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ARTICLES
ANN VARLEY
University College London, UK
ABSTRACT
Women’s housing needs do not seem to attract much attention. They do not
figure prominently in the housing literature, as can be seen, for example, from
13
14 Ann Varley
Various I 980s t
Low-income settlements 7 12 9464
Puebla 1986
Young settlement (owners) C 2 5 100
Older settlement (owners) D 6 14 76
Older settlement (tenants) 11 15 80
Inner city rental area (tenants) 9 12 115
Puebla 1991
Young settlement (owners) C 0 5 55
Older settlement (owners) D 12 33 33
(continued overleafl
16 Ann Yarley
Table I. (continued)
Guadalajara 1992
Young settlement (owners) : 8 77
Older settlement (owners) 11 56
Lebn I986
Young settlement (96% owners) 4 9 23
Older settlement (72% owners) 6 11 54
Monterrey 1990
Older settlements (owners@
Oaxuca 1990
Older settlement (66% owners)
Sources - various, 1980s: Selby et al., 1990 (see note 42); Mexico City, 1988: A.G. Gilbert, 0.
Camacho, R. Coulomb and A. Necochea, In Search of u ffome (University College London press,
London, in press); Mexico City 1981-1982: A. Varky, “Ye Somos Duerios: Ejido Land Development and
Regularisation in Mexico City”, unpublished Ph.D. thesis (University College London, 1985); Mexico City
and Puebla, 1991: questionnaire survey, summer 1991 (author); Guadalajara, 1992: questionnaire survey,
summer 1992 (author); Guadalajara and Puebla, 1985-1986: Gilbert and Varley, 1991 (see note 29); Puerto
Vallarta, Leon, Querttaro: S. Chant, 1991 (see note 60); Monterrey, 1990: D. Villarreal, La Pofitica de
Vivienda de1 Gobierno de1 Estado de Nuevo Ledn 1970-1990 (Universidad AutBnoma de Nuevo Ledn and
Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana-XochimiIco, Monterrey, 1992); Oaxaca, 1990: K. Willis, “Women’s
Work and Social Network Use in Oaxaca City, Mexico”, Bulletin of Latin American Research 12, 1(1992),
pp. 65-82.
Notes
1 Excludes extended households headed by women.
** Includes extended households headed by women.
t Mexico City, Mexicali, M&da, San Luis Potosf, Queretaro, Tampico, Villahermosa, Mazatlan,
Reynosa, Oaxaca.
$ A mixture of tenants, owners and sharers were interviewed, tenants being the most numerous
group.
§ Although these settlements are officially local government subdivisions belonging to the Monterrey
Metropolitan Trust, FOMERREY, several of them originated in invasions and the government did
not select the residents (Villarreal, 1992, p. 68).
na Not available.
Definition of women-headed households: see note 16. Percentages for different cities are not strictly
comparable. Some of the studies cited exclude, for example, single-person households or households
composed of unmarried siblings. although the majority include such households.
‘Young’ sefr~eme~fs: self-help housing areas in which most of the households interviewed had arrived
within the last 1.5years.
‘Older’ setdemenis: self-help housing areas over 15 years old. In some cases, these were about 20 years
old, but the one in Guadalajara was about 35 years old, and the Puebla one about 40 years old in
1985-1986.
Percent, female
Country and town/city Type of area headed households Year Source
Sources - 1.L.O. (Jnternational Labour Office), Women al Work, No. I (I.L.O., Geneva, 1986); Fal6 and Curutchet, 1991 (see note 18); T.W.
Merrick and M. Schmink, “Households Headed by Women and Urban Poverty in Brazil”, in M. BuviniC, M.A. Lycette and W.P. McGreevey (eds),
Women and Poverry in the Third World (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1983), pp. 244-271; A.M. Goldani, “Changing Brazilian Families
and the Consequent Need for Public Policy”, Inrernarional Social Science Journal 42 (1990), pp. 523-537; Volbeda, 1989 (see note 19); Gilbert et al.
(in press) (see Table 1); K. Gough, “From Bamboo to Bricks: Self-help Housing and the Building Materials Industry in Urban Colombia”, unpublished
Ph.D. thesis (University College London, 1992); S. Chant, “Gender, Households and Seasonal Migration in Guanacaste, Costa Rica” European Review
of Latin American and Caribbean Studies 50 (1991a). pp. 51-85; D.R. Middleton, “Development, Household Clusters, and Work-Wealth in Manta”,
City and Society 5, 2 (1991). pp. 137-154; Chant, 1991b (see note 60); M.J. Higgins, Somos Genre Humilde: Etnografia de una Colonia Urbana
Pobre de Oaxaca (Instituto National Indigenista, Mexico City, 1974); R. Hackenberg, A.D. Murphy and H.A. Selby, “The Urban Household in
Dependent Development”, in R.McC. Netting, R.R. Wilk and E.J. Arnould (eds), Households: Comparative and Hisrorical Studies of the Domestic
Group (University of California Press, Berkeley, 1984), pp. 187-216; Garcia er al., 1982 (see note 62); I. Vance, “More than Bricks and Mortar:
Women’s Participation in Self-help Housing in Managua, Nicaragua”, in C.O.N. Moser and L. Peake (eds), Women, Human Serrlemenrs and Housing
(Tavistock, London, 1987). pp. 139-165.
*Figure from 1984 National Household Survey, which includes some rural areas but is more representative of the urban areas (Goldani, 1990,
p. 536).
tSee note 11. It should be remembered that some housing projects may discriminate against women-headed households (Machado, 1987).
*One-half of the Nicaraguan population lives in Managua.
18 Ann Varley
Of sharers:
Percentage who are 85 77 75 100 88 60 83
daughters/sons of owners
N 47 44 4 16 8 5 124
Notes: In El Salvador and Buenos Aires, there are as yet few sons/daughters of plot owners forming
their own families; hence the very small number of sharers.
‘Sharer’: within the sharing household, the person with the closest blood relationship (or friendship)
with the owners of the plot.
* Only for plots with at least one sharer household.
20 Ann Varley
Table 4. Young adults living as part of their parents’ extended household in case-study settlements
Mean no. of daughters/ 1.1 1.2 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.0 1.2
sons with spouse/child
in these households*
N 78 72 55 33 77 56 371
sharing with his parents. Another son, who now owned his own home, also used
to share; but their two married sisters were both tenants and had not shared with
their parents since marrying. The explanation for this was that “se las llevaron”:
the daughters’ husbands had “taken them off” to live elsewhere. This phrase
was echoed by other people interviewed. It is a husband’s responsibility to
house his wife, particularly when, as this phrase hints, the couple had eloped.51
Other people were quite clear that sharing is a privilege to be granted to sons.
Parents may build additional accommodation in anticipation of their sons getting
married, or a man may build a room on his parents’ plot in order to set up home
with his girlfriend.
for their own plot. 55 Later, they can dedicate a larger share of their income
to purchasing building materials than tenants would be able to do.
Shared accommodation entails living in close daily proximity with one’s in-laws.
In this respect, it is very similar to living in an extended household, and we
may therefore look to studies of the extended households for insights into the
problems of sharing a housing plot. To date, studies of the extended household
in urban Mexico have tended to argue that it has positive implications for women,
because of the opportunities for cooperation which it allows. But this is only half
the story: there is also considerable potential for conflict.
Larissa LomnitG sought to counter the derogatory aspects of some writings
on urban marginality by analysing the mutual support networks enabling people
to cope with extreme poverty. In her book, she wrote:
one will find no stress on the more sensational aspects of poverty: the filth,
the promiscuity, the arguments and fights between people who must live
together in a tiny space.s7
The social resources mobilised by people in their efforts to survive included networks
of reciprocal exchange and institutions such as c~~~~~~~zg~.5s Although networks
could be based on friendship as well as kinship, “kinship is the most common
social foundation for reciprocity networks”,59 and extended or ‘joint’ household
structures played a key role in these networks.
Sylvia Chant60 also emphasises cooperation in extended households. Women
in extended households can “‘share and/or delegate gender-assigned duties”61
more than women in nuclear households. They therefore face fewer restrictions
on their ability to enter the labour market .62 Decisions on household budgeting
become more democratic, housework is shared, “the full-time mother-wife role
tends to become redundant” and women seem to have “far greater personal
liberty”.63 In short, extended households “reduce some of the excesses of
patriarchy”.~4
Chant65 examines different types of extension to the household in support
of her arguments, particularly those involving the inclusion of women’s sisters
or mothers. The focus of this paper is narrower, since it is restricted to the
incorporation of sons or daughters-in-law, but this is the most common pattern
in household extension and sharing. The literature on patrilocal extended
households suggests that this type of extension is likely to lead to conflict
between female relatives rather than cooperation:
The authority structure of the patrilocal, patrilineal extended family, where
father has authority over son and husband over wife, brings about conflict
rather than cooperation between women in these groups.”
Since authority is in men’s hands, women have to manipulate their relationships
with men - their husbands, and later their adult sons - in order to gain
influence. As a result of the nature of gender relations in these societies, mothers
and daughters-in-law have conflicting interests. The stem family “introduces in
the role of daughter-in-law a woman whose only hope of personal autonomy
is division of her husband’s natal family”.67 The consequences of this for
daughters-in-law have been documented, for rural China, by Elisabeth CrolP
and Margery Wolf,@ and for rural India by Ursula Sharma,70 although they
stress that daughters-in-law are not without resources (including women friends)
in dealing with their mothers-in-law. The emphasis women place on strong
Gender and lousing 23
relationships with their sons and the consequent strains between mother and
daughter-in-law are summarised by Croll:71
It was by forming and nurturing ties with her son which were personal
and exclusive that women cultivated a source of power in a social structure
dominated by men. Any potential threat to this relationship by the daughter-
in-law was felt deeply. Trapped all their lives, women, with the authority
of being the mother-in-law, appeared to compensate for their own former
suffering and impotence as outsiders by repeating the very same process of
domination.72
This type of conflict has also been reported in rural Mexico.73 Krantz74 describes
the authority of the mother-in-law over her daughter(s)-in-law in such households
as “overriding”. Although the context of modern urban Mexico is a very different
one, tension between in-laws is still a significant problem, for which gender
relations are ultimately responsible.
The fundamental emotional significance of sharing was highlighted by one
woman who answered my question as to why her married children (all daughters)
didn’t live with her by saying “Look, all my children hurt me a iot”. She was
referring, not to a family quarrel, but to the pain of childbirth. In a cultural
context in which girls are seen as inherently less ‘valuable’ than boys,75 a certain
resentment of daughters, a feeling that they should stand on their own two feet
just as their mothers had to do, can sometimes be detected, and probably helps
to explain the gender bias in sharing. One woman in Mexico City particularly
disapproved of married daughters bringing their husbands home, because, she
said, they would expect her to cook for them.
Women’s attitudes to their sons are different, reflecting the privileged nature
of the mother-son relationship in Mexico.76 In Puebla, a woman who blamed
Mexican mothers for their men’s ~~c~~s~~ said that when a son marries, his
mother will use all kinds of emotional blackmail (including pretending to be
ill) to get him to stay with her. If she succeeds, however, she will have to face
the presence of a younger woman in her household, a presence which will be
interpreted as an intrusion. Given the limited opportunities for many women to
wield power in other aspects of their lives, there is considerable potential for the
home to become a battleground, and it seems almost inevitable that mothers will
dislike their daughters-in-law, a feeling likely to be reciprocated. A resentment
arising from the difficulties middle-aged women have faced in their own married
lives, but which cannot perhaps be ‘legitimately’ expressed with their own
daughters, can be given an outlet in criticisms of a daughters-in-law’s habits,
particularly those concerning housekeeping or child care. The resulting tension,
and the way in which it revolves around the son/husband, was summarised by
a woman in Mexico City in these terms:
supposing your son comes home drunk one night, and you go out to tell
him off about it. Then, his wife comes out and starts having a go at you for
scolding her husband: she tells you to lay off and mind your own business.
Another put it more succintly: “I don’t like having the daughters-in-law around!”
The misery that these problems can cause, for the older woman as well as
the younger one, had become apparent during earlier work in Puebla. An old
woman approached me in the street one day, and spontaneously started to tell
me about the wickedness of her daughter-in-law. Another was locked out of her
house by her daughter-in-law; and one %-year-old woman without children of
her own preferred to live alone in a vec~~~~~ rather than living with her godson
and his wife, because the two women didn’t get on.77
For a woman sharing with her in-laws, the problem may be not only her
husband’s mother but also his sisters .7s If, for example, a child is hurt in a fall,
24 Ann Varley
its mother may be blamed for being a ‘bad mother’ by her sisters-in-law as well as
their mother; they react as though it is their child who has been hurt. Moreover,
it may not be easy for women who are sharing to develop friendship networks to
help them counteract such pressures, insofar as such networks depend on friends
having access to each other’s homes. Friends of whom the owner disapproves are
unlikely to be welcome on the plot, and grounds for disapproval could readily be
found by a hostile mother-in-law. Shopping or other work performed away from
the home may provide some opportunity for women to resist such restrictions;
but spending too much time ‘in the street’ (which has strong sexual implications)
can give a prying relative the chance to tell tales to a woman’s husband.79
live with their in-laws]“. Thus, many parents respect their children’s need for
autonomy, whatever their own feelings in the matter.
Thirdly: the fact that almost two-fifths of sharers are women indicates that
parents also recognise their daughters’ needs. In particular, they are concerned
about the consequences of their daughters’ marriages breaking down. The man
who expressed more clearly than anyone else the idea that sharing is for sons
nevertheless said that, in addition to the accommodation he was building for his
two (as yet unmarried) sons, he was also trying to make room for his daughters
as well. He would like to be able to help them if their marriages didn’t work out
well and they were left with nowhere to live. In the same street in Mexico City,
a woman who had been living with her parents had just gone to live with her
new boyfriend. She wanted one of her married sisters to take her place, because
“her in-laws are being right so-and-sos with her”. And in Puebla, one woman,
aged 22, was sharing with her parents. After getting married, she had spent a
short time with her in-laws, but after problems with her mother-in-law she and
her husband had moved to her parents’ plot.
CONCLUSION
sharing with their parents, single parents were, in all but one case, counted as
part of their parents’ extended household. It seems that it would be regarded
as inappropriate for them to share their parents’ plot as a separate, independent
household. Sharing therefore reinforces the patriarchal norm of the nuclear
family, insofar as it is a privilege accorded only to those who are ‘married’.
If, moreover, women without a partner are more likely to rent or to depend
on their parents for accommodation, whilst sharing leads to home-ownership,
then the patriarchal norm is also reinforced by material rewards for those who
ascribe to it. In this sense, sharing is a highly ‘traditional’ housing strategy.
Acknowledgements - The research on which this paper was based was funded by grants from the University
of London Central Research Fund and the Dean’s Travel Fund (Faculty of Arts) and Department of
Geography, University College London. I am grateful for this financial support and for the helpful
comments of two anonymous referees.
NOTES
This paper was presented at a conference on Shelter, Women and Development: First and Third
World Perspectives, held at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, 7-9 May, 1992. The reason
for the discussion of ‘traditional’ and ‘non-traditional’ households is that the paper was presented in
a session entitled “Non-traditional living arrangements: beyond the nuclear household”.
A study evaluating research on low-income housing found that only 13 of 126 studies reviewed provided
any information on the particular problems faced by women: W. van Vliet, “Communities and Built
Environments Supporting Women’s Changing Roles”, in W. van Vliet (ed.), Women, Housing and
Communjty, (Avebury, Aldershot, 1988), pp. l-5, see p. x.
S. Watson, Accommodating Inequality: Gender and Housing (AlIen & Unwin, Sydney, 1988).
Although these introductory comments refer to English-language publications, a recent Mexican
publication [A. Massolo, (ed.) Mujeres y Ciudades: Puriicipaci6n Social, Vivienda y Vida Cotidiana
(El Colegio de MCxico, MCxico D.F., 1992)] makes a similar argument concerning the Latin American
urban housing literature. In the literature in English, a number of specific issues have received more
attention. Housing design has been addressed, in a British context, by the Matrix Collective, Making
&ace: Women and the Man-made Environment (Pluto Press, London, 1984), and Marion Roberts,
L&ing in a Man-made World: Gender Assumptio& in Modern Housing Design (Routledge, London,
1991): for the U.S.A., see D. Hayden, The Grand Domestic Revolution: a History of Feminist Designs
for American Homes, neighborhoods, and Cities (M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, 1981). Homelessness is
a growth area in the literature as well as on the streets. It is examined, for Britain, by S. Watson
with H. Austerberry, Housing and Homelessness: a Feminist Perspective (Routledge and Kegan Paul,
London, 1986); M. Miller, Red and Breakfast: Women and HomeIessness Today (Women’s Press,
London, 1990), and J. Dibblin, Wherever I Lay My Hat: Young Women and Homelessness (Shelter,
London, 1991); for the United States, see M.R. Stoner, “The Plight of Homeless Women”, in
W. van Vliet (ed.), Women, Housing and Community, (Avebury, Aldershot, 1988), pp. 135-151,
and S. Golden, The Women Outside: Meanings and Myths of Homelessness (University of California
Press, Berkeley, 1992).
5. S.A. Radcliffe with J. Townsend, Gender in the Third World: a Geographical Bibliography of Recent
Work (Institute of Development Studies, Brighton, 1988). J. Townsend, Women in Developing
Countries: a Select Annotated Bibliography for Development Organizations (Institute of Development
Studies, Brighton, 1988).
6. Housing is mentioned, but not analysed in any depth, in several recent studies of gender and the
environment: A. Rodda, Women and the Environment (Zed Books, London, 1991); I. Dankelman and
J. Davidson, Women and Environment in the Third Workd: Alliance for the Future (Earthscan, London,
1988); S. Sontheimer (ed.), Women and the Environment: a Reader - Crisis and Development in the
Third World (Earthscan, London, 1991); C. Levy, “Gender and the Environment: the Challenge
of Cross-cutting Issues in Development Policy and Planning”, Environment and Urbanization 4, 1
(1992), pp. 134-149.
7. C.O.N. Moser, “Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic Needs”,
in R. Grant and K. Newland (eds), &n&r a& Internatjo~~a~ Relations (Open University Press,
Buckingham, 1991). pp. X3-121; set p. 84.
8. L. Rodwin, (ed.) Shelter, Settlement and Development (Allen & Unwin, Boston, 1987).
9. Cited in A. Varley, “Review of L. Rodwin, (ed.), Shelter, Settlement and Development, 1987”,
Transactions, Instiiure of British Geographers, N.S. 14 (1989), pp. 115-117; see p. 116. An IYSH
seminar on ‘Women and Shelter’ was held in Harare in December 1987. [A. Schlyter, Women
Householders and Housing Strategies: the Case of Harare, Zimbabwe (National Swedish Institute
for Building Research. Gtivle, 1989).]
10. Van Vliet, 1988 (see note 2).
11. Hayden, 1981 (see note 4). L. McDowell. “Towards an Understanding of the Gender Division of
Urban Space”, Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 10 (1983). pp. 59-72. 0. Harris,
“Households as Naturat Units”, in K. Young, C. Wolkowitz and R. McCullagh (eds). Of Marrjuge
and the Market: Women’s Sltbordinatjon lnternat~ona~ly and its Lessons, 2nd edn (Routledge and
Gender and Housing 27
Kegan Paul, London, 1984), pp. 136155. E. Jelin, “Family and Household: Outside World and
Private Life”, in E. Jelin (ed.), Family, Household and Gender Relations in Latin America (Kegan
Paul International, London, 1991), pp. 12-39. Watson, 1988, see note 3.
12. Harris, 1984, ibid., p. 151.
13. L. McDowell, “Space, Place and Difference: a Review of Ten Years of Feminist Geography”,
mimeo (1992).
14. Ibid., p. 19.
15. J. Momsen, “Review of C.O.N. Moser and L. Peake, (eds), Women, Human Settlements and Housing”,
Transactions, Institute of British Geographers, N.S. 14 (1989), pp. 119-120; see p. 119.
16. Despite the unsatisfactory implications, this paper follows the convention in the literature of describing
households in which there is no resident male spouse as women-headed households. Such households
may be either nuclear (a single woman with or without children) or extended (including, for example,
grandchildren or other male or female relatives). The term ‘community managers’ is used by
C.O.N. Moser, “Women, Human Settlements and Housing: a Conceptual Framework for Analysis
and Policy-making”, in C.O.N. Moser and L. Peake (eds), Women, Human Settlements and Housing
(Tavistock, London, 1987), pp. 12-32; Moser, 1991, see note 7.
17. A. Larsson, “The Housing Situation of Urban Female-headed Households in Botswana”, Habitat
International 12, 3 (1988): pp. 17-27. A. Larsson, Women Householders and Housing Strategies:
the Case of Gaborone, Botswana (National Swedish Institute for Building Research, Gavle, 1989).
A. Schlyter, Women Householders and Housing Strategies: the Case of George, Zambia (National
Swedish Institute for Building Research, Gavle, 1988); Schlyter, 1989 (see note 9).
18. A. Falu and M. Curutchet, “Rehousing the Urban Poor: Looking at Women First”, Environment
and Urbanization 3, 2 (1991), pp. 23-38. The United States and United Kingdom literature also
emphasizes single women and women as single parents [Watson and Austerberry, 1986 (see note 4);
G.R. Wekerle, “From Refuge to Service Center: Neighborhoods that Support Women”, in W. van
Vliet (ed.), Women, Housing and Communiry (Avebury, Aldershot, 1988), pp. 7-22; E.A. Mulroy,
Women as Single Parents: Confronting the Institutional Barriers in the Courts, the Workplace and the
Housing Market (Auburn House, Dover, MA, 1988); J.F. Sprague, More than Housing: Lifeboats
for Women and Children (Butterworth Architecture, Boston 1991); Golden, 1992 (see note 4)].
19. See also S. Volbeda, “Housing and Survival Strategies of Women in Metropolitan Slum Areas in
Brazil”, Habitat International 13, 3 (1989), pp. 157-171. One little-explored line of inquiry concerns
women’s role in the construction industry. An exception to the general neglect of this topic is
Olusola Adebola Labeodan’s recent article on women in the informal house building industry in
Nigeria: O.A. Labeodan, “Women in the Informal House-building Industry in Nigeria”, Habitat
International 16, 1 (1992), pp. 17-24.
20. L. Brydon and S. Chant, Women in the Third World: Gender Issues in Rural and Urban Areas (Edward
Elgar, Aldershot, 1989). International Labour Office (ILO), Women at Work, No. 1 (1986).
21. J.G. Townsend and J.H. Momsen, “Towards a Geography of Gender in Developing Market
Economies”, in J.H. Momsen and J.G. Townsend (eds), Geography of Gender in the Third World,
(Hutchinson, New York, 1987), pp. 27-81.
22. M. Buvinic and N.H. Youssef with B. Van Elm, Women-headed Households: the Ignored Factor
in Development Planning (International Center for Research on Women, Washington, DC, 1978).
Moser, 1991 (see note 7).
23. Watson, 1988 (see note 3).
24. L.M.V. Machado, “The Problems for Woman-headed Households in a Low-income Housing
Programme in Brazil”, in C.O.N. Moser and L. Peake (eds), Women, Human Settlements and
Housing (Tavistock, London, 1987), pp. 5569. P. Nimpuno-Parente, “The Struggle for Shelter:
Women in a Site and Service Project in Nairobi, Kenya”, in C.O.N. Moser and L. Peake (eds),
Women, Human Settlements and Housing (Tavistock, London, 1987), pp. 70-87.
25. Moser, 1987, see note 16, p. 14. S. Chant and P. Ward, “Family Structure and Low-income Housing
Policy”, Third World Planning Review 9 (1987), pp. 5-19. D.L. Smith, “Women and Habitat: Nairobi
1985”, in W. van Vliet (ed.), Women, Housing and Community (Avebury. Aldershot, l988),
pp. 185-189. M.S. Muller and D. Plantenga, Women and Habitat: Urban Management, Empowerment
and Women’s Strategies (Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam, 1990). P.L. Sayne, “Food for Thought:
Making Women Visible”, Environment and Urbanization 3, 2 (1991), pp. 4656. E. Wilson, The
Sphinx in the City; Urban Life, the Control of Disorder and Women (Virago, London, 1991).
26. In two-thirds of-the Latin American countries analysed, women were described as de jure heads of
between 10% and 20% of all households. The onlv tiaures over 30% were for Chile (32%) and
Panama (40%) [Buvinic ef al., 1978 (see note 22),+pp.-87-881. These figures were mostly for the
197Os, but in a paper presented to the International Workshop on Insecurity in the 1990s: Gender and
Social Policy (5-6 April, 1993), Mayra Buvinic and Geeta Rao Gupta report that “The prevalence of
female headship in developing countries varies substantially across countries and situations, comprising
anvwhere from 10% to about 40% of all households”. (I am indebted to an anonymous reviewer for
this more recent information.)
27. N.H. Youssef and C.B. Hetler, “Establishing the Economic Condition of Woman-headed Households
in the Third World: a New Approach”, in M. Buvinic, M.A. Lycette and W.P. McGreevey (eds).
Women and Poverty in the Third World (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1983),
pp. 216-243.
28. The temporary absence of men working illegally in the USA could account for under-reporting of de
facfo women-headed households; but in surveys in 10 Mexican cities, Selby et al. [I990 (see note 42),
p. 2011 found that only 11% of households had members working overseas.
29. Chant and Ward, 1987. see note 25. A.G. Gilbert and A. Varley. Landlord and Tenant: Housing
rhe Poor in Urban Mexico (Routledge, London, 1991). Volbeda. 1989 (see note 19).
28 Ann Variey
30. The traditional concept of the household (usually defined as a residential unit sharing food and at
least some budgetary resources) has been criticised as too static and too concerned with boundaries.
Meth~ologi~ally, it is argued that questionnai~ surveys elicit responses falsely depicting a ‘normal
conjugal family. [C. Fonseca, “Spouses, Siblings and Sex-linked Bonding: a Look at Kinship
Organization in a Brazilian Slum”, in E. Jelin ted.), Family, Household and Gender Relurions in
Latin America, (Kegan Paul international, London, 1991), pp. 133-160.1 Such problems have led some
authors to uncover de facto or ‘hidden’ women-headed households, doubling the overall proportion
reported (Falu and Curutchet, 1991, see note 18), or to emphasise the importance of mother-child
units in situations where “the overwhelming majority of households are normally nuclear” (Fonseca,
1991, p. 135). Unless the criteria used for defining de facto female-headed households are clear and
consistently applied (following, perhaps, the categories proposed by Youssef and Hetler, 1983, see
note 27), there is a danger of playing cherchez la femme in some of these approaches. [A. Varley,
“Housing the Household, Holding the House”, in G. Jones and P.M. Ward (eds), Methodology and
Lund and Housing Market Analysis (UCL Press, London, in press).]
31. A.M. Goetz, “Feminism and the Claim to Know: Contradictions in Feminist Approaches to Women
in Development”, in R. Grant and K. Newland (eds), Gender and ~nternut~onal Relations (Open
University Press, Buckingham, Wl), pp. 133-57; see p. 140, my emphasis.
32. They were, in any case, never of great importance compared with the vast areas of ‘spontaneous’
housing in Latin America.
33. R. Burgess, “Helping Some to Help Themselves: Third World Housing Policies and Development
Strategies”, in K. Math&y (eds), Beyond Self-Help Housing (Mansell, London, 1992), pp. 75-91.
J. Fiori and R. Ramfrez, “Notes on the Self-help Housing Critique: Towards a Conceptual Framework
for the Analysis of Self-help Housing Policies in Developing Countries”, in K. Mathey (ed.), Beyond
Self-help Housing (Mansell, London, 1992) pp. 23-31. C. Rakodi, “Cities and People: Towards
a Gender-Aware Urban Planning Process?“, Public Administration and Development 11 (1991),
pp. 541-559. The shift to a broader institutional level of intervention is unlikely to decrease
discrimination against women unless specific safeguards are introduced. Brion and Tinker [M. Brion
and A. Tinker, Women in Housing: Access and btfluence (Housing Centre Trust, London, 1980)],
and Watson (1988, see note 3) have shown how women in Britain and Australia are marginalised
by housing allocation and finance systems, although Munro and Smith [M. Munro and S.J. Smith,
“Gender and Housing: Broadening the Debate”, Housing Studies 4 (1989), pp. 3-171 argue that
particular patriarchal outcomes cannot be assumed, because of the inte~ention of labour market
variables.
34. For Mexico City see, for example, COPEVI (Centro Operational de Vivienda y Poblamiento),
Investiguci~n sobre Vivienda II: La produccidn de vivienda en la Zona ~etropofitana de la Ciudad de
Mexico (COPEVI, Mexico City, 1977). P. Connolly, “Uncontrolled Settlements and Self-build: What
Kind of Solution? The Mexico City Case”, in P.M. Ward fed.), Self-Hefp Housing: a Critique (Mansell,
London, 1982), pp. 141-174. R. Coulomb and C. Sanchez Mejorada, Todos Proprietarios? Vivienda
de alquiler y sectores populares en la ciudad de Mexico (Centro de la Vivienda y Estudios Urbanos,
Mexico City, 1991). A.G. Gilbert and P.M. Ward, Housing, the State and the Poor: Policy and
Practice in Three Latin American Cities (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985). M.A. Michel,
A. Azuela, P. Connolly, R. Coulomb, G. Garza, A. Iracheta, M. Maydon and M. Schteingart,
Procesos Hubitacionales en la Ciudud de Mexico (Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa
and Secretaria de Desarrollo Urban0 e Ecologia, Mexico City, 1988). M. Schteingart, Los Productores
de1 Espacio Habitable: Estado, Empresa y Sociedad en la Ciudad de Mexico (El Colezio de MCxico,
Mexico City, 1989). P.M. Ward, Weif are Politics in Mexico: Papering Over the Cracks (Allen &
Unwin, London. 1986). P.M. Ward. Mexico City: the Production and Reproduction of an L&ban
Environment (Belhaven, London, 1990). For Guadalajara see Gilbert and Varley, 1991 (see note 2(f).
R. Lopez Rangel, ~rbanizuci~n y Vivienda en Guadalajara (Centro de Ecodesarrolio, Mexico City,
1987). D. Vgzquez, Guadalajara: Ensayos de ~nterpretac~~n (El Colegio de Jatisco, Guadalajara, 1989).
For Puebla see Gilbert and Varley, 1991 (see note 29). G.A. Jones, “The impact of Government
Intervention upon Land Prices in Latin American Cities: the Case of Puebla, Mexico”. unpublished
Ph.D. thesis (University of Cambridge, Cambridge, 1991). P. Mele, Los Procesos de Produccidn de1
Espacio Urban0 en la Ciudud de Puebla (Instituto de Ciencias, Universidad Autonoma de Puebla,
Puebla, 1984). Universidad Autonoma de Puebla, Departamento de Investigaciones Arquitectonicas y
Urbanisticas de1 Instituto de Ciencias (DIAU-ICUAP), Memoriu de la Primera Mesa de Trabajo sobre
Investigaciones Universitarias de Urbanismo (Universided Autonoma de Puebla, Puebla, 1986).
35. CIDAC (Centro de Investigation para el Desarrollo), Vivienda y Estabilidad Politica: Alrernativus
para el Futuro (Editorial Diana, Mexico City, 1991). Ward, 1990 (see note 34).
36. R. Coulomb, “Vivienda en renta y dinsmica habitacional en la Ciudad de Mexico”, in M.A. Michel.
A. Azuela, P. Connolly. R. Coulomb, G. Garza, A. Iracheta, M. Maydon and M. Schteingart (eds),
Procesos Habitac~onules en la C&dud de Mexico (Universidad Autonoma Metropol~tana-Iztapalapa and
Secretarfa de Desarrollo Urban0 e Ecologia, Mexico City, 1988), pp. 141-182. Gilbert and Varley,
1991 (see note 29).
37. A household is here defined as a group of people ‘eating from a common pot’ and living on the
same plot of land (see Varley, 1993 see note 30). Where more than one household occupies a plot,
the non-owner household(s) may either pay rent or share the plot, rent-free. with its owners. A
nuclear household consists of a male or a female householder with or without a ‘spouse’ and with
or without children; an extended household includes other relatives or non-relatives. A ‘householder’
is the person who originally bought or rented the house, either alone or with their ‘spouse’ (Gilbert
and Varley, 1991, see note 29); this does not mean that householders have joint property rights.
38. Most sharers make some contribution to the costs of services consumed. Although the literature often
fails to distinguish between extended households and sharing (see below). the question “co&tan juntos
Gender and Housing 29
o aparte?” (“do you cook together or separately?“) clearly makes sense to people, and generally elicits
a direct, clear response to questions seeking to establish the number of households present.
39. Fieldwork in 1991 and 1992 included participant observation in a young self-help settlement on the
eastern periphery of Puebla and a questionnaire survey in areas already studied in 1981-1982 (Mexico
City) or 1985-1986 (Guadalajara and Puebla). Loma de la Palma developed in the 1970s on a hill
in the north of Mexico City. Legalised in 1976, it received water and drainage in the 1980s and
was being paved by the residents in summer 1991. San JosC de 10s Leones is a regularised and
consolidated settlement in the west of Mexico City; it dates from the late 1960s. El Salvador is
a lo-year old illegal settlement on the eastern periphery of Puebla. The streets are unpaved and
many plots still unoccupied. Veinte de Noviembre, founded in the late 1940s as an illegal subdivision
of private lands in northwest Puebla, now has a complex mixture of owner occupation, renting
and sharing. Buenos Aires in southern Guadalajara dates from the beginning of the 1980s and
has experienced relatively little consolidation: the streets are unpaved and the area has still to be
connected to the city’s water and drainage networks. Agustin Yririez, in the east of Guadalajara,
was founded by illegal subdivision in the early 1950s; as in Veinte de Noviembre, tenants now form
an important part of the population.
40. The variation in the proportion of owners sharing their plot with other households is connected with
the age of the settlement. The selection of settlements of widely differing ages was prompted by
other research questions; it is unfortunate that in the Puebla and Guadalajara cases it means that
there are relatively small numbers of sharers whose characteristics can be explored.
41. Although the words ‘married’, ‘wife’ and ‘husband’ are used, no distinction is made between couples
who are legally married and those living together in a consensual union. See also Gilbert and Variey,
1991 (note 29). Coulomb. 1990 (note 36): Gilbert and Ward. 1985 (note 341.
42. H.A.‘Selby, k.D. Murphy and ‘S.A. Ldrrmzen, with I. Cabiera, A. Castaheda and I. Ruiz Love, The
Mexican Urban Household: Organizing for Self-Defense (University of Texas Press, Austin, 1990),
p. 101. L.A. Lomnitz and M. PCrez-Lizaur, “Dynastic Growth and Survival Strategies: the Solidarity
of Mexican Grand-families”, in E. Jelin (ed.), Family, Household and Gender Relations in Latin
America (Kegan Paul International, London, 1991), pp. 123-132; see p. 124. Arthur Wolf [“Family
Life and the Life Cycle in Rural China”, in R. McC. Netting, R.R. Wilk and E.J. Arnould (eds),
Households: Comparative and Historical Studies of the Domestic Group (University of California Press,
Berkeley, 1984), pp. 2792821 defines a ‘grand’ family as having a minimum of three nuclear units -
two married siblings and their parents. He defines a stem family as having only two nuclear units. If
sharing is to be described as a variation on this theme, it is clear that there are both stem families
and grand families involved.
43. L. Lamphere, ‘Strategies, Cooperation and Conflict among Women in Domestic Groups”, in
M.Z. Rosaldo, and L. Lamphere (eds), Woman, Culture and Society (Stanford University Press,
Stanford, 1974), pp. 97-112; see p. 104.
44. Ibid., see also E. Croll, “Rural China: Segregation to Solidarity”, in P. Caplan and J.M. Bujra (eds),
Women United, Women Divided: Cross-cultural Perspectives on Female Solidarity (Tavistock, London.
1978), pp. 4676. U. Sharma, “Segregation and its Consequences in India: Rural Women in Himachal
Pradesh”, in P. Caplan and J.M. Bujra (eds). Women United, Women Divided: Cross-Cultural
Perspectives on Female Solidarity (Tavistock, London, 1978), pp. 259-282. M. Wolf, “Chinese
Women: Old Skills in a New Context”, in M.Z. Rosaldo and ‘L. ‘camphere (eds), Woman, Culture,
and Societv (Stanford Universitv Press, Stanford. 1974). DD. 157-172. Wolf. 1984 [see note 42).
45. G.M. Fosier, Tzintzuntzan: Mexican Peasants in a Changing World (Little, Brown: Boston, 19k7). B.L.
ChiAas, The Isthmus Zapotecs: Women’s Roles in Cultural Context (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New
York, 1973). J.W. Whitecotton, The Zapotecs: Princes, Priests and Peasants (University of Oklahoma
Press, Norman, 1977). J.J. Gross, “Marriage and ‘Family’ among the Maya”, in A.F. Marks and
R.E. Riimer (eds). Family and Kinship in Middle America and the Caribbean (University of the
Netherlands Antilles and Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology, Leiden, 1978), pp. 51-86.
J.M. Ingham, Mary, Michael and Lucifer: Folk Catholicism in Central Mexico (University of Texas
Press, Austin, 1986). L. Krantz, Peasant Differentiation and Development: the Case of a Mexican Ejido
(University of Stockholm, Stockholm, 1991). L. Stephen, Zapotec Women (University of Texas Press,
Austin, 1991). In an interesting exception to the rule, Nash [J.C. Nash, Social Relations in Amatenango
de1 Valle: An Activity Analysis, Centro Intercultural de Documentacibn (CIDOC), Cuernavaca. 19691
found that in Amatenango del Valle, Chiapas, where recently married couples used to live with the
bride’s parents, they were now equally likely to live with either set of parents.
46. 1990 (see note 42), p. 101.
47. 1991 (see note 42). p. 126.
48. L.A. Lomnitz, Networks and Marginality: Life in a Mexican Shantytown (Academic Press, New
York, 1977), p. 119.
49. Ibid.. p. 120. The figures for ‘initial residence’ were 46% and 29%. The implication is that nuclear
households were in the minority: ‘the extended family prevails in the great majority of households’
(ibid.. p. 100). This finding is contrary to most studies of Mexican urban households. although it is
difficult to draw comparisons between Lomnitz’ household classification scheme and those used by
other authors. Many of the households she classifies as extended are more easily enumerated as nuclear
sub-groups (ibid., p. 102). Sharers as defined in this study are found in Lomnitz’ ‘single-roof’ and
‘single-plot’ extended household categories rather than what she classifies as ‘jointed’ households‘.
50. More daughters and sons are recorded as living with their parents than with their in-laws; this calls
for comment. It may reflect under-reporting; but there is another explanation. Whereas almost all
owners in the case-study settlements have enough space to accommodate another family. this is not
necessarily true of their children’s in-laws, who will come from a variety of housing types. Some, for
30 Ann Varley
example, will be tenants, who are more likely to lack the space to accommodate any other relatives
(Gilbert and Varley, 1991, see note 29).
51. The custom by which a young man ‘steals’ his girlfriend from her parents, sometimes with the explicit
support of his own relatives, has been widely documented in rural areas (Foster, 1967; Chirias, 1973;
Whitecotton, 1977, see note 45) and is also, according to observations made during the fieldwork for
this study, by no means uncommon in the cities.
52. Moser, 1991 (see note 7). p. 93.
53. Volbeda, 1989 (see note 19).
54. Gilbert and Varley, 1991 (see note 29).
55. Gilbert and Varley [1991 (see note 29), p. 1121 suggest that the deposit, rather than the regular
monthly payments on a plot of land, is one of the key elements dividing persistent tenants from
prospective owners.
56. Lomnitz, 1977 (see note 48).
57. Ibid., p. 31.
58. Ibid., p. 3.
59. Ibid., p. 156.
60. S. Chant, “Family Formation and Female Roles in Queretaro, Mexico”, Bulletin of Latin American
Research 4, (1985), pp. 17-32. S. Chant, Women and Survival in Mexico Cities: Perspectives on Gender,
Labour Markets and Low-Income Households (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1991).
61. Chant, 1991 (see note 60), p. 156.
62. See also B. Garcia, H. Muiroz and 0. de Oliveira, Hogares y Trabajadores en la Ciudad de Mexico
(El Colegio de Mexico, Mexico City, 1982). M. Gonzalez de la Rocha, “Economic Crisis, Domestic
Reorganisation and Women’s Work in Guadalajara, Mexico”, Bulletin of Latin American Research
7, (1988) pp. 207-223. Selby et al., 1990 (see note 42).
63. Chant, 1985 (see note 60), p. 22.
64. Ibid., p. 26.
65. Chant, 1991 (see note 60), pp. 144-153.
66. Lamphere, 1974 (see note 43), p. 105.
67. Wolf, 1984 (see note 42), p. 281.
68. Croll, 1978 (see note 44).
69. Wolf, 1974 (see note 44).
70. Sharma, 1978 (see note 44).
71. Croll, 1978 (see note 44), p. 50.
72. Interestingly, Croll [E. Croll, Chinese Women Since Mao (Third World Books, London, 1983), p. 831
notes that tension between mother- and daughter-in-law was the most common cause of divorce reported
in 1980s Beijing.
73. Stephen, 1991, pp. 4&62; Chitias, 1973, p. 59; Ingham, 1986, p. 64 (see note 45). In her study of a
village in Chiapas, where married children can live with either set of parents, Nash (1969, see note
45) found more harmonious relations between in-laws.
74. Krantz, 1991 (see note 45), p. 128.
75. R. Diaz-Guerrero, Psicologia de1 mexicano, 5th edn (Editorial Trillas, Mexico City, 1990), p. 35.
Stephen, 1991 (see note 45), p. 49.
76. L. Letiero Otero, “Valores familiares y dramaturgia social”, in A. Hernandez Medina and L. Narro
Rodriguez reds), C&no somos 10s mexicanos [Centro de Estudios Educativos (CEE), , Mexico City,
1987],-pp. 253-299. Diaz-Guerrero, 1990 (see note 75), p. 75.
77. As Selbv et al. I1990 (see note 42). o. 911 write “Living alone is almost unthinkable in urban
Mexico”: particularly for’ a woman in her eighties.
78. Krantz [1991 (see note 45), p. 1361 notes the potential for conflict between sisters-in-law in discussing
the problems of virilocal residence patterns in rural Central Mexico.
79. The phrase subir y bajar (‘to go up and down’) is used in two contexts: too-ing and fro-ing (as in visits
to a government office in search of documentation, for example) and sleeping around. Women may be
expected to take a child with them on ‘legitimate’ outings. Anzaldua [G. Anzaldua, Borderlands/La
Frontera: the New Mestiza (Aunt Lute, San Francisco, 1987), p. 161 records the prejudice against
women who spend too much time ‘in the street’ from a chicana viewpoint: “How many times have
I heard mothers and mothers-in-law tell their sons to beat their wives for not obeying them, for
being hociconas (big mouths), for being callajeras (going to visit and gossip with neighbors) .?“.
80. Whitecotton, 1977. see note 45, p. 254; Krantz, 1991 (see note 45). Writing about urban Greece,
Hirschon [R. Hirschon, “Essential Objects and the Sacred: Interior and Exterior space in an Urban
Greek Locality”, in S. Ardener (ed.), Women and Space: Ground Rules and Social Maps (Croom
Helm, London, 1981). pp. 72-881; indicates the importance of having separate kitchens as a “physical
marker” of each household’s autonomy when daughters marry and bring their husbands to live in
their parents’ home.
81. Chirias, 1973 (see note 45). p. 59.
82. Nash, 1969 (see note 45). p. 2/9.
83. Lamphere, 1974 (see note 43), p. 112.