1) ENTRY AND CONTRACTING

2) DISCOVERY AND DIALOGUE

Pitfalls in problem identification:
1) Mistaking sympotms for underlying problems 4) Killing the messenger levels of the organisation
2) Accepting without asking options others 5) Overlooking possibility of various causes 7) Wrong appreciation of urgency of a problem
3) Assuming the problem is a single person 6) Ignoring how problem is perceived in various 8) Failure to clarify what the focus of purpose is

Goals of problem identification/discovery

1) Develop independent and fresh way of looking (selection of: tools +data sampling and methodology)
2) Create process that leads to: client commitment, ownership and action
- Problem-based approach/deficit focused (“medical model”): symptoms-problem-prescription  Fix what is wrong
- Strenght-based approach: focus on possibilities, deepening advantages of existing strenghts  Learn from what is working
 ‘Positive Deviance’: Poor families in Vietnam had well nourished children: Learn from positive exceptions
 ‘Appreciative Inquiry’: focus on ‘problem solving’ obstructs social improvement: An organisation will grow in the direction that employees focus attention
The trap of “Diagnosis” (pure research)  “Discovery” Clients want quick, cheap, painless solutions BUT: contradicts fundamental and sustainable changes; does not
inspire commitment to implementation; reinforces belief that prescriptive engineering improves human system.
RESEARCH approach vs. ACTION approach
Research all factors that have impact Research factors under control of client
Being comprehensive/complete in discovery Being comprehensive/complete not vital (overwhelming)
Involvement organisation in research not necessary Client’s involvement important at every stage
Eliminate bias and intuition: emphasis on objectivity/solid data Consultant paid for bias / intuition (judgement): supplements data
Neutral towards client approval of outcome Concerned about client attitude toward outcome

Pitfalls of causal analysis: How do we know what we have when we have it?
1) Cause and effect: conditions influence each other (mistaking effect for a cause) 3) Multiple causes of one effect/problem (1 may be more important; dependent or parallel)
2) Basic or primary cause: chains of causes and effects 4) Multiple effects of one cause

Ishikawa (“fishbone”) diagram: idenify potential factors causing an effect (in product design, quality defect prevention). Factors contributing to X defect (in groups):
- Measurements: calibration, microscopes, inspectors - People: training, shifts, operators - Methods: angle, engagaer, brake
- Materials: lubricants, alloys, suppliers - Environment: humidity, temperature - Machines: speed, blade wear

Conducting an assesment (DISCOVER)

1) Sampling: random vs stratified (MECE: Mutually Exclusive and Collectively Exhaustive: Every population element must be assigned to only one group.
2) Questionnaire: respondents’ fatigue
3) Interviews: atmosphere and culture
4) Observations: observer effect
5) Critical Incidents
6) Organisational outcomes: internal data
QUESTIONAIRE vs. INTERVIEW
Starts in Discovery & Dialogue Starts in Entry & contracting. Qualitative: in-depth knowledge. Personal: Subject known. Difficult
Quantitative: generic knowledge to analyse and compare. Time consuming and expensive
Superficial: anonymous. Easy to *interview guide Areas to discuss. Prepare open and probing questions. Follow questions
analyse and compare. Time and Opening statement Intent, competency, broader impact
cost efficient. 1 question; simple Note taking Written or recorded (intimidating, much data, transcription process. non-verbal clues
and unbiased; positive; think about Atmosphere Time & space, build questions, be efficient
processing; structured

3) ANALYSIS AND DECISION TO ACT

Consulting intervention “Systematic effort into an ongoing ‘system’ for the purpose of initiating or introducing change”: is the methodology that enables client and
consultant to search for efficient ways to achieve results • Ongoing: rarely a project • Likely to cause a ripple effect

Intervention categories and themes

• Discrepancy  Attention to a contradiction in action and/or attitude • Experimentation  2 action plans are tested before final decision
• Theory  Use behavioural science knowledge/theory to explain behaviour • Dilemma  Emerged dilemma forces to examine possible choices
• Procedural  Critiquing how is done to determine best methods to use • Perspective  Draws attention away from immediate actions, looks at the context
• Relationship  Focuses on interpersonal relationships to bring up issues • Cultural  Examines the composition of an org culture in a focused approach

Intervention examples to make a decision

1. Force Field analysis : Inventory of drivers and restraints to make a decision
2. Synectics: Structured and specialist process to get creative solutions
3. Nominal Group Technique: to make decision without putting people on the spot

Intervention examples to solve a problem

1. Wants and musts: People are willing to live with some issues if the critical ones are addressed
2. Best, worst and most likely: Addressing (un)realistic fears
3. Is and isn’t: When defining the problem identify what it doesn’t involve.
4. Reframing a problem: Change the conceptual/emotional viewpoint of how a situation is experienced and place it in another frame changing its entire meaning.

Intervention styles to adress issues (Qué hace el consultant para el client?)

• Acceptance  accepts problem, tries to be responsive to client’s needs,gives client a sense of worth, value acceptance, and support
• Catalyst  helps the client &others to generate and combine information for clearer perception and to react with one another.
• Confrontation  helps the client value discrepancies, different beliefs and assumptions, confronts contradictory info/behavior and gets the client to face up reality.
• Prescriptive  tells the client what to do for solving the problem: collects data, makes a diagnosis and suggests “treatment”(doctor-patient model).
• Theory, principles  teaches behavioural theory so client can diagnose the problem and solve it. This is used as a base for discussion and problem solving.

CONSULCUBE (1989) Blake and Mouton

WHO? Units of change  Larger social system, organisation, intergroup, group, individual
HOW? Styles of intervention  Acceptant, Catalytic, Confrontation, Prescriptive, Theory and Principles
WHAT? Focal issues  Power and authority, Morals and cohesion, Norms and standards, Goals and objectives
4) ENGAGEMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION  ACTION PLANNING. / Internal vs. External How can you recognise resistance?
Give Me More Detail: client spends more time on asking for information than analyzing and discussing it.
Flooding You with Detail: client keeps giving irrelevant and detailed info. You start to get impatient with the questions, even though
you are able to answer them.
Time The client has not time to meet with you.
Impracticality Emphasis on ‘practicality’ raises suspicion that you are up against an emotional issue. Client reminds that this is the ‘Real World with Real World
problems’ and accuses you of being impractical, academic, even idealistic.
I’m Not Surprised is the client’s response. Whatever happens, client is not surprised.
Attack Yo feel like a child who has done poor work and violated morality. Angry words, red face, finger pointing, punctuating end of sentences.
Confusion You explain yourself several times and the client keeps claiming to be confused.
Silence A client presents no reaction to what you propose and does not raise any objections or give you real support or showed enthusiasm.
Intellectualising Discussion shifts from how to proceed, to theories about why things are as they are.
Moralising Using phrases of superiority (“those people” about who is not in the room) instead of discussing different views isadefense against taking uncomfortable actions.
Compliance client always agrees with u without reservations. You get no negative reaction at all.
Methodology purpose of a meeting is to understand the problem and decide what to do, not to questions about research method.
Flight into Health The client tells the situation is improving, you hear that things seem to be getting better.
Pressing for Solutions client only desires solutions: This prevents from learning about the nature or cause of a problem: solutions cannot be implemented effectively.

Where to find inspiration for solutions? What are de (dis)advanteges of these sources?
1. OWN EXPERIENCE: Previous assignments and clients 3. CLIENT ORGANISATION: Staff
2. CONSULTING ORGANISATION: Files and documentation, Colleagues who 4. EXTERNAL SOURCES: Professional literature: periodicals, cases. Other
worked in similar situations organisations: competitors, research institutes

Effective Action Planning (phas 4) lay in excellent diagnostic work (phase 3). Differences in approach and methodology between analysis & implementation (3  4).
 Diagnostic Stage  Traditional Logic  LEFT BRAIN  Analytical Thinking  Making assumptions of what the rules are
(scientist, mathematician, familiar,linear, analytical, strategic, practical, always in control, words and language, realistic, equations and numbers, order, logic)
 Action Planning  Creativity  RIGHT  Lateral Thinking  Disregarding implied rules
(creativity, passion, sensuality, taste, movement, vivid colors, boundless imagination, art, poetry, sense, feelings)
Challenges of Action Planning?
Avoid Overdiagnosis: Move into planning timely (too much time spent on examining facts; There is a desire to finish the project as soon as posible); AND Client
Involvement: Must be extensive (only undertake extensive work if client agrees with approach + internal talent and good ideas NEED to be examined +
participation generates commitment)
Creative thinking  “A series of mental actions which produce changes and developments of thought” Barriers  WE educated to think analytically + Evaluating
too quickly + Belief there is only one right answer + Conformity or giving expected answer (fear of authority) + Not willing to challenge the obvious

Creative Process  - PREPARATION Define the problem, gather information, and set up criteria for a solution Step
- INCUBATION back from the problem and let your mind contemplate and work it through DIVERGENT Thinking CONVERGENT T
Generate ideas  select specific idea
- ILLUMINATION Ideas arise to provide the basis of a creative response (insight)
Create choices  make choices
- VERIFICATION Analyse whether ideas obtained satisfy the need and criteria defined (evaluation) Discover solutions  select solutions

Looking for ideas

Attribute listing: Divide problem into smaller bits to solve easier. List key attributes of the issue; Choose importants; Identify alternatives; combine to improve some.
Forced relationsh: Studycombine separate concepts to develop better ideas. Finding solutions easier when relate to other issue. Reasoning more important than choice.
Lateral thinking: Examine ideas that appear to be outside the problem: changing direction is better than thinking harder in the same way. ‘Movement value’ important
(from known ideas to new). It distances from ‘vertical’ (step-by-step) and ‘horizontal’ imagination (many ideas)
Breaktrough thinking: Do not think outside the box or deeper inside the usual box: take a specific viewpoint to find alternative solutions.
6 thinking hats: Consider issues from different perspectives. Tool for group discussion/individual thinking involving 6 coloured ‘hats’ that refer to a different way to look
at an issue. During the process, consider alternatives while wearing different hats to analyse (dis)advantages of X: facts, creativity, benefits, cautions,feelings, process
Morphological analysis: Explore solutions to a multi-dimensional, non-quantified complex problem by putting variables in a grid. to recognise structural aspects and
study their relationships. It allows for reduction by: 1. identifying possible solutions 2. eliminating illogical combinations (instead of reducing variables)
7) Synectics: joining together different and apparently irrelevant elements to understand how creativity works to improve creative thinking. Depends on informal
conversation among small group with diverse experience and expertise: embracing and linking the seemingly irrelevant (including emotional and irrational elements).

5) EXTENSION, RECYCLE or PROCESS TERMINATION  assignment will end once its purpose has been achieved and the consultant’s help is not longer needed  Job
has been completed; Job will be discontinued without help from consul; Satisfactory collabo; Clear outcomes of relationship; Positive atmosphere of termination

termination - Too early: Work could not be Too late: Consultant delivers difficult project Gradual
completed + Client overestimated capability to without assuring client is well trained + Job withdrawal
finish project (without sufficient training) + vaguely definednew problems were discovered
Client’s budget does not permit job to be during the assignment + Consultant tries to stay
finished + Consultant in a hurry to start longer than necessary (to earn money).
another assignment + Changed focus of client
Evaluation or not?  Why are many assignments never evaluated? Failure is often the consultant’s fault, while with success, other factors/people are credited.
“Success has many fathers but failure is an orphan”: Many peple will seek credit for succes, but few will accept responsibility fr failure. When a victory is achieved
plenty of people are willing to declare their part in it, but when things go badly very few people want to take responsibility for it.

Process of termination - Evaluating client benefits (before and after)  achieved overall purpose? + Specific results or benefits? + Expected results that were not
achieved? + Unexpected and supplementary results?  client benefits: new capabilities/systems/relationships/opportunities/new behaviour/performance
Why are only 5% of all communications professionals self-employed? You have to sell yourself to have freedom of choice and variety of jobs + be responsible for
own decisions and be your own boss + sacrafices and maybe earn up to 250 euro/hr. Forms of ownership:
advantages disadvantages
SOLE OWNRSH Easy to establish. Few legal restrictions. Complete control Merged personal/professional assets and liabilities. Personal income tax. Difficult to
raise capital. Responsible for all functions
PARTNERSHIPS Low start-up costs. Pooling of resources. Broader skills base Less flexibility. Personal liability for all partners. Dissolution of partnership = unstable
CORPORATION Liability owners is investment. Ownership easily transferred Expensive to set up and run. Taxation dividend and corporate taxes
Easier to attract capital. Credibility