HYPOTHESIS AND THEORY ARTICLE

published: 11 February 2015

doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00079

Toward a general psychological model of tension and

suspense
Moritz Lehne* and Stefan Koelsch
Languages of Emotion Research Center, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Edited by: Tension and suspense are powerful emotional experiences that occur in a wide variety
Petri Laukka, Stockholm University, of contexts (e.g., in music, film, literature, and everyday life). The omnipresence of
Sweden
tension and suspense suggests that they build on very basic cognitive and affective
Reviewed by:
Elvira Brattico, University of Helsinki,
mechanisms. However, the psychological underpinnings of tension experiences remain
Finland largely unexplained, and tension and suspense are rarely discussed from a general, domain-
Eric C. Porges, University of Florida, independent perspective. In this paper, we argue that tension experiences in different
USA contexts (e.g., musical tension or suspense in a movie) build on the same underlying
Marcos Nadal, University of Vienna,
Austria
psychological processes. We discuss key components of tension experiences and propose
*Correspondence:
a domain-independent model of tension and suspense. According to this model, tension
Moritz Lehne, Languages of Emotion experiences originate from states of conflict, instability, dissonance, or uncertainty that
Research Center, Freie Universität trigger predictive processes directed at future events of emotional significance. We also
Berlin, Habelschwerdter Allee 45, discuss possible neural mechanisms underlying tension and suspense.The model provides
14195 Berlin, Germany
e-mail: mlehne@uos.de
a theoretical framework that can inform future empirical research on tension phenomena.
Keywords: tension, suspense, emotion, prediction, music, film, literature

INTRODUCTION psychological research of emotion. We discuss basic psychologi-

Experiences of tension are ubiquitous affective phenomena that
pervade many aspects of our lives1 . Ranging from everyday life
events to many leisure activities, tension (and its close relative
suspense) is experienced in a wide variety of contexts and con-
stitutes an important ingredient of human emotion. In some
contexts, experiences of tension are associated with negative emo-
tions such as fear, concern, or distress, which are generally tried
to be avoided; in other contexts, tension is experienced as posi-
tive, and can, in fact, be a major motivator to engage in certain
activities. The appeal of many forms of media entertainment such
as music, film, or literature, for example, often seems to directly
derive from their power to evoke feelings of tension and suspense.
Similarly, tension is experienced in a multitude of everyday life
situations, most typically during the anticipation of uncertain but
(potentially) significant events (e.g., medical diagnoses, exams,
job interviews, etc.). The omnipresence and potential emotional
impact of tension phenomena indicates that they tap into fun-
damental aspects of human cognition and emotion, and the idea
that tension plays an important role in emotion dates back to at
least as far as Wilhelm Wundt, who proposed the opposite poles
of tension (Spannung) and resolution (Lösung) as one dimension
of affective experience in his three-dimensional model of emo-
tion (Wundt, 1896, 1911). However, recent emotion research has
largely neglected the role of tension in emotion, and surprisingly
little is known about the psychological mechanisms underlying
experiences of tension. Our aim in this article is to re-awaken the
interest in tension phenomena and highlight their relevance for
cal principles as well as possible neural mechanisms underlying
tension experiences, and propose a general, domain-independent
psychological model of tension and suspense. We argue that
studying tension phenomena can advance our understanding of
emotion by providing new insights into general psychological
principles underlying human affect. In particular, studying ten-
sion phenomena can shed light on the dynamic, time-varying
aspects of emotions, elucidate the relation between emotions
and predictive processes, and illuminate the mystery of aesthetic
emotions.
Previous research on tension and suspense has mainly focused
on specific domains, in particular music (Madsen and Fredrick-
son, 1993; Bigand et al., 1996; Krumhansl, 1996; Pressnitzer et al.,
2000; Lerdahl and Krumhansl, 2007; Farbood, 2012; Lehne et al.,
2013a), literature (Rabkin, 1973; Brewer and Lichtenstein, 1982;
Gerrig and Bernardo, 1994; Anz, 1998; Fill, 2003; Jacobs, 2011),
film (Löker, 1976; Zillmann, 1980; Comisky and Bryant, 1982;
Carroll, 1996a; Mikos, 1996; Greifenstein and Lehmann, 2013),
and sports (Peterson and Raney, 2008; Knobloch-Westerwick
et al., 2009). Though providing valuable insights, domain-specific
accounts of tension and suspense run the risk of overestimating
the importance of aspects that are idiosyncratic to the particular
area of interest, thus losing general mechanisms out of sight2 . To
overcome this limitation, the present paper focuses on domain-
independent aspects of tension experiences, arguing that the
2 For example, in theories of suspense in narrative plots (e.g., movies or novels),

concern about the well-being of a sympathetic protagonist is often discussed as a

key element of suspense (Skulsky, 1980; Zillmann, 1980). However, this aspect of
1 By experiences of tension we refer to psychological experiences of tension (in suspense in narrative plots obviously does not generalize to tension phenomena in
contrast to purely physiological tension such as muscular tension, although both music or many tension experiences in everyday life. On the other hand, specific
kinds of tension can interact). aspects of musical tension are irrelevant to film suspense.

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Lehne and Koelsch
seemingly different tension and suspense experiences encountered
in contexts such as music, film, literature, or everyday life build on
the same underlying psychological processes.
Before examining tension phenomena in more detail, a few
words about the relation between tension and arousal seem appro-
priate. Although tension and arousal appear to be closely related,
we consider tension phenomena to be a sub-class of states associ-
ated with arousal: Whereas a psychological state of high tension is
always accompanied by high arousal, a state of high arousal is not
necessarily one of high tension or suspense (for example, surprise
is associated with a high level of arousal but not necessarily a high
level of tension; see also the comparison of tension and surprise
in the Section “Expectation, Prediction, Anticipation”). Further-
more, unlike arousal, which is primarily a physiological state
that is difficult to study from a purely psychological perspective,
tension, and suspense lend themselves better to a psychological
investigation like the one described here.
TENSION AND SUSPENSE AND THEIR RELEVANCE FOR
EMOTION RESEARCH
What exactly do we mean by tension? And what can psychologi-
cal research of emotion gain from studying tension phenomena?
First, we define tension and suspense3 as affective states that (a)
are associated with conflict, dissonance, instability, or uncertainty,
(b) create a yearning for resolution, (c) concern events of potential
emotional significance, and (d) build on future-directed processes
of expectation, anticipation, and prediction (the Section “Key
Components of Tension and Suspense Experiences” discusses the
different aspects of tension experiences in detail).
Studying tension phenomena can advance psychological emo-
tion research by providing new insights into the following areas in
particular:
(1) Time-varying aspects of emotion. Emotions are rarely static
states and their dynamic, time-varying nature is one of their
defining features (Scherer, 2005). However, most experimental
emotion research focuses on static aspects during brief emotional
episodes (using experimental stimuli that remain relatively con-
stant over time, e.g., affective pictures, facial expressions, words,
etc.). Because tension phenomena usually require time to unfold
and thus predominantly reflect time-dependent aspects of affective
experience, studying these phenomena can help to shift the focus
of psychological emotion research to the more dynamic aspects of
emotion that are underrepresented in current research.
(2) The relation of emotion and processes of prediction. Ten-
sion and suspense are closely related to processes of prediction
(see the Section “Expectation, Prediction, Anticipation”). These
predictive processes have been proposed as a basic principle of
3 Notice that, despite being often used interchangeably, the terms tension and sus-
pense sometimes denote slightly different experiences. Whereas suspense usually
involves the anticipation of two clearly opposed outcomes (e.g., the heroine of a
movie killing the villain as opposed to the villain killing the heroine), the term
“tension” often denotes a more diffuse state of anticipation, in which anticipated
events are less specific. However, there is no clear-cut boundary between the two
concepts, because anticipated events can be situated on a continuum ranging from
very unspecific (expecting “something” to happen) to very specific. Throughout
the article, we will try to show that both concepts build on the same underlying
psychological principles.
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Toward a model of tension and suspense
human cognition (Gregory, 1980; Dennett, 1996) and brain func-
tioning (Bar, 2007; Bubic et al., 2010; Friston, 2010; Arnal and
Giraud, 2012; Clark, 2013), and they may also play a central role
in emotion. Being related to both predictive processes and emo-
tion, tension phenomena could provide the “missing link” that
may help to bridge the gap between the “cold” cognitive pro-
cesses of prediction on the one hand and the “hot” processes of
emotion on the other hand, thus integrating predictive processes
into a general theory of human affect. In this context, study-
ing the brain mechanisms underlying tension experiences from
the perspective of the theory of predictive coding (Friston, 2010)
seems particularly promising (see Neural Correlates of Tension
and Suspense).
(3) Aesthetic emotions. Ever since Fechner (1876), aesthetic
emotions have attracted the curiosity of psychologists, and recent
years have seen a growing interest in the psychology and neuro-
science of aesthetic perception and emotional experience (Zeki,
1999; Leder et al., 2004; Silvia, 2005; Jacobsen, 2006; Di Dio
and Gallese, 2009; Fitch et al., 2009; Brattico et al., 2013; Juslin,
2013; Nadal and Skov, 2013). However, aesthetic emotions (e.g.,
emotions evoked in artistic contexts such as music, painting, lit-
erature, etc.) remain rather mysterious. Assuming that emotions
are generally elicited by events that have some intrinsic signifi-
cance to the concerns of the individual or, in biological terms,
some kind of survival value, emotional responses to abstract, or
fictitious events or features of artworks seem paradoxical (but
see Darwin, 1871; Dutton, 2009; Menninghaus, 2011, for biolog-
ical accounts of aesthetic perception and emotion). Apart from
other factors contributing to aesthetic experiences (e.g., stimulus
complexity, symmetry, or familiarity), patterns of tension and res-
olution appear to be a key mediator of emotional responses to art
forms such as music, literature, or film (cf. Lehne and Koelsch,
in press). A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying
tension experiences can therefore shed light on the mystery of
aesthetic emotions evoked by works of art.
MEASURING TENSION
Experiences of tension are accessible to empirical research by
means of subjective rating experiments in which participants
give some form of rating reflecting the degree of tension or sus-
pense experienced during exposure to an experimental stimulus
(e.g., a piece of music or a literary text). Tension ratings can
be acquired continuously over the whole course of the stim-
ulus or they can be collected in a discrete manner at specific
time points of the stimulus (see Figure 1 for two examples). To
acquire continuous tension ratings, various kinds of interfaces
have been used including spring-loaded tongs (Nielsen, 1983), dial
interfaces (Madsen and Fredrickson, 1993), or real or virtual slid-
ers (Krumhansl, 1996; Vines et al., 2006; Farbood, 2012; Lehne
et al., 2013a). However, experiments probing tension experiences
in music (Madsen and Fredrickson, 1993; Lehne, unpublished
data) indicate that different interfaces yield similar results. More-
over, these tension ratings appear to be relatively consistent across
and within participants (Krumhansl, 1996; Fredrickson, 1997,
2000).
For discrete measures of tension experiences, the stimulus is
usually interrupted several times (unless it is very short) and
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Lehne and Koelsch
FIGURE 1 | Average ratings of tension and suspense (standard scores
with SE) experienced over the course of (A) a music piece
(Mendelssohn’s Venetian Boat Song) and (B) a literary text (E. T. A.
Hoffmann, The Sandman). For the music piece, tension ratings were
acquired using a virtual slider shown on a computer screen that participants
continuously adjusted depending on their subjective experience of tension;
for the literary text, suspense ratings were acquired at 65 time points
during reading of the text.
participants are asked to indicate the amount of tension experi-
enced during the preceding stimulus segment on a rating scale
(e.g., in Bigand and Parncutt, 1999; Lerdahl and Krumhansl,
2007). One music study comparing continuous and discrete
tension ratings found that both tasks yielded similar results
(Lerdahl and Krumhansl, 2007). However, more research is
needed to investigate how stimulus interruptions affect tension
ratings, or how comparable retrospective ratings are to ratings
acquired online during stimulus presentation. Although contin-
uous tension measures may seem preferable to discrete ones,
their acquisition is not always feasible because for some stim-
uli (e.g., written texts) the dual task of focusing attention on
the stimulus while simultaneously giving continuous tension rat-
ings can lead to unacceptable quality decreases of the rating data.
Moreover, there usually is a temporal lag between the values of
continuous tension ratings and the stimulus events they refer
to, making it difficult to unequivocally relate stimulus events
to exact rating values. The choice between discrete or contin-
uous tension measures, therefore, ultimately depends on the
stimuli being used in the experiment and the specific research
question.
Furthermore, music research has shown that there can be dif-
ferences between perceived and felt emotion (Gabrielsson, 2002;
see also Konec̆ni, 2008). Because of this, it is important that
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Toward a model of tension and suspense
participants be instructed explicitly whether they are supposed
to rate the tension or suspense they perceive (i.e., the tension they
assume the stimulus is supposed to express) or the tension they
subjectively feel (i.e., their own actual emotional experience). For
example, someone might cognitively acknowledge that a specific
movie scene is supposed to induce suspense, without subjectively
feeling any suspense.
Experiences of tension and suspense appear to be associ-
ated with different physiological responses. Krumhansl (1997)
found that the experience of musical tension correlates with
finger pulse amplitude, respiration rate, blood pressure, skin con-
ductance, and temperature. Suspense experienced during film
scenes appears to be related to increased electrodermal activ-
ity and decreased heart rate (Kreibig, 2010). However, there
are also reports of increased heart rate during the audiovi-
sual presentation of a suspenseful story (Zillmann et al., 1975).
These seemingly discrepant findings with regard to the heart
rate may possibly reflect two different physiological processes:
a transient vagal suppression of the heart rate as part of
an orienting response which is then followed by a longer
period of increased heart rate associated with sympathetic
arousal.
KEY COMPONENTS OF TENSION AND SUSPENSE
EXPERIENCES
Previously, we defined tension as an affective state associated
with conflict, dissonance, instability, or uncertainty concerning
events of potential emotional significance that builds on pro-
cesses of prediction and creates an urge for resolution. The
following section examines the different components under-
lying tension and suspense experiences in more detail (some
ideas presented in this section have previously been discussed in
Lehne and Koelsch, in press).
CONFLICT, DISSONANCE, AND INSTABILITY
Tension experiences usually originate from events associated with
conflict, dissonance, or instability which create a yearning for
more stable, or consonant states. This is, for example, illus-
trated by the way tension and suspense are created in narrative
plots (e.g., in films, novels, theater plays, etc.) or in music.
Reaching back to Aristotle’s Poetics, in which complication is
identified as an integral part of tragedy, a basic “suspense for-
mula” employed by playwrights, fiction writers, and Hollywood
directors until the present day is to put the protagonist of a
story into a situation of conflict that has to be mastered. This
creates tension and suspense experiences in the audience that per-
sist until the conflict is resolved and replaced by a more stable
state.
Although seemingly very different from suspense in narrative
plots, tension experiences evoked by music (for overviews of musi-
cal tension, see Meyer, 1956; Huron, 2006; Farbood, 2012; Koelsch,
2012) appear to be governed by similar principles: musical events
associated with dissonance or instability create experiences of
tension whereas consonant or stable events are associated with res-
olution and relaxation. For example, musical chords that deviate
from an established tonal key of a musical sequence are perceived
as less stable, and accordingly are associated with higher degrees of
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Lehne and Koelsch
experienced tension than in-key chords (Lerdahl and Krumhansl,
2007).
Similar to the biological homeostasis of an organism (i.e., its
tendency to maintain a stable physiological state in a changing
environment), tension experiences thus appear to build on a kind
of “psychological homeostasis”—an urge to resolve psychologi-
cal conflicts and dissonances and strive toward stable states of
equilibrium. This idea is related to Festinger’s theory of cognitive
dissonance according to which humans try to resolve psychologi-
cal dissonances to achieve “consonant” cognitive states (Festinger,
1957; Cooper, 2007).
However, in the context of tension and suspense, the general
preference for stable states does not mean that tension experiences
are always associated with negative emotion (such as anxiety), nor
that stable states of equilibrium are always favored over states of
tension. To the contrary, events associated with tension may be
perceived as positive because they promise excitement and intense
emotional experiences that are usually not experienced in states
of constant equilibrium. This is especially true in contexts such
as music, film, or literature in which seemingly negative tension
experiences can be experienced as positive and rewarding because
they usually lack any negative real-life implications (cf. Levinson,
1997). Moreover, the state achieved after having gone through
an experience of tension may be preferable to the one before the
tension experience, thus sometimes justifying the deliberate expo-
sure to negative tension experiences. For example, tension is often
associated with situations in which an individual’s model of the
world (i.e., previous knowledge, and expectations) is challenged,
providing an environment for learning in which the model of the
world is expanded.
UNCERTAINTY
Another important building block of tension experiences is uncer-
tainty (although its exact role in mediating tension and suspense
is a matter of debate, see the Section “The Paradox of Suspense”).
Obvious instances of uncertainty triggering experiences of ten-
sion are real life examples in which anticipated future events with
uncertain but potentially highly significant outcomes can create
strong tension experiences (e.g., a medical diagnosis, an impor-
tant job interview, a rendezvous, etc.). Similarly, in narrative plots
such as novels or movies, uncertainty about the unfolding of events
of the plot creates suspense. The uncertainty associated with ten-
sion experiences—whether in real life or in narrative plots—often
takes the form of an implicit or explicit question (e.g., the clas-
sic “Whodunit?” in a detective story), triggering an experience of
tension that resolves when an answer to the question is provided.
Uncertainty can take on different forms, for example, there can be
uncertainty about what will happen, how it will happen, when it
will happen, or if it will happen.
EXPECTATION, PREDICTION, ANTICIPATION
A key component underlying tension and suspense experiences are
future-directed processes of expectation, prediction, and anticipa-
tion4 . As events unfold in time (e.g., in real life, fictional worlds,
4 Although often used interchangeably, there are subtle conceptual differences
between expectation, expectancy, prediction, and anticipation. We use the term
“expectation” to refer to distinct instances of future events (i.e., expecting a specific
Frontiers in Psychology | Emotion Science
Toward a model of tension and suspense
or music), they are constantly evaluated against a background
of predictions that is continuously updated during the temporal
evolution of events. Anticipated events of emotional significance
(see Emotional Significance of Anticipated Events) can then gen-
erate experiences of tension or suspense. The resulting tension
experiences are closely related to the emotions of hope and fear
(cf. the concept of Prospect emotions described in Ortony et al.,
1988): anticipated events with positive valence elicit emotions
of hope, whereas negative events create fear (or anxiety if the
anticipated events are more diffuse and not clearly specified). In
typical tension experiences, both emotions can co-occur because
often both positive and negative outcomes are possible. In fact,
the degree of experienced tension appears to be directly related
to the range of anticipated events and their emotional valence.
That is, the experience of tension is more intense if the range
of anticipated outcomes varies from highly positive to highly
negative events, as opposed to, for example, slightly positive to
neutral events (see Toward a Psychological Model of Tension and
Suspense).
The formation of predictions requires explicit or implicit
knowledge such as learned concepts, categories, schemata, or
scripts (Bartlett, 1932; Rosch et al., 1976; Schank and Abelson,
1977; Rumelhart, 1980). Furthermore, both long-term and short-
term knowledge are relevant for the formation of predictions.
Predictive processes in music, for example, build on long-term
knowledge that is acquired over years of exposure to a musical
system (e.g., Western tonal music), as well as short-term knowl-
edge that is acquired during the exposure to a specific music
piece (Pearce and Wiggins, 2012; Rohrmeier and Koelsch, 2012;
Tillmann et al., 2014). Musical events generating strong expecta-
tions for upcoming events are then potential triggers of tension.
Notably, these expectations need not necessarily be fulfilled but
can be violated, thus generating surprise. Tension and surprise
thus can be complementary if a sequence ends with a surprising
event (e.g., a joke). This is in accordance with Huron who states
that “tension is almost the exact opposite of surprise” because
“surprise happens after events; tension happens before events”
(Huron, 2006, p. 307). However, if a surprising event does not ter-
minate the sequence (e.g., a deceptive cadence in a musical piece),
but rather delays the final event of the sequence, the surprising
event might even further increase tension (however, this assump-
tion remains to be clarified by empirical research). The build-up,
fulfillment, and violation of listeners’ expectations has been iden-
tified as an important mechanism for the evocation of emotions in
music (Juslin and Västfjäll, 2008; Vuust and Frith, 2008; Koelsch,
2012).
During the formation of predictions, the probability of
anticipated events also plays an important role and shapes the
resulting experience of tension or suspense. However, the exact
relation between anticipated probabilities of future events and
experienced tension remains largely unclear (but for the special
event to happen), whereas the terms “expectancy” and “anticipation” are used to
denote predictive processes that are more diffuse and less specific. “Prediction” is
used to refer to all processes directed at future events, whether specific or unspecific
(for accounts on terminology, see also Bubic et al., 2010; Rohrmeier and Koelsch,
2012).
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Lehne and Koelsch
case of narrative plots and film suspense, see Comisky and Bryant,
1982; Gerrig and Bernardo, 1994; Carroll, 1996a).
Importantly, by building on implicit knowledge, predictions
can be established automatically (i.e., in the absence of voli-
tion or awareness). In music, for example, statistical regularities
can be acquired implicitly through exposure to a musical system
(Rohrmeier and Rebuschat, 2012), and musical expectancy viola-
tions are processed based on such implicit knowledge even in the
absence of attention (Koelsch et al., 2002).
THE PARADOX OF SUSPENSE
If tension experiences build on an urge for uncertainty reduc-
tion and processes of expectation, prediction, and anticipation,
this raises the question as to how tension can be experienced over
repeated exposures to a stimulus. Assuming that uncertainty is
resolved after the first exposure, subsequent exposures should
have lost their power to create tension or suspense. However,
this does not always appear to be the case, and in some con-
texts, tension experiences seem to be resistant against the loss
of uncertainty associated with repeated exposures. A piece of
music can be listened to hundreds of times while still convey-
ing feelings of tension and resolution, and—at least according
to some authors (see Gerrig, 1989; Carroll, 1996b)—the narra-
tive plots of novels or movies can be experienced as suspenseful
even in the absence of uncertainty after several readings or view-
ings. Moreover, music pieces, novels, or movies often conform
to genre-specific standards that make it possible to predict out-
comes with high accuracy (in a typical Hollywood movie, the
“good guys” usually win, a Beethoven sonata will end on a con-
sonant stable chord, etc.), thus putting the role of uncertainty
as a mediator of tension into question. This apparent contra-
diction known as the paradox of suspense has spurred much
discussion, and conflicting accounts have been put forward as
possible solutions5 . While some authors question the possibil-
ity of experiencing suspense in the absence of uncertainty (Yanal,
1996), others have argued that the experience of suspense after
repeated exposure to a narrative plot derives from the sympa-
thy with the characters (who themselves are uncertain about
future events, Skulsky, 1980), or that immersing into a suspense-
ful story for repeated times involves a game of make-believe, in
which a kind of feigned uncertainty, not actual uncertainty, causes
the experience of suspense (Walton, 1978). A related idea was
proposed by Gerrig (1989) who postulated that external events
automatically are processed with the “expectation of uniqueness,”
i.e., they are perceived as if they have never been encountered
before.
Furthermore, although there may be certainty about what
will happen after repeated exposure to, for example, a suspense-
ful movie, viewers may not recall exactly when certain events
happen, and these temporal uncertainties may be the main fac-
tor triggering suspense experiences after repeated exposure to a
stimulus. Distinguishing between felt and perceived tension or sus-
pense (see Measuring Tension) may also account for the resilience
5 Note that for most real life tension experiences (i.e., the ones not pertaining to
narrative plots or music), the paradox of suspense is less relevant, because the
impossibility of time travel usually impedes the repeated exposure to real life events.
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Toward a model of tension and suspense
of some suspense experiences because repeated exposures may
decrease the level of felt suspense but not that of perceived
suspense.
With regard to music, empirical evidence suggests that unex-
pected musical events are processed pre-attentively and automati-
cally with regard to their music-syntactic function (Koelsch et al.,
2002). Due to this automatic processing, a musical event can
be experienced as music-syntactically unexpected, despite famil-
iarity with the piece (which should render all musical events
expected). This would account for the experience of musical
tension in the absence of uncertainty (see also the distinc-
tion between schematic and veridical expectations in music,
Bharucha, 1994).
Despite the resilience of tension experiences over repeated
exposures to some stimuli, we think that in most cases the
reduction of uncertainty, ceteris paribus, leads to a considerable
decrease of tension or suspense. Watching a recording of the soc-
cer World Cup finals is clearly less suspenseful when knowing
the end result of the game, and a suspenseful movie is rarely
watched twice in close succession, indicating that parts of the
suspense experience do get lost after repeated exposure. Never-
theless, the paradox of suspense indicates that the exact role of
uncertainty in creating experiences of tension and suspense is
still not fully understood and remains to be investigated more
closely.
EMOTIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF ANTICIPATED EVENTS
Importantly, anticipated events need to be relevant to the con-
cerns of the individual, i.e., they have to have some emotional
significance, in order to generate tension or suspense. Apart from
expecting specific events to happen, someone experiencing ten-
sion or suspense usually also wants a specific event to happen
(or not to happen; cf. Anz, 1998). In fact, the amount of ten-
sion experienced appears to depend directly on the significance
or desirability of anticipated events. Event outcomes promising
great reward (e.g., winning the lottery) or portending great pain
or suffering (e.g., a medical diagnosis) can elicit strong experi-
ences of tension whereas events that are largely irrelevant to the
concerns of the individual usually fail to create tension or sus-
pense. Of course, the emotional significance of events can differ
largely between individuals. The idea that tension experiences
depend on the significance of anticipated events is in accordance
with cognitive theories of emotions, according to which emo-
tions result from events being evaluated in relation to concerns
(for an overview of cognitive approaches to emotion, see Oat-
ley and Johnson-Laird, 2014). It also concurs with Reisenzein’s
(2009) computational belief-desire theory of emotion, which
states that emotions depend on an individual’s beliefs and desires
(Reisenzein, 2009).
Whereas the relevance of an event’s emotional significance
is relatively obvious for most real life examples of tension (job
interviews, exams, etc.), this is not the case for the tension
experiences created by many forms of media entertainment: the
fictitious events of a movie or a novel, or the musical events of
a Beethoven symphony appear to lack any direct relevance to
our lives, yet they can trigger powerful experiences of tension.
Nevertheless, even for fictitious events of a narrative plot, it is
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Lehne and Koelsch
important that they become significant to the reader or viewer,
and many writers or movie directors go through great lengths to
make audiences care about the events of the plot (e.g., by por-
traying the protagonist as likable, addressing moral values of the
reader, etc.). This can result in processes of identification and
empathy with characters of the plot that could account for the
emotional responses evoked by narrative plots (cf. Hogan, 2010;
Oatley, 2012).
LACK OF CONTROL
Apart from the factors discussed above, a lack of control, i.e., an
inability to influence the course of events, often contributes to
experiences of tension. This lack of control is brought about by
a temporal distance between the initiating event triggering the
tension experience and the event that resolves the tension. Dur-
ing the time interval between these two events, there is usually
not much that can be done except for waiting for the tension
to resolve (in the best case the time of resolution can be influ-
enced). This means that during the actual tension experience
any action tendencies are rendered largely ineffective because the
course of events cannot be changed, and this may induce a feeling
of helplessness that can add to the experience of tension. This, of
course, does not mean that tension experiences are devoid of action
tendencies—to the contrary, tension experiences can evoke strong
impulses to act and these impulses may prepare the organism
for adequate behavioral responses in the moment when tension
resolves.
The inability to influence events often becomes apparent in
suspenseful movie scenes that build on a disparity between the
knowledge of a character of the movie and the knowledge of the
viewer (e.g., the viewer may be made aware that the protagonist
is in huge danger while the protagonist is completely oblivious of
this danger). The resulting lack of control over the situation may
contribute to feelings of tension and suspense and can create strong
action tendencies (viewers, for example, may have the strong urge
to utter warnings to the protagonist, despite knowing that this is
pointless).
TEMPORAL ASPECTS
Tension experiences can be observed at different temporal levels.
They can span large time intervals encompassing, for example,
the complete plot of a novel but they can also be observed at
smaller, microstructural levels. In a written text, for example,
a single sentence which is very long, and in which subject and
verb are separated by various subordinate clauses or parenthetical
statements (e.g., by making ample use of relative clauses, brackets,
dashes, etc.), thus taxing the working memory load of the reader—
longer sentences usually require more elements to be kept active in
memory—and delaying syntactic integration necessary for under-
standing the sentence, can create tension. The different temporal
levels (such as sentences, scenes, and entire plots) can interact,
thus potentially amplifying the tension experience.
The previous example also illustrates that the temporal distance
between the initiating event creating the tension and the moment
in which tension resolves influences the tension experience. It has
been proposed that delaying the resolution of the tension inten-
sifies the tension experience (de Wied, 1995), however, there is
Frontiers in Psychology | Emotion Science
Toward a model of tension and suspense
a scarcity of empirical research investigating the relation between
deferment of the resolution and experienced tension. Investigating
the temporal aspects of tension experiences more closely would
substantially contribute to a better understanding of tension and
suspense (see Future Directions).
TENSION AND EMOTION
We already mentioned the relation between tension experiences
and emotions of fear and hope (i.e., fear of an undesirable outcome
and hope for a desired outcome). Because tension experiences
are directed at future events of emotional significance, tension
often precedes other emotions such as joy, pleasure, sadness, or
disappointment and can thus be conceived of as a diffuse affec-
tive antecedent to more discrete emotional reactions. Generally,
the more divergent the emotional valence of anticipated events is,
the more diffuse and unspecific the associated tension experience
tends to be. For example, in situations, in which both highly pos-
itive or negative outcomes are possible (e.g., betting a thousand
dollars on the result of a coin flip), tension experiences may have
neither a clear positive nor negative valence (although in this spe-
cific coin flip example, tension is probably experienced as more
negative due to people’s tendency for loss aversion, cf. Kahne-
man and Tversky, 1984). On the other hand, when the affective
valence of possible outcomes is negative and the best outcome is
just a preservation of the status quo, associated tension experi-
ences also tend to be negative (causing anxiety or stress), whereas
if a positive outcome is anticipated and the worst outcome is a
preservation of a neutral status quo the tension experience tends
to be positive. The emotional valence of tension experiences is
therefore often defined by the emotional valence of the anticipated
resolution. Contrary to that, one may argue that tension experi-
ences are largely associated with negative emotion, and that people
deliberately expose themselves to tension experiences only for the
sake of experiencing the positive resolution of tension. Accounts
such as Berlyne’s (1960) arousal-jag theory or Zillmann’s (1980)
excitation-transfer paradigm, for example, assume that the inten-
sity of the pleasure experienced during the resolution depends
on the intensity of the (negative) tension experienced prior to
the resolution. However, even in the absence of a positive reso-
lution, tension experiences can be enjoyed, particularly in forms
of media entertainment such as film or literature that often lack
a positive resolution (e.g., tragedies, some horror movies, etc.).
The emotional intensity or “thrill” of the tension experience may
thus be appreciated for its own sake, and the fictitious events of
narrative plots provide an opportunity to experience intense emo-
tions associated with situations not commonly encountered in
everyday life and without any (potentially negative) real life con-
sequences (cf. the “pleasure of being moved” discussed in Hanich
et al., 2014).
In its most diffuse form, tension can just arise from the
expectancy that “something” significant will happen. Depend-
ing on what then actually happens, tension resolves into positive
or negative emotions. If something completely unexpected hap-
pens, this can lead to surprise or amusement, e.g., when expecting
something significant to happen that then resolves into some-
thing trivial (cf. the false-alarm-theory of humor and laughter;
Ramachandran, 1998).
February 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 79 | 6
Lehne and Koelsch
It also seems worthwhile to examine the relation of tension
experiences and flow (Csíkszentmihályi, 1990)—the state of being
completely absorbed in an activity (e.g., reading, watching a
movie, listening to or performing music, sports, etc.). Tension and
suspense, like flow, are associated with strong immersive expe-
riences in which attention is highly focused (it is, for example,
remarkable how long, especially in comparison to other stimuli,
a suspenseful novel or movie can capture one’s attention). A bet-
ter understanding of the psychological mechanisms underlying
tension and suspense could make it possible to deliberately cre-
ate these experiences of minimal distraction and highly focused
attention associated with flow.
TOWARD A PSYCHOLOGICAL MODEL OF TENSION AND
SUSPENSE
Figure 2 shows a model of tension and suspense based on the
points discussed in this article. According to this model, experi-
ences of tension originate from the perception of an initiating
event that is associated with conflict, instability, dissonance,
or uncertainty which triggers future-directed processes of pre-
diction, expectation and anticipation (modulated by previous
knowledge, situational factors, or personality, see below). These
predictive processes create a space of possible outcome events
(note that these anticipated outcome events can be conscious or
unconscious, and more or less specific). A divergence between
the affective values of anticipated events (i.e., their desirabil-
ity) then results in an experience of tension. More specifically,
we propose that the intensity of tension experiences increases
as the variability of the affective values of anticipated out-
comes increases. That is, anticipated events whose affective values
are highly variable (e.g., ranging from very positive to very
negative events) are associated with higher degrees of experi-
enced tension than events whose range of affective values is
FIGURE 2 | Tension model. The perception of an initiating event
associated with conflict, dissonance, instability, or uncertainty triggers
future-directed processes of expectation, anticipation, and prediction
(depending on previous knowledge, context, and personality factors)
generating a space of anticipated outcome events that vary with
www.frontiersin.org
Toward a model of tension and suspense
smaller. It remains to be investigated how exactly the disper-
sion of the affective values of anticipated events affects the
tension experience (e.g., whether tension is affected more by
the range of affective values or by their variance). Further-
more, the perceived probabilities of anticipated events influence
the tension experience, and a closer investigation of this effect
of perceived probabilities on tension experiences might eventu-
ally lead to a quantitative mathematical model of tension and
suspense.
Note that the most positive or negative event of the outcome
space is often just the maintenance of the status quo whereas
the others are more positive or negative events (for example,
tension can be created by a mismatch between a desired state
and the actual state of the world). Outcomes that have a neg-
ative affective value are associated with fear whereas positive
outcomes can evoke feelings of hope. Initiating and outcome
events can coincide, i.e., an outcome event can be the initiat-
ing event of a new tension process, thus creating a succession
of different tension experiences that give rise to a dynamic flow
of tension and resolution (e.g., in a piece of music or in a
movie).
Importantly, the anticipated events of the outcome space as
well as their affective values and perceived probabilities can largely
differ between (and within) individuals because the predictive
processes generating the outcome space depend on factors such
as previous knowledge, personal values, mood, the context, in
which events occur, attention, or personality (e.g., whether some-
one generally has a more optimistic or pessimistic outlook on the
future).
NEURAL CORRELATES OF TENSION AND SUSPENSE
Investigating tension phenomena from a neuroscientific perspec-
tive can provide insights into general mechanisms of human
regard to their affective values/desirability. A divergence between the
affective values of anticipated outcomes (i.e., a differing desirability of
outcome events) leads to the subjective experience of tension (with
positive outcomes being associated with hope and negative outcomes
with fear).
February 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 79 | 7
Lehne and Koelsch
brain functioning, in particular the ones associated with emo-
tion and predictive processing. Vice versa, neuroscientific findings
can inform psychological theories of tension.
First empirical research investigating brain processes underlying
the experience of tension in music indicates that musical tension
is associated with neural activity in the lateral orbitofrontal cor-
tex, and that increases in experienced tension (in comparison with
tension decreases) are related to activity in the (superficial) amyg-
dala (Lehne et al., 2013b). This is consistent with studies showing
that harmonic expectancy violations in music (which are highly
relevant to experiences of tension, see Expectation, Prediction,
Anticipation) also activate the lateral orbitofrontal cortex (Koelsch
et al., 2005; Tillmann et al., 2006) and the amygdala (Koelsch et al.,
2008). In addition, other music studies indicate that expectation
processes are related to brain areas in the basal ganglia associated
with reward processing, particularly the striatum (Salimpoor et al.,
2011; Seger et al., 2013).
Investigating immersion in reading (i.e., the feeling of “get-
ting lost” in a text), which is closely related to suspense, a study
by Hsu et al. (2014) indicates that immersion during emotional
text passages is associated with activation of the mid-cingulate
cortex, possibly reflecting empathic processes with protagonists
of the plot. Further evidence from a study investigating sus-
pense during reading suggests that the experience of suspense
recruits brain areas related to theory-of-mind processing such as
the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the temporo-parietal
junction (TPJ) as well as areas in the premotor cortex (Lehne
et al., submitted). Such premotor cortex activations have been
implicated with action and event prediction (Schubotz, 2007),
underlining the connection between experiences of suspense
and predictive processes. With regard to these predictive pro-
cesses, the connection of psychological tension theories with
Bayesian accounts of brain functioning such as predictive cod-
ing and the free energy principle (Friston and Kiebel, 2009;
Friston, 2010) may prove useful. According to predictive cod-
ing theories, perception, action, and learning are essentially
based on the minimization of prediction errors, surprise, and
uncertainty, i.e., it is assumed that the brain constantly gen-
erates predictions at different levels of the processing hierarchy
that are compared with input from lower levels of the hierarchy
(e.g., sensory input). If there is a mismatch between (top–down)
predictions and (bottom–up) input, this results in a prediction
error. If such a prediction error occurs, predictions are updated
or behavior is changed in such a way that predictions are ful-
filled, thus minimizing future prediction errors, surprise, and
uncertainty. Although these predictive processes most likely also
have an emotional component, predictive coding and emotion
are only beginning to be integrated into a common theoreti-
cal framework (Joffily and Coricelli, 2013). As discussed above,
tension and suspense are closely connected with processes of
expectation and anticipation and thus appear to rely on very
basic brain mechanisms associated with predictive processing. At
the same time, tension phenomena can evoke intense emotional
responses. Studying neural correlates of tension and suspense
would therefore be useful when developing a theory of human
brain function integrating cognitive processes of prediction with
affective emotional processes. For the special case of music,
Frontiers in Psychology | Emotion Science
Toward a model of tension and suspense
an integration of predictive processes, emotion, and underly-
ing brain processes has recently been proposed by Gebauer et al.
(2012), who relate music-evoked emotions to so-called “pleasure
cycles” which are distinguished by different phases of wanting,
liking, and learning (for details, see Georgiadis and Kringelbach,
2012; Kringelbach et al., 2012) and which depend on listeners’
expectations and their fulfillment or violation. The different
phases of these pleasure cycles are put into relation with neu-
ronal processes of the dopaminergic reward system representing
expectations and prediction errors according to the theory of pre-
dictive coding. Art forms such as music, film, or literature thus
appear to be capable of evoking activity within these brain cir-
cuits associated with prediction and reward. Therefore, studying
the underlying brain mechanisms more closely would advance
our understanding of the aesthetic emotions evoked by works
of art.
Electroencephalography (EEG) studies investigating tension
and suspense are scarce. However, event-related potentials such
as the P300 and the contingent negative variation (CNV) which
have been implicated in processes of anticipation (Verleger et al.,
1994; Goldstein et al., 2006; Pfabigan et al., 2014) may play a role
in tension and suspense experiences.
Tension experiences also share many of the components that
are relevant to the perception of risk (e.g., in decision-making)
such as uncertainty, predictive processing, and emotion. Brain
regions associated with tension experiences may therefore over-
lap with regions that have been implicated in risk processing such
as the anterior insula or dorsomedial and dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex (Mohr et al., 2010). The same is true for brain regions asso-
ciated with anticipatory processes such as the dorsal striatum (cf.
Salimpoor et al., 2011), which have mostly been studied in the con-
text of reward processing (Schultz et al., 1997; O’Doherty, 2004;
Wise, 2004; Knutson and Cooper, 2005).
Apart from providing insights into the neural mechanisms
underlying tension experiences, neuroscientific methods may also
open new perspectives for objectively quantifying the amount
of tension or suspense evoked by an experimental stimulus
(e.g., a movie excerpt, a piece of music, etc.). Studies by
Hasson et al. (2010) have shown that the intersubject synchro-
nization of cortical activity, measuring to which degree brain
activity correlates between different individuals, varies between
different kinds of audiovisual stimuli, with the highest synchro-
nization observed for suspenseful movies (Hitchcock’s “Bang!
You’re dead” or Leone’s “The good, the bad and the ugly”).
Similarly, Nummenmaa et al. (2012) have shown that emotional
movie scenes are associated with increased intersubject correla-
tions of brain activity. The intersubject synchronization of brain
activity could therefore possibly serve as an indicator of how
much suspense a stimulus evokes on average over a group of
participants.
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The model proposed in this article should be regarded as a first step
toward a psychological theory of tension and suspense. It provides
a starting point from which experimental hypotheses can be gen-
erated and tested in empirical studies, which may then motivate
further refinements of the model. In particular, future research is
February 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 79 | 8
Lehne and Koelsch
needed to specify how the perceived probabilities of anticipated
events affect the subjective experience of tension. Furthermore,
the role of uncertainty in generating experiences of tension and
suspense is unclear and remains to be resolved by investigating
how tension experiences change over repeated exposures to an
experimental stimulus.
Moreover, the model still lacks a temporal component. Because
tension and suspense unfold in time, investigating temporal
aspects of tension experiences would provide further insights into
the psychological mechanisms underlying experiences of tension.
More specifically, it remains to be investigated how the subjec-
tive experience of tension develops between the perception of
the initiating event and the anticipated outcome event. Do ten-
sion and suspense increase linearly between these two events?
Does increasing the delay of the outcome event also increase ten-
sion or is there a time point after which tension decreases again?
Is there an “optimal” temporal distance between the initiating
event and the anticipated outcome event that would maximize
the tension experience? Empirically exploring these and simi-
lar questions would add to a better understanding of tension
experiences.
We also mentioned that the factors determining the degree
of experienced tension (such as the affective values of antici-
pated events and their perceived probabilities) are highly subjective
and context-dependent. It is therefore worthwhile to explore how
personality, mood, or situational factors shape experiences of ten-
sion. Related to that, it remains to be investigated more closely
in which contexts tension is experienced as positive, and when
as negative. Investigating neural mechanisms underlying tension
experiences, in particular the ones related to predictive pro-
cesses, could further add to a psychological theory of tension and
suspense.
CONCLUSION
In the present paper, we explored psychological mechanisms
underlying experiences of tension and suspense. We discussed
the relevance of tension phenomena for emotion research (e.g.,
aesthetic emotions), identified key components of tension expe-
riences, proposed a general psychological model of tension and
suspense, and reviewed possible neural mechanisms underlying
tension experiences. According to the model, tension experiences
originate from events associated with conflict, instability, dis-
sonance, or uncertainty which trigger processes of prediction.
The divergence between the affective values (i.e., the desirabil-
ity) of anticipated events then results in experiences of tension.
The model provides a starting point from which open ques-
tions concerning the psychological underpinnings of tension
phenomena can be addressed. In particular, future research
could investigate how temporal aspects shape tension experi-
ences (e.g., the delay of resolution moments), how the probability
of anticipated events influences tension, and how situational
and personality factors contribute to tension experiences. Fur-
thermore, the paradox of experiencing tension and suspense
over repeated exposure deserves a closer investigation. Last,
integrating affective experiences of tension into neural theo-
ries of predictive coding offers promising avenues for future
research.
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Toward a model of tension and suspense
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the Excellence Initiative of the Ger-
man Federal Ministry of Education and Research. We would like
to thank Philipp Engel for valuable discussions. We also thank the
reviewers of this article for very helpful comments and suggestions.
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Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was conducted
in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed
as a potential conflict of interest.
Received: 07 October 2014; accepted: 14 January 2015; published online: 11 February
2015.
Citation: Lehne M and Koelsch S (2015) Toward a general psychological model of
tension and suspense. Front. Psychol. 6:79. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00079
This article was submitted to Emotion Science, a section of the journal Frontiers in
Psychology.
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