NOTES for ECE 4605

Fall 2007

CONTENTS:
RADIO and MICROWAVE ENGINEERING—NOTES for ECE 4605
NOTES for revision of Solid-State Radio Engineering

EE 4675 Laboratory Notes

NOTE: The course will use the program ADS by Agilent (formally HP) on your PC with connection to a
license server. This is a full product (a few features are not available), worth about $50,000. This package
is very powerful, but will generally be used to provide an exposure to this software, not to push you toward
using the software in place of learning the processes. If you understand the fundamentals of the design
and analysis of microwave and RF systems, You will find yourself better off. Most employers look to your
ability to work without one of these packages, using the package as a verification or optimization tool.
There is not a printed manual available with the software at this time. This software may also be used in
the Microwave Class (4104) and the RF Microelectronics class.

August 2007 (WAD)

This material is Copyright (C) 2007 byWilliam A. Davis and Charles W. Bostian
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER OUTLINE - Revision of Solid-State Radio Engineering

ABSTRACT 33

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 333

Chapter List
1. INTRODUCTION
2. S PARAMETERS AND SMITH CHART
3. LUMPED-ELEMENT MATCHING
4. TRANSMISSION-LINE MATCHING
5. NOISE
6. SMALL-SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS
7. OSCILLATORS
8. PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS

9. MIXERS
10. ANALOG MODULATION
11. DIGITAL MODULATION
12. ANALOG RECEIVERS
13. DIGITAL RECEIVERS
14. TELEVISION RECEIVERS

15. LINEAR POWER AMPLIFIERS

16. TUNED POWER AMPLIFIERS
17. HIGH-EFFICIENCY POWER AMPLIFIERS
18. CW, FM, AND AM TRANSMITTERS
19. LINEAR (SSB) TRANSMITTERS

=============================================================================
SECTION-LEVEL OUTLINE

PREFACE AND FRONT MATTER (CWB)

Include story about how Krauss taught Raab to write somewhat painfully
Thread of knowledge passed on from Reich.
Note how Gene Davenport delivered first printing to Herb just before his death.

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION (As proposed for book)

1-1 Introduction
1-2 Elements of a Radio System
1-3 Modulation
{ Combine 1e 1-3 and 1-5
{ Include digital modulation (block diagram)
1-4 Frequency, Time, Code-Division Multiplexing
1-5 Major Radio Systems
{ Spectrum chart LF - UHF
1-6 Related Applications
{ RF heating, MRI, EW

1 INTRODUCTION (For these notes) 1.1

1.0 A Definition and Concept..................................................................................... 1.1
1.1 Background and Importance................................................................................ 1.1
1.2 Purposes and General Objectives.......................................................................... 1.3
1.3 Some Simplified Examples................................................................................... 1.4
1.31 A basic matching problem........................................................................ 1.4
1.32 An oscillator circuit.................................................................................. 1.5
1.33 The mixer concept................................................................................... 1.6
1.34 The basic amplifier................................................................................... 1.7
1.4 Flow of the Text.................................................................................................. 1.7
References................................................................................................................... 1.8
Problems...................................................................................................................... 1.8

2 S PARAMETERS AND SMITH CHART 2.1

Introduction
2-1 Classical Two-Port Network Parameters
2-2 S-Parameter Derivations and Definitions
2-3 Fundamental Properties and Simple Examples
2-4 Basic Design Concepts
2-6 Smith Chart Display of S Parameters
2-7 Using S Parameters in Software Packages
A2-1 Two-port parameter-conversion formulas

Smith chart is introduced in draft of 05/22/04

Need to check outline against draft.

Chapter 3. LUMPED-ELEMENT MATCHING

 Introduction
3-1 Series and Parallel Resonance.
3-2 Series and Parallel Transformations
3-3 Two-Element Matching Neetworks (L-Networks)
3-4 A Third Element - Bandwidth Control
3-5 Tee Networks
3-6 Pi Networks
3-7 Pi-L Networks
3-8 Simple Transformer Circuits
3-9 Bandwidth of Cascaded Networks DAVIS 2.13 revised by CWB
A3-1 Properties of RF Inductors
Toroids, air-wound, printed
A3-2 Properties of RF capacitors
Chip capacitors, trimmers
Questions: Draft received 07/15/04 does not have SSRE appendix with formulas. Include?

Chapter 4. TRANSMISSION-LINE MATCHING

Introduction
4-1 Transmission-Line Stubs as Reactive Impedances
4-2 Quarter-Wave Transformers and Tapered Lines
4-3 Impedance Transformation and Stub Matching
4-4 Matching with Transmission Line and Shunt Capacitance
A4-1 Properties of Circuit Boards and Substrates Boards - fiberglass FR-4, Duroid, alumina,
etc. Semiconductor substrates used in RFICs

Chapter 5. NOISE
Introduction
5-1 Basic Black-Body Concept of Broadband Thermal Noise
5-2 Noise Models for Devices
5-3 Signal to Noise Ratio, Noise Figure, and Equivalent Temperature
5-4 Noise-Figure Optimization
5-5 Noise in Cascaded Networks
5-6 Noise in Transmission Lines and Passive Networks
5-7 Actual or Operational Noise Figure
5-8 An Extensive Noise-Figure Example
5-9 Noise-Figure Measurement
5-10 Amplifier Noise Considerations

Chapter 6. SMALL-SIGNAL AMPLIFIERS

Introduction
6-1 Definition of a Small Signal Amplilfier
6-2 Biasing
6-3 Amplifier Power Gain
6-4 Stability
6-5 Designing for Stability
6-6 Maximum-Gain Design with Stable Devices
6-7 Potentiallly Unstable Design
6-8 Detailed Design Example
 6-9 Transistor Data Sheets and Software Models
(i.e., how to interpret rather than collection of data sheets)
6-10 Large-Signal Behavior and Dynamic Range
Include definition of linearity and IP3 here

Chapter 7. OSCILLATORS
Introduction
7-1 Representing the Large-Signal Behavior of Actice Devices
7-2 Three-Terminal Model of a Feedback Oscillator
7-3 Colpitts Oscillator
7-3 VCOs and VCXOs
7-4 Oscillator Simulation
7-5 Other Oscillator Circuits
7-6 Crystal Oscillators
7-7 Practical Oscillator Design
Include buffering and other implementation issues.
A7-1 Properties of Crystals and Other Resonators
Questions:
Has stability been addressed?

Chapter 8. PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS AND FREQUENCY SYNTHESIS

Mention uses in synthesizers, phase-locked receivers, and power-generation systems.
8-1 PLL Basics
Basic phase and frequency relationships in a loop
8-2 PLL Components
Voltage-controlled (VCO) - Multivibrators and varactor-tuned LC
8-3 Phase Detectors
Multiplier, NAND, NOR, XOR, Triggered RS ff, and Frequency-Phase Det
8-4 Loop Filter
Passive lag-lead and active. Limit to 2nd order, Type 2.
8-5 Other PLL Components
"Garbage" filter (eliminate reference feedthru)
8-6 Linear Analysis of a PLL in Lock
Basic linear system analysis to get H(s) and He(s)
8-7 Frequency Limits
Demonstrate the Hold-in range and other limits
8-8 Acquisition
Pull-in and Lock-in
8-9 Applications of PLLs
8-10 Direct digital synthesis
Concepts
Spurs and noise vs. clock rate and quantization
Example design

Chapter 9. MIXERS AND FREQUENCY CONVERSION 6.1

9.0 Introduction......................................................................................................... 9.1
9.1 The Basic Mixer................................................................................................... 9.2
9.2 Typical Mixer Topologies.................................................................................... 9.4
 9.3 Mixer Terminology.............................................................................................. 9.6
9.4 Almost Periodic Frequency Analysis..................................................................... 9.7
9.5 The Small Signal Conversion................................................................................ 9.9
9.6 The Bipolar Junction Transistor Mixer................................................................. 9.10
9.7 Field Effect Transistor Mixers.............................................................................. 9.10
9.8 Dual Gate FET Mixers......................................................................................... 9.11
9.9 Integrated Circuit Mixers....................................................................................
.................................................................................... 9.11
9.10 Diode Mixers....................................................................................................... 9.11
9.11 The Manley-Rowe Equations and Microwave Mixers........................................... 9.12
9.12 Determining Potential Spurious Product Problem Frequencies Graphically........... 9.13
Problems...................................................................................................................... 9.16

LAB Notes
Syllabus
Lab Notebook Instructions
Oscillator Design
Amplifier Design
Amplifier Measurements
Soldering: A Short Primer
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 A Definition and Concept

Radio engineering and microwave engineering are merging in the techniques used for analysis and
design, particularly with the widespread use of digital communication techniques in the UHF1 and
microwave frequency ranges. This text emphasizes the techniques for analysis and design which
are applicable to both the classic radio engineering realm and the microwave engineering realm.
Radio engineering primarily constitutes analysis of the circuits used for transmission and reception
of information in the medium frequency (MF) to ultra-high frequency (UHF) ranges, including
300 kHz to 3 GHz. The bandwidth and amplitude/phase constraints of the circuits are related to
the form of modulation used to impress the signal information on a carrier at the design
frequency. The modulation used in communications is not covered in detail in this text as it is the
major topic of texts in signal processing and analog and digital communications. Modulation is
also a major concern in satellite communications. Some examples of modulation schemes will be
treated in order to demonstrate the application of the circuit technology to current forms of
communication systems, including both analog and digital concepts.
The area of microwave engineering uses many of the same concepts as radio engineering to be
considered in this text. In fact, scattering parameters (or S-parameters) were first used to describe
the signal flow of information in microwave and radar systems in the 1940s [Montgomery, 1947].
The general range is above 3 GHz, with the range from 30 GHz to 300 GHz generally referred to
as the millimeter wave region. Higher frequencies enter the realm of the infrared and optics. Many
of the concepts are still applicable at these higher frequencies, though the devices are considerably
different at these frequencies.

1.2 Background and Importance

To understand the text, let us first consider the meaning of communications and the parts of a
communications system. Communications is often thought of as the transmission of information
from one place or person to another. In reality, communications requires the added dimension of
assuring that the transfer of information is complete and understood correctly. This latter step
often requires a two-way system with the inclusion of appropriate cipher and decipher equipment
at each end, thus the area of signal processing.
The one-way path of such a communication link is shown in Fig. 1.1. The communication
begins with an information source which is coded (signal processing), packaged for transmission

1The UHF frequency range is defined to be 300 to 3000 MHz. Microwave frequencies are typically interpreted
to be approximately 3GHz to about 30 GHz.

1.1
(modulated onto a radio carrier), amplified, and sent to an antenna. This information is radiated
into space (or down a guided wave structure such as a transmission line or fiber optic) toward a
receive location. At the receive location, we must intercept the signal with an antenna, amplify it
to a reasonable level, open the package (de-modulate), de-code (filter/process), and provide an
output to the user. This is the same process used by humans in direct communication where the
brain generates a message which is modulated onto an acoustical carrier and transmitted into
space through the mouth. At a distance, another person may receive the voice signal in the ear
where the sound is translated into nerve pulses and sent to the brain for decoding and evaluation
as a message. For the communication to be complete, the receiver must have understood the
message and usually responds to the sender.
With this picture of a communication system, either electronic or human, we separate the parts
of the entire system for consideration as separate areas of study. The actual incoming and
outgoing information is not of interest here except as to the form of such information. Such
information might be a voice or a bit stream from a computer. In either case, the information is
put into a form which may be treated electrically. The area of signal processing addresses the
issue of the best way to pre and post process this information. The analog and digital engineer
develops conceptual methods of attaching this processed information to a high frequency sine
wave for transmission. The communication engineer may often be the same analog and digital
engineer and is generally responsible for considering the arrangement of system blocks in order to
accomplish the objective of the overall communications. This engineer must interact with several
other individuals and coordinate their efforts to complete the system. Two other engineers

Antenna

Info Code Modulate Amp

In

Carrier Space

LO

Info
Decode Detect Amp
Out

Figure 1.1: One-way communication system.

1.2
needed for this work are the radiowave propagation engineer and the antenna engineer. They
provide the designs and information on the radiating portions of the system. Lastly, the radio or
microwave engineer is responsible for all of the radio or microwave frequency circuit design to
accomplish the needs of the system designer. In this sense, a systems designer coordinates the
efforts of several individuals to fill the blocks he has specified in the system, thus leaving the
detailed design to other engineers. This text dwells on the circuit design which the system
engineer often buys off the shelf as a black box. Though this area of study is not one of the
glamorous areas often seen, it is probably the most fundamental and important in the success of
the design. Without proper circuit design, the system will not be able to handle the signal levels
and frequencies often encountered without severe distortion and possibly signal interference.

1.3 Purposes and General Objectives

The general purpose of this text is for the student to understand the design principles of the basic
blocks found in modern receivers and transmitters and to be able to design these blocks to meet
specifications. In addition, several of the common tools for the general analysis and design of
radio and microwave circuits will be developed.
A few of the circuits to be considered are depicted in the simplified receiver block diagram of
Fig. 1.2. This receiver has a radio frequency (RF) amplifier providing a coarse input filter for the
input signal. This amplifier provides gain for the signal and a buffer for the antenna from the mixer
stage. The mixer uses the input from a local oscillator (LO) to translate the input signal to an
intermediate frequency (IF) for more complete amplification, filtering, and gain control. This use
of an intermediate frequency was originally proposed by Edwin Armstrong in 1918 (Ryder, 1984)
and the resultant receiver is referred to as a superhetrodyne receiver. The output of the IF is fed
to a detector which provides a base-band signal for the signal processing portion of the system.
The transmitter portion of the system provides the reverse of this basic scheme, though different
requirements must be meet in terms of interference and signal level.
In the text, we shall begin with a treatment of the circuits uses to provide interconnection
between stages of the system. These interstage networks meet several fundamental needs:
Impedance transformation, coarse bandwidth control, and frequency determination. The
fundamental block of a system is the amplifier. The third chapter will develop the theory for
analysis and design of small-signal amplifiers. This theory will be based on scattering (W )
parameters, a set of parameters which may be considered to describe the transmission and
reflection of energy at the terminals of a device. The reflection and transmission concept is
powerful and allows the concepts to be applied through optical frequencies. A lower signal level
limit for the operation of most devices is the system noise. The fourth chapter introduces the types
of noise which appear in communication circuits and the methods of analysis and design for noise.
The upper level limit for signals is the non-linear limit associated with the saturation of
components. This limit leads us to the discussion of large-signal amplifiers and measurement
descriptions of the high level limits of amplifiers. These large-signal concepts are extended to
enable us to treat the analysis and design of oscillators and mixers, both of which depend on the
nonlinearities for proper operation.
The circuits thus described constitute the basis for both receivers and transmitters. The
remaining circuits to be considered include those for detection, modulation, and power
amplification. Also to be considered in the remainder of this text is the prediction of mixer

1.3
spurious responses, system configurations, gain distributions, and measurements. I hope that you
find these chapters informative and that they provide the foundation you need for a career in radio
or microwave engineering.

Mixer

From IF Detector
RF IF Info
Antenna Filter /AGC

LO AGC Control

Figure 1.2: Simplified receiver diagram.

1.4 Some Simplified Examples

In considering the design of radio and microwave systems, several basic principles may be used
for design. In this section, we will explore some sample circuits in a rather simple format to
demonstrate the principles of the text. As a result this treatment provides a general overview of
the topics covered in the text.

1.41 A basic matching problem

The connection of blocks in a receiver typically requires impedance transformation or filtering,
often both. At the output of a mixer, filtering is required to select only the desired mixing
products which result from the nonlinear mixing process. The MRFIC 2002 might be used as a
transmit mixer amplifier fed directly into the MRFIC 2003 antenna switch at 900 MHz. The
output level for these devices would be low, but the interconnect still is critical for proper
frequency filtering. The MRFIC 2002 has an output resistance of about 50 H in series with a small
inductive reactance which may be series tuned at 900 MHz with a 5.6 pF capacitor. The MRFIC
2003 antenna switch has a nominal 50 H impedance. The basic problem becomes the mixing
product generation outside of the 900 MHz band.

1.4
 5.59 nH
5.6 pF
50 Ω 50 Ω

Figure 1.3: Simple interstage filter.

To filter out the other mixing product, a bandpass filter may be added about the 900 MHz
center frequency. In the simplest process, the circuit might use a 5.6 pF capacitor in series with
the MRFIC 2002 output to a parallel inductor-capacitor circuit as in Fig. 1.3 and further coupled
through a 100 pF chip capacitor to the input of the MRFIC 2003 for DC isolation. The 100 pF
capacitor provides a reasonably small reactance of 1.77 H compared to the 50 H resistance. It is
reasonable for the inductive reactance to be five times less than the total resistance of 25 H (the
two resistances in parallel) for a parallel L/C combination of 0.88 nH (a small inductance) in
parallel with 35 pF. The resultant bandwidth is about 180 MHz about the center frequency. The
component values and bandwidth of this example may be suggestive to some readers of the
difficult challenges which await the design engineer at higher frequencies, requiring care in
component selection and circuit layout.
With higher power levels, the output impedance of devices often become much lower with
values approaching 1 H. For simplicity, let us consider another problem of a transmitter requiring
a 10 H load and a 50 H antenna. This situation requires some form of impedance transformation
and may also require filtering. Neglecting the filtering aspect, we might provide the impedance
transformation using a broadband transformer. This is typically the solution used in high-power
push-pull amplifier systems, though additional filtering is also used to provide adequate rejection
of the second harmonic of the transmitter frequency which may be generated in the nonlinear
amplification processes of the amplifier. The transformer for this application is a specially wound
hybrid transformer which uses a combination of low-frequency transformer concepts with tightly
wound toroidal structures and high-frequency transmission line transformer concepts. An alternate
is to use simple components to provide both an impedance matching and filtering property. One
such circuit of Fig. 1.4 would use an inductor in series with the device output, fed to the 50 H in
parallel with a capacitor. At 900 MHz, a 3Þ54 nH inductor will transform a 10 H resistance to the
equivalent of 50 H in parallel with a 25 H inductive reactance. Thus the addition of a 25 H
capacitive reactance in parallel with the 50 H antenna provides the needed tuning to provide a
resistive impedance match. The bandwidth of this system is still very broad, approaching the value
of the center frequency. As in the previous circuit, DC isolation would have to be added.

1.5
 3.54 nH

10 Ω 50 Ω
7.08 pF

Figure 1.4: Simple impedance transformation.

1.42 An oscillator circuit

The typical approach to oscillators is to design the system from an approximate linear view point
and hope it works reasonably well. To demonstrate a straight forward approach with some
approximation used to estimate drive levels, we consider the circuit of Fig. 1.5. In this simple
example we have used an ideal-transformer feedback with an n:1 turns ratio. The system is tuned
at the output using a parallel tuned circuit to set the frequency of oscillation. The BJT (bipolar
junction transistor) will be biased at 1 mA using an ideal current source on the emitter, shorted to
ground through an AC shorting capacitor. For an AC voltage on the base-emitter junction above
about 100 mV, the AC collector current at the design frequency is approximately twice the DC
current since the current flows in short pulses. This gives a fundamental frequency component of
current of about 2 mA. If we desire an output voltage of 1 Vpeak , we need a load resistor on the
tuned circuit of 500 H and a transformer turns ratio of less than 10 for a base-emitter voltage of at
least 10 mVpeak . In order to connect to a mixer or other circuit, the output of the oscillator
requires both an impedance transformation to the appropriate impedance as well as filtering to
eliminate the rich harmonic content characteristic of oscillators.

1.6
 Vcc

C
L R

Idc

AC Short AC Short

Figure 1.5: A simple transformer coupled oscillator.

1.43 The mixer concept

A mixer combines the output of a high-level oscillator and a low-level signal to produces
frequencies at combinations of the input frequencies. These combinations provide translations of
the input frequency, providing the superhetrodyne feature of Section 1.2. The process may often
be thought of as an oscillator signal chopping the signal. In the circuit of Fig. 1.6, we impress a
high level oscillator voltage across a diode, turning the diode on and off, thus allowing the signal
to be shorted to ground or be passed to the output respectively. A simple analysis of this circuit
simply multiplies the signal by an offset square wave (offset to be a minimum of zero). The square
wave may be expanded in a Fourier series with only odd orders for fundamental oscillator
frequency present. The product results in a series of trigonometric products giving sum and
difference frequencies in accordance with the product identities of trigonometric functions. In
practice, only one of the frequency combinations on the output is desired and must be selected
with an appropriate filter.

1.7
 Signal Signal
In Out

Figure 1.6: Simple mixer.

1.44 The basic amplifier

The basic amplifier is a modification of those used we learn about at audio frequencies. At RF
frequencies, it is common to do the analysis of amplifiers using scattering parameters or W
parameters. These parameters will be discussed in the text along with the importance of the
parameters in radio and microwave measurement environments. Rather than pursue the treatment
of amplifiers, we mention the considerations which must be given to the design of amplifiers.
As we expect, power gain and frequency response become important considerations in the
design specification of an amplifier. However at RF, issues of harmonic generation, stability, bias
connection, impedance matching, noise, and linearity are all important concerns. Each of these
must be considered in light of the particular application of the amplifier.

1.5 Flow of the text

The text flows from the basic circuits to the more complex. Thus we find a treatment of the
matching networks mentioned in the last section in Chapter 3. The easily flows into the design of
small-signal amplifiers in Chapter 6. The important new topic of Chapter 6 is the use of W
parameters and an understanding of what these parameters represent in a circuit. Chapter 5 looks
at the low-signal level end of the problem. The concepts of noise modeling and applications to
receiver and amplifier specification are treated. Chapter 7 goes to the other extreme with an
introduction to the high-level end with a treatment of frequency multipliers and oscillators. The
large-signal trend continues in Chapter 9 with the design of mixers. The remainder of the text is to
treat subjects in modulation, demodulation, phased-locked loops, power amplifiers, chip sets, and
receiver/transmitter layout. NOTE: The chapter numbers may vary in the notes.

1.8
References

Montgomery, Dicke, and Purcell (1947), Principles of Microwave Circuits, McGraw-Hill, New
York.

Ryder, J. D. and D. G. Fink (1984), Engineers & Electronics: A Century of Electrical

Progress, IEEE Press, New York.

Problems

1.3-1 Install the ADS program and run the tutorial provided by the instructor. Turn-in plots for
a) RC filter, b) 5-pole filter after plotting the angle, and c) 5-pole filter after adding the
autolines. [NOTE: Due to the limitations of the student edition, you must change plot 1
to do the second plot set. Only one sheet is allowed, but up to 4 graphs on the sheet with
the same sweep data.]

1.4-1 To measure the output voltage of a transmitter and estimate the output power level, it is
common to measure the voltage across a known "dummy" load (not an antenna, but rather
a high power resistor). For 100W being delivered to a 50H load, a total of 100V peak is
produced, exceeding most laboratory RF voltmeters. In order to reduce the voltage, a
voltage divider is used. a) Determine the peak voltage of Z= Î# at the load to deliver 100W
to the 50H load in Fig. 1.3. b) If we use a 100kH series resistor and a parallel 1kH resistor
across the ideal peak voltmeter, determine the peak RF voltage across the voltmeter.

50Ω 100k Ω

50Ω 1kΩ

Vs Vm
Figure 1.7: Dummy load measurement system.

c) Assuming that both of the kilohm resistors are of similar construction, we find that they
each have a capacitance of 1pF in parallel. Determine the peak voltage measured at Z7 for
a frequency of 100MHz (In parts c and d, use the voltage of part a). d) Add one capacitor
to the divider circuit to correct the measured voltage so that it is independent of frequency
for "!!W delivered to the &!H load. What is the value and location? e) At 100MHz, what
is the impedance that the divider circuit of (d) puts across the &!H load?

1.9
1.4-2 Repeat 1.4-1 using ADS.

1.4-3 The oscillator used for the mixer of Fig. 1.5 produces an effective square wave signal
which varies between 0 and 1 (an on-off switch). a) For a radian frequency of "!) r/s,
determine the level of each of the frequency components through the fifth harmonic of the
oscillator. b) Using the fundamental component of the oscillator ("!) r/s) times a
"Þ!"! ‚ "!) r/s signal having an amplitude of "mV, determine the output level at the
difference frequency (obtained after filtering the output).

NOTE: ADS is a full functioning CAD package valued at about $50k. VA Tech has a license for
use in several classes and academic research. The system requires installation of license
server use. A simpler software package named ECLIPSE may be used in Windows. It is
available at http://www.ardentech.com/ and you would download the Lite version. There is
also a SysCalc package that can be downloaded separately or along with Eclipse.

1.10