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Three types of claims [from Rottenberg, Annette T.

Elements of Argument, 7 th
ed.., p10, 62, 67, 78]

Claims of Fact assert that a condition has existed, exists, or will exist and are based
on facts or data that the audience will accept as being objectively verifiable.
Horse racing is the most dangerous sport.
California will experience colder, stormier weather for the next ten years.
These claims must be supported by data. In an inference or an educated guess about the
future, a reader will probably find the prediction credible if the data seem authoritative.
Defending a factual claim:
1. State the claim clearly, preferably at the beginning.
2. Define terms that may be controversial or ambiguous.
3. Make sure your evidence (facts and opinions, or interpretations of the facts) is
sufficient, accurate, recent, typical; the authorities should be reliable.
4. As a courtesy to your readers, distinguish facts from opinions and interpretations.
5. Emphasize your most important evidence by placing it at the beginning or end of your
essay and by devoting more space to it.

Claims of Value attempt to prove that some things are more or less desirable than
others. They express approval or disapproval of standards of taste and morality. Such
claims emerge whenever people argue about what is good or bad, beautiful or ugly.
Football is one of the most dehumanizing experiences a person can face.
Ending a patient’s life intentionally is absolutely forbidden on moral grounds.
Defending a claim of value:
1. Make clear that the values or principles you are defending are important and more
significant than related values (sometimes values can seem to contradict others).
2. Suggest that adherence to the values you are defending will bring about good results in
some specific situation or bad results if respect for the values is ignored.
3. Since value terms are abstract, use examples to clarify meanings and make distinctions.
Comparison/contrast often helps, e.g., heroism vs foolhardiness.
4. Use testimony of people or institutions that are respected.

Claims of Policy assert that specific policies should be instituted as solutions to


problems. The expression of should, must or ought to usually appears in the thesis
statement. Policy claims call for analysis of both fact and value.
Prisons should be abolished because they are crime-manufacturing concerns.
Our town’s Board of Education should make sure that qualified minorities appear
on any new list of candidates for Board President.
Defending a claim of policy:
1. Make your proposal clear, with all terms precisely defined.
2. If necessary, establish the need for change. If change has been resisted, explain why.
3. Consider the opposing arguments. State them fairly so you can refute or at least defuse
them.
4. Prove your proposal satisfies the need for change, and provide answers to opposing
arguments.
5. Support your proposal with solid data, but don’t neglect the moral considerations and
the common sense reasons, which may be even more persuasive.

408037361.doc

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