Fundamental Equations of Mechanics of Materials

Axial Load Shear

Normal Stress Average direct shear stress
P
s = V
A tavg =
A
Displacement
L Transverse shear stress
L0 (x)E
P(x)dx
d =
A VQ
t =
It
PL
d = ! Shear flow
AE VQ
q = tt =
dT = a "TL I

Torsion Stress in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessel

Shear stress in circular shaft
Tr Cylinder
t = pr pr
J s1 = s2 =
t 2t
where
Sphere
p 4 pr
J= c solid cross section s1 = s2 =
2 2t
p 4
J= (c - ci 4) tubular cross section Stress Transformation Equations
2 o
sx + sy sx - sy
Power sx# = + cos 2u + txy sin 2u
2 2
P = Tv = 2pf T sx - sy
tx#y# = - sin 2u + txy cos 2u
Angle of twist 2
L

L0 J(x)G
T(x)dx Principal Stress
f =
txy
TL tan 2up =
f = ! (sx - sy)>2
JG
sx + sy sx - sy 2
Average shear stress in a thin-walled tube s1,2 = { a b + t2xy
2 A 2
T
tavg =
2tA m Maximum in-plane shear stress
(sx - sy)>2
Shear Flow tan 2us = -
txy
T
q = tavg t =
2A m sx - sy 2
tmax = a b + t2xy
A 2
Bending sx + sy
savg =
Normal stress 2
My
s = Absolute maximum shear stress
I
smax
Unsymmetric bending tabs = for smax, smin same sign
max 2
Mz y M yz Iz smax - smin
s = - + , tan a = tan u tabs = for smax, smin opposite signs
Iz Iy Iy max 2
 Geometric Properties of Area Elements
Material Property Relations

Poisson’s ratio y A = bh
Plat
n = - Ix =
1 3
Plong h
C
x 12 bh
1 3
Iy = 12 hb
Generalized Hooke’s Law b
1
ex = 3 sx - n(sy + sz ) 4 Rectangular area
E
1
ey = 3 s - n(sx + sz ) 4 1
A = 2 bh
E y
1
ez = 3 sz - n(sx + sy) 4 h C
x
E Ix =
1 3
1 36 bh
1 1 1 b 3h
gxy = t , g = t g = t
G xy yz G yz, zx G zx
Triangular area
where E
G = 1
2(1 + n) a A = 2 h(a + b)

Relations Between w, V, M h C
x
1 2a + b
dV dM b 3 a+b h
= w(x), = V
dx dx
Trapezoidal area
Elastic Curve 1 M
= y 2
r EI A = p2r

d 4v r
4r 1
Ix = 8 pr 4
EI 4 = w(x) 3p
dx C 1
x Iy = 8 pr 4
d3v
EI 3 = V (x) Semicircular area
dx
d2v
EI 2 = M(x) y
A = pr 2
dx
Buckling r
1
Ix = 4 pr 4
Critical axial load x 1
Iy = 4 pr 4
p2EI C
Pcr =
(KL)2
Critical stress
p2E
scr = , r = 2I>A Circular area
(KL >r)2
Secant formula 2
P ec L P 5a
smax = c 1 + 2 sec a bd
A r 2r A EA
2
A = 3 ab
Energy Methods b
Conservation of energy C
Ue = Ui 3
zero slope
8b
a
Strain energy N2L
Ui = constant axial load Semiparabolic area
2AE
L 2

L0 2EI
M dx
Ui = bending moment A=
ab
3
L 2 b
fsV dx
L0 2GA
C 3
Ui = transverse shear 10 b
zero slope 3
4a
L 2 a

L0 2GJ
T dx
Ui = torsional moment Exparabolic area
 Average Mechanical Properties of Typical Engineering Materialsa
(SI Units)

Moduls of Modulus of Yield Strength (MPa) Ultimate Strength (MPa) Coef. of Therm.
Materials Density R Elasticity E Rigidity G SY Su %Elongation in Poisson’s Expansion A
(Mg/m3) (GPa) (GPa) Tens. Comp.b Shear Tens. Comp.b Shear 50 mm specimen Ratio N (10–6)/°C

Metallic
Aluminum 2014-T6 2.79 73.1 27 414 414 172 469 469 290 10 0.35 23
Wrought Alloys 6061-T6 2.71 68.9 26 255 255 131 290 290 186 12 0.35 24
Cast Iron Gray ASTM 20 7.19 67.0 27 – – – 179 669 – 0.6 0.28 12
Alloys Malleable ASTM A-197 7.28 172 68 – – – 276 572 – 5 0.28 12
Copper Red Brass C83400 8.74 101 37 70.0 70.0 – 241 241 – 35 0.35 18
Alloys Bronze C86100 8.83 103 38 345 345 – 655 655 – 20 0.34 17
Magnesium
[Am 1004-T61] 1.83 44.7 18 152 152 – 276 276 152 1 0.30 26
Alloy
Structural A-36 7.85 200 75 250 250 – 400 400 – 30 0.32 12
Steel Structural A992 7.85 200 75 345 345 – 450 450 – 30 0.32 12
Alloys Stainless 304 7.86 193 75 207 207 – 517 517 – 40 0.27 17
Tool L2 8.16 200 75 703 703 – 800 800 – 22 0.32 12
Titanium
[Ti-6Al-4V] 4.43 120 44 924 924 – 1,000 1,000 – 16 0.36 9.4
Alloy

Nonmetallic
Low Strength 2.38 22.1 – – – 12 – – – – 0.15 11
Concrete
High Strength 2.37 29.0 – – – 38 – – – – 0.15 11
Plastic Kevlar 49 1.45 131 – – – – 717 483 20.3 2.8 0.34 –
Reinforced 30% Glass 1.45 72.4 – – – – 90 131 – – 0.34 –
Wood Douglas Fir 0.47 13.1 – – – – 2.1c 26d 6.2d – 0.29e –
Select Structural
White Spruce 3.60 9.65 – – – – 2.5c 36d 6.7d – 0.31e –
Grade

a Specific values may vary for a particular material due to alloy or mineral composition,mechanical working of the specimen,or heat treatment. For a more exact value
reference books for the material should be consulted.
b The yield and ultimate strengths for ductile materials can be assumed equal for both tension and compression.

c Measured perpendicular to the grain.

d Measured parallel to the grain.

e Deformation measured perpendicular to the grain when the load is applied along the grain.
 Average Mechanical Properties of Typical Engineering Materialsa
(U.S. Customary Units)

Specific Moduls of Modulus of Yield Strength (ksi) Ultimate Strength (ksi) Coef. of Therm.
Materials Weight Elasticity E Rigidity G SY Su %Elongation in Poisson’s Expansion A
(lb/in3) (103) ksi (103) ksi Tens. Comp.b Shear Tens. Comp.b Shear 2 in. specimen Ratio N (10–6)/°F

Metallic
Aluminum 2014-T6 0.101 10.6 3.9 60 60 25 68 68 42 10 0.35 12.8
Wrought Alloys 6061-T6 0.098 10.0 3.7 37 37 19 42 42 27 12 0.35 13.1
Cast Iron Gray ASTM 20 0.260 10.0 3.9 – – – 26 96 – 0.6 0.28 6.70
Alloys Malleable ASTM A-197 0.263 25.0 9.8 – – – 40 83 – 5 0.28 6.60
Copper Red Brass C83400 0.316 14.6 5.4 11.4 11.4 – 35 35 – 35 0.35 9.80
Alloys Bronze C86100 0.319 15.0 5.6 50 50 – 35 35 – 20 0.34 9.60
Magnesium
[Am 1004-T61] 0.066 6.48 2.5 22 22 – 40 40 22 1 0.30 14.3
Alloy
Structural A-36 0.284 29.0 11.0 36 36 – 58 58 – 30 0.32 6.60
Steel Structural A992 0.284 29.0 11.0 50 50 – 65 65 – 30 0.32 6.60
Alloys Stainless 304 0.284 28.0 11.0 30 30 – 75 75 – 40 0.27 9.60
Tool L2 0.295 29.0 11.0 102 102 – 116 116 – 22 0.32 6.50
Titanium
[Ti-6Al-4V] 0.160 17.4 6.4 134 134 – 145 145 – 16 0.36 5.20
Alloy

Nonmetallic
Low Strength 0.086 3.20 – – – 1.8 – – – – 0.15 6.0
Concrete
High Strength 0.086 4.20 – – – 5.5 – – – – 0.15 6.0
Plastic Kevlar 49 0.0524 19.0 – – – – 104 70 10.2 2.8 0.34 –
Reinforced 30% Glass 0.0524 10.5 – – – – 13 19 – – 0.34 –
Wood Douglas Fir 0.017 1.90 – – – – 0.30c 3.78d 0.90d – 0.29e –
Select Structural
White Spruce 0.130 1.40 – – – – 0.36c 5.18d 0.97d – 0.31e –
Grade

a Specific
values may vary for a particular material due to alloy or mineral composition,mechanical working of the specimen,or heat treatment. For a more exact value
reference books for the material should be consulted.
b The yield and ultimate strengths for ductile materials can be assumed equal for both tension and compression.
c Measured perpendicular to the grain.
d Measured parallel to the grain.
e Deformation measured perpendicular to the grain when the load is applied along the grain.