of an
unregulated power supply will change if either the input voltage changes or if the load current changes.
For many applications the DC output voltage is required to be constant; therefore changes in output
voltage must be minimized. A circuit that performs this function is called a voltage regulator. During the
second part of this lab experiment you will design, construct, and compare two types of voltage
regulators: a Zener diode voltage regulator and an integrated-circuit (IC) voltage regulator.

Block Diagram of Power Supply

Power Supply Specifications


Specifications for the power supply from part I of the experiment are repeated here in Table 1 below.

Table 2
Requirement Design A Design B Design C Design D
DC output voltage, VO = VL +5 ± 0.5 V −5 ± 0.5 V +15 ± 0.5 V −15 ± 0.5 V
Nominal DC voltage at regulator input, VC +12 V −12 V +24 V −24 V
Ripple voltage at regulator input, Vr Maximum 15% of VC with rated load resistance attached
Rated load resistance, RL Choose RL to dissipate approximately 1 watt
AC Input Voltage, Frequency 120 V RMS ± 5%, 60 Hz

As before, the selection of components for the voltage regulator portion of this design will be limited to
the ones listed on the following page.

EE 310 Experiment 3 6
Zener Diode(s)

A model of a Zener diode is shown in the figure below (A). The resistance rZ represents the internal
resistance of the diode in breakdown. Zener diodes are available in a wide range of voltages, but not all
voltage values are available. (Often the value that you want is unavailable.) However, there are a couple
of common circuit “tricks” that you can use. First, diodes may be combined in series, so if the value that
you want is not available then try two lower-voltage diodes in series, as illustrated in (B). Or, insert
regular silicon diodes (in the forward direction) in series with the Zener as illustrated in (C). Each
forward-biased diode increases the overall Zener voltage by VF of the diode, about 0.7 V.

For this experiment the following diodes are available: 1N4728, 1N4732, 1N4735, 1N4736, 1N4738,
1N4739, and 1N4742, all available from several manufacturers. For data sheets, try Microsemi
Corporation http://www.microsemi.com. Terminology used in the data sheets is described in the figure
below, courtesy of Microsemi Corporation.

EE 310 Experiment 3 7
IC Voltage Regulators

An IC voltage regulator contains a stable voltage reference, an op amp, and a power transistor that is
capable of supplying relatively large amounts of output current. Some IC regulators contain short-circuit
protection, thermal protection, adjustable output voltage, and other bells and whistles. For this experiment
the following IC voltage regulators are available: LM7805, LM7815, LM7905, and LM7915.

Experimental Procedure (Continued from Last Session)


The following is a continuation of the step-by-step procedure for constructing and testing the voltage
regulator portion of the power supply. Suggestions for choosing components will be made clear in each
step. However, recall that the overall objective is to design for reliability, which means that you should
choose components that are conservatively rated for the application. In general, calculate the voltage,
current and power dissipation of every component that you put into the power supply. Add a design
margin by choosing components that are rated to operate at 1.5 – 2 times the calculated values. For
example, if you are going to use a resistor and have calculated that it will be dissipating 1 watt in the
circuit, choose a 2-watt resistor.

5. Power Transformer, Rectifier, and Filter Capacitor


Go back to part 1 of this experiment and reconstruct the circuit that you built last week. Verify that
the circuit is working properly by repeating the measurements of steps 4a and 4b.

6. Zener Diode Shunt Regulator


A typical Zener shunt regulator is shown in Figure 2.21 from your textbook 2 below. The battery VPS
represents the DC (average) value of the unregulated filter capacitor voltage, VC, from your circuit.
The design task here is to choose the components in the circuit so that the specified value (from
Table 1) of regulated DC output voltage, VO, is achieved under no-load conditions (RL = ∞ Ω) and
the Zener current, IZ, remains less than IZ MAX. Additionally, the Zener current must remain greater
than IZ MIN under full-load conditions. If these two conditions are met then the output voltage will
remain relatively constant as the load current changes.

a. Choose a Zener diode or a combination of diodes to give VZ = VO ± 0.5 V per the


specification in Table 1. If you use more than one diode, then the total power dissipation
rating of your compound Zener diode assembly will be greater than the dissipation rating of
each individual diode. Ideally, if two diodes are used, pick two voltages that are closely-
spaced so that the power is shared relatively equally between the diodes.
b. Calculate IZ MAX under the no-load condition (RL = ∞ Ω) so that PZ = 0.5 watt. Make certain
that the power dissipation of each individual Zener diode is less than 50 – 75% of the diode’s
power dissipation rating.
c. Choose Ri to give the value of IZ MAX determined in step b. Remember to provide an adequate
safety margin when choosing a power rating for Ri. (For an extra margin of safety, consider
using a power rating for Ri that is large enough to withstand an accidental short-circuit at the
output terminals.)

EE 310 Experiment 3 8
d. When a load resistance, RL, is connected to the output of the voltage regulator, IZ will
decrease and IL will increase. Choose a value for RL so that IZ under this condition (IZ MIN) is
equal to 30% of IZ MAX. This value of load resistance will be called the full-load resistance,
RL´.
e. Measure VL with and without RL´ attached and calculate the percentage voltage regulation as
follows:
VL (no load) − VL (full load)
%Regulation = • 100%
VL (no load)
f. Leave the full-load resistance connected to the output. Using the oscilloscope, display the
total output voltage, vL (DC plus ac). Attach a copy of this plot to your lab notebook.
g. Using a two-channel oscilloscope, display the ac ripple voltage across the filter capacitor on
Channel 1 and the ac ripple voltage at the output on Channel 2. Both channels should be set
to the same vertical sensitivity (Volts/division) for the most meaningful visual comparison
and the vertical inputs should be ac coupled to display only the ac ripple voltages. Does the
voltage regulator reduce the ac ripple at the output of the regulator compared to the ripple at
the input? By what factor? Can you predict the amount of ripple reduction from a model of
your circuit or from a Multisim analysis?

7. IC Voltage Regulator
A 3-terminal IC voltage regulator is one of the easiest ways to provide a regulated DC output
voltage from an unregulated DC power supply. Both voltage regulation and ac ripple reduction
are improved compared to the Zener diode regulator. Many different types of regulators are
available commercially in a variety of output voltages (some adjustable) and power levels.
a. Refer to the description of IC voltage regulators on the next page and then choose the
regulator IC that is appropriate for your group’s output voltage level and polarity.
b. Construct the circuit and connect it between the output of the filter capacitor and the load
resistor RL. Choose a value for RL such that the load current IL is the same value as IZ MAX in
step 7c.
c. Measure VL with and without RL attached and calculate the percentage voltage regulation as
follows:
VL (no load) − VL (full load)
%Regulation = • 100%
VL (no load)
It may be difficult to observe any significant change in VL if the regulator is working
properly. A suggested method is to use a DMM to measure voltage to several decimal places,
and to connect the DMM probes directly across the load resistor RL.
d. Leave RL connected to the output. Using the oscilloscope, display the total output voltage
across the load, vL, (DC plus ac). Attach a copy of this plot to your lab notebook.
e. Using a two-channel oscilloscope, display the ac ripple voltage across the filter capacitor on
Channel 1 and the ac ripple voltage at the output on Channel 2. Both channels should be set
to the same vertical sensitivity (Volts/division) for the most meaningful visual comparison
and the vertical inputs should be ac coupled to display only the ac ripple voltage. Does the
voltage regulator reduce the ac ripple at the output of the regulator compared to the ripple at
the input? By what factor? To obtain a numerical measurement of the ac ripple at the output
you may have to increase the vertical sensitivity on channel 2 significantly.
f. At what value of output current, IL MAX, does the regulator start to show signs of ac ripple on
the output? To make this measurement, decrease the size of RL, being careful not to exceed
the power dissipation limits of the resistor or of the voltage regulator IC. It will also be
helpful to display VC and VL simultaneously on the oscilloscope (DC coupled) to better
illustrate the limitation on IL MAX. Describe what happens when IL is large enough to observe
ac ripple on the output.

EE 310 Experiment 3 9
IC Voltage Regulators:
The devices available for use are the 78XX family of positive voltage regulators or the 79XX family
of negative regulators, where XX = the output voltage in volts. As with most solid-state devices, you
should get a copy of the latest data sheet and read it carefully before attempting to use the device.
Several versions of the data sheet may be found on the web. A suggested starting point is ON
Semiconductor http://onsemi.com. Most manufacturers include a recommended test circuit that is a
good starting point for your design. A typical test circuit for the positive regulator is shown below:

If the regulator oscillates (you will be able to tell if it does when you observe the output voltage on
an oscilloscope) then add the capacitors Cin and CO.

The regulator’s power dissipation is equal to the voltage across the regulator times the current
through the regulator [PD ≈ (VI – VO)●IO ]. With an adequate heat sink the device can dissipate up to
15 watts. Without a heat sink it can dissipate only a watt or two.

Reporting Requirements
Design Proposal:

A modest design proposal is expected for the voltage regulator circuitry for part 2. Keep it simple,
yet informative! The proposal is to be submitted at the beginning of the second lab session.
Include the following:
Introduction—explain in your own words what is foreseen as the circuitry to satisfy the
problem;
Proposed Circuit Design—present the circuit diagrams needed to solve the problem, with an
explanation to justify your approach;
Analysis—include supporting calculations.
Prepare this proposal either in typed form or using neat handwriting. Hand written circuit
diagrams and calculations are fine.
Lab Notebook:
The above information also is important for your notebook. As your lab work progresses, include
a wiring schematic, a list of equipment used, all measurements and figures, etc., so that you have
a record of everything that occurred. Also, your thoughts and impressions are important and
should be entered.

EE 310 Experiment 3 10
Formal Design Report:

A formal report that covers both parts of this experiment is required. The report is due one week
following the completion of the lab, at a time to be specified by your lab TA. The report should
be neatly prepared and professional in appearance. Include the following in your report:

Introduction—present the problem in your own words;

Circuit Design—develop your design approach (with circuit diagrams);

Supporting Analysis—include relevant equations and supporting calculations. Include a


Multisim simulation of the peak diode current measurement of part 4d;

Data—present measurements, graphs, etc., along with documentation;

Discussion—report results and explain their significance. Throughout your report you should
compare performance that is predicted by the circuit equations with your measured results. This is
an important part of any lab experiment. Explain why predicted parameters differ from measured
parameters if there is significant disagreement between theoretical and actual performance;

Summary and Conclusions—describe what was learned, and give your thoughts and
observations;

Attachments—include a copy of your lab notebook pages for this experiment and any other
relevant materials of an informative nature (e.g., spec sheets, programs, etc.).

1
NAVMAT P-4855-1, Navy Power Supply Reliability, Design and Manufacturing Guidelines, December
1982
2
Adel S. Sedra, Kenneth C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, Oxford University Press, 7 edition (2014),
ISBN-13 978-0199339136.

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