A

Appendix

The goal of this appendix is to establish the essential notation, terminology, and algebraic
skills that are used throughout the book.

Algebra
EXAMPLE 1 Algebra review
a. Evaluate 1-3222>5.
1 1
b. Simplify - .
x - 2 x + 2
x 4 - 5x 2 + 4
c. Solve the equation = 0.
x - 1
SoLution
5
a. Recall that 1-3222>5 = 11-3221>522. Because 1-3221>5 = 2 -32 = -2, we have
2>5 2
1-322 = 1-22 = 4.
Another option is to write 1-3222>5 = 11-322221>5 = 10241>5 = 4.
b. Finding a common denominator and simplifying leads to
1 1 (x + 2) - (x - 2) 4
- = = 2 .
x - 2 x + 2 (x - 2)(x + 2) x - 4
c. Notice that x = 1 cannot be a solution of the equation because the left side of the
equation is undefined at x = 1. Because x - 1 ≠ 0, both sides of the equation can
be multiplied by x - 1 to produce x 4 - 5x 2 + 4 = 0. After factoring, this equation
becomes 1x 2 - 421x 2 - 12 = 0, which implies x 2 - 4 = 1x - 221x + 22 = 0 or
x 2 - 1 = 1x - 121x + 12 = 0. The roots of x 2 - 4 = 0 are x = {2, and the roots
of x 2 - 1 = 0 are x = {1. Excluding x = 1, the roots of the original equation are
x = -1 and x = {2.
Related Exercises 15–26

Sets of Real Numbers

Figure A.1 shows the notation for open intervals, closed intervals, and various bounded
and unbounded intervals. Notice that either interval notation or set notation may be used.

1151
1152 Appendix A

3a, b4 = 5x: a … x … b6 Closed, bounded interval

a b

1a, b4 = 5x: a 6 x … b6 Bounded interval

a b

3a, b2 = 5x: a … x 6 b6 Bounded interval

a b

1a, b2 = 5x: a 6 x 6 b6 Open, bounded interval

a b

3a, ∞2 = 5x: x Ú a6 Unbounded interval

a

1a, ∞2 = 5x: x 7 a6 Unbounded interval

a

1- ∞, b4 = 5x: x … b6 Unbounded interval

b

1- ∞, b2 = 5x: x 6 b6 Unbounded interval

b

1- ∞, ∞2 = 5x: - ∞ 6 x 6 ∞ 6 Unbounded interval

Figure A.1

EXAMPLE 2 Solving inequalities Solve the following inequalities.

x2 - x - 2
a. -x 2 + 5x - 6 6 0 b. … 0
x - 3
SoLution

a. We multiply by -1, reverse the inequality, and then factor:

x 2 - 5x + 6 7 0 Multiply by -1.
1x - 221x - 32 7 0. Factor.
The roots of the corresponding equation 1x - 221x - 32 = 0 are x = 2 and x = 3.
These roots partition the number line (Figure A.2) into three intervals: 1- ∞, 22,
12, 32, and 13, ∞2. On each interval, the product 1x - 221x - 32 does not change
sign. To determine the sign of the product on a given interval, a test value x is
selected and the sign of 1x - 221x - 32 is determined at x.

Sign of
(x  2)(x  3)   

0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure A.2

A convenient choice for x in 1- ∞, 22 is x = 0. At this test value,

1x - 221x - 32 = 1-221-32 7 0.
Using a test value of x = 2.5 in the interval 12, 32, we have
1x - 221x - 32 = 10.521-0.52 6 0.
A test value of x = 4 in 13, ∞2 gives

➤ The set of numbers 5x: x is in 1- ∞, 22 1x - 221x - 32 = 122112 7 0.

or 13, ∞26 may also be expressed using
Therefore, 1x - 221x - 32 7 0 on 1- ∞, 22 and 13, ∞2. We conclude that the
the union symbol:
inequality -x 2 + 5x - 6 6 0 is satisfied for all x in either 1- ∞, 22 or 13, ∞2
1- ∞, 22h13, ∞2. (Figure A.2).
 Appendix A 1153

x2 - x - 2
b. The expression can change sign only at points where the numerator or
x - 3
2
x - x - 2
denominator of equals 0. Because
x - 3
x2 - x - 2 1x + 121x - 22
= ,
x - 3 x - 3
the numerator is 0 when x = -1 or x = 2, and the denominator is 0 at x = 3.
1x + 121x - 22
Therefore, we examine the sign of on the intervals 1- ∞, -12,
x - 3
1 -1, 22, 12, 32, and 13, ∞2.
Test 1x + 121x - 22
Using test values on these intervals, we see that 6 0 on
Value x + 1 x − 2 x − 3 Result x - 3
-2 - - - - 1 - ∞, -12 and 12, 32. Furthermore, the expression is 0 when x = -1 and x = 2.
0 + - - + x2 - x - 2
Therefore, … 0 for all values of x in either 1- ∞, -14 or 32, 32
2.5 + + - - x - 3
4 + + + + (Figure A.3).

Sign of
(x  1)(x  2)    
x3

2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Figure A.3
Related Exercises 27–30

Absolute Value
The absolute value of a real number x, denoted  x  , is the distance between x and the
origin on the number line (Figure A.4). More generally,  x - y  is the distance between
the points x and y on the number line. The absolute value has the following definition and
properties.

➤ The absolute value is useful in 4 units 5 units

simplifying square roots. Because 1a
is nonnegative, we have 2a 2 =  a  .
4 0 5
For example, 232 = 3 and 4  4 5  5
21- 322 = 19 = 3. Note that the
solutions of x 2 = 9 are  x  = 3 or
x = {3. x units x units For x  0

x 0 x
x  x x  x
Figure A.4

Definition and Properties of the Absolute Value

The absolute value of a real number x is defined as
x if x Ú 0
x = e
-x if x 6 0.
Let a be a positive real number.
1.  x  = a 3 x = {a 2.  x  6 a 3 -a 6 x 6 a
➤ Property 6 is called the triangle 3.  x  7 a 3 x 7 a or x 6 -a 4.  x  … a 3 -a … x … a
inequality. 5.  x  Ú a 3 x Ú a or x … -a 6.  x + y  …  x  +  y 
1154 Appendix A

EXAMPLE 3 Inequalities with absolute values Solve the following inequalities. Then
sketch the solution on the number line and express it in interval notation.
a.  x - 2  6 3 b.  2x - 6  Ú 10
SoLution
3 3 a. Using property 2 of the absolute value,  x - 2  6 3 is written as
-3 6 x - 2 6 3.
1 0 2 5
x: x  2  3 Adding 2 to each term of these inequalities results in -1 6 x 6 5 (Figure A.5). This
set of numbers is written as 1-1, 52 in interval notation.
Figure A.5
b. Using property 5, the inequality  2x - 6  Ú 10 implies that
2x - 6 Ú 10 or 2x - 6 … -10.
2 0 8 We add 6 to both sides of the first inequality to obtain 2x Ú 16, which implies x Ú 8.
x: 2x  6  10 Similarly, the second inequality yields x … -2 (Figure A.6). In interval notation, the
Figure A.6 solution is 1- ∞,-24 or 38, ∞2.
Related Exercises 31–34

Cartesian Coordinate System

The conventions of the Cartesian coordinate system or xy-coordinate system are il-
lustrated in Figure A.7. The set of real numbers is often denoted ℝ. The set of all ordered
pairs of real numbers, which comprise the xy-plane, is often denoted ℝ2.

y
➤ The familiar 1x, y2 coordinate system
is named after René Descartes Quadrant II Quadrant I
x  0, y  0 x  0, y  0
(1596–1650). However, it was introduced
independently and simultaneously by (x, y)
Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665).
y

O x x

Quadrant III Quadrant IV

x  0, y  0 x  0, y  0

Figure A.7
For any right triangle,
a2  b2  c2. Distance Formula and Circles
By the Pythagorean theorem (Figure A.8), we have the following formula for the distance
c between two points P11x 1, y 12 and P21x 2, y 22.
b

a Distance Formula
P2(x2, y2) The distance between the points P11x 1, y 12 and P21x 2, y 22 is
 P1P2  = 21x 2 - x 122 + 1y 2 - y 122 .
(x2  x1)2  (y2  y1)2
y2  y1

P1(x1, y1) (x2, y1) A circle is the set of points in the plane whose distance from a fixed point (the center)
x2  x1
is constant (the radius). This definition leads to the following equations that describe a
Figure A.8 circle.
 Appendix A 1155

y
Equation of a Circle
Upper half: y  b  r 2  (x  a)2
The equation of a circle centered at 1a, b2 with radius r is
1x - a22 + 1y - b22 = r 2.
Solving for y, the equations of the upper and lower halves of the circle (Figure A.9) are
radius: r y = b + 2r 2 - 1x - a22 Upper half of the circle
b
center: (a, b) 2 2
y = b - 2r - 1x - a2 . Lower half of the circle

a x
EXAMPLE 4 Sets involving circles

Lower half: y  b  r 2  (x  a)2 a. Find the equation of the circle with center 12, 42 passing through 1-2, 12.
b. Describe the set of points satisfying x 2 + y 2 - 4x - 6y 6 12.
Figure A.9
SoLution

a. The radius of the circle equals the length of the line segment between the center 12, 42
and the point on the circle 1-2, 12, which is
212 - 1-2222 + 14 - 122 = 5.
Therefore, the equation of the circle is
1x - 222 + 1y - 422 = 25.
b. To put this inequality in a recognizable form, we complete the square on the left side
of the inequality:
➤ Recall that the procedure shown here for
completing the square works when the x 2 + y 2 - 4x - 6y = x 2 - 4x + 4 - 4 + y 2 - 6y + 9 - 9

d
coefficient on the quadratic term is 1.
Add and subtract the square Add and subtract the square
When the coefficient is not 1, it must of half the coefficient of x of half the coefficient of y.
be factored out before completing the
square. = x 2 - 4x + 4 + y 2 - 6y + 9 - 4 - 9
f

f
1x - 222 1y - 322
= 1x - 22 + 1y - 322 - 13.
2

Therefore, the original inequality becomes

➤ A circle is the set of all points whose
distance from a fixed point is a constant.
A disk is the set of all points within and
possibly on a circle.
1x - 222 + 1y - 322 - 13 6 12, or 1x - 222 + 1y - 322 6 25.
This inequality describes those points that lie within the circle centered at 12, 32 with
radius 5 (Figure A.10). Note that a dashed curve is used to indicate that the circle itself
is not part of the solution.

The solution to
(x  2)2  (y  3)2  25
is the interior of a circle.
y

r5

(2, 3)
1

1 x

Figure A.10
Related Exercises 35–36
1156 Appendix A

Equations of Lines
y

x2  x1, y2  y1, m  0

The slope m of the line passing through the points P11x 1, y 12 and P21x 2, y 22 is the rise over
(x2, y2)
run (Figure A.11), computed as
(x1, y1) change in vertical coordinate y2 - y1
m = = .
change in horizontal coordinate x2 - x1
O x

y Equations of a Line
x2  x1, y2  y1, m  0 Point-slope form The equation of the line with slope m passing through the point
1x 1, y 12 is y - y 1 = m1x - x 12.
(x1, y1) Slope-intercept form The equation of the line with slope m and y-intercept 10, b2
is y = mx + b (Figure A.12a).
(x2, y2)
General linear equation The equation Ax + By + C = 0 describes a line in the
O x plane, provided A and B are not both zero.
Figure A.11 Vertical and horizontal lines The vertical line that passes through (a, 0) has
an equation x = a; its slope is undefined. The horizontal line through 10, b2 has
an equation y = b, with slope equal to 0 (Figure A.12b).

y y
➤ Given a particular line, we often talk xa
y  mx  b y  mx  b
about the equation of a line. But the (m  0) (m  0) (m undefined)
equation of a specific line is not unique.
Having found one equation, we can
yb b
multiply it by any nonzero constant (0, b)
(m  0)
to produce another equation of the
same line.
O x O a x

(a) (b)
Figure A.12

EXAMPLE 5 Working with linear equations Find an equation of the line passing
through the points 11, -22 and 1-4, 52.
SoLution The slope of the line through the points 11, -22 and 1-4, 52 is

5 - 1-22 7 7
m = = = - .
-4 - 1 -5 5
Using the point 11, -22, the point-slope form of the equation is
7
y - 1-22 = - 1x - 12.
5
➤ Because both points 11, - 22 and 1- 4, 52 Solving for y yields the slope-intercept form of the equation:
lie on the line and must satisfy the
equation of the line, either point can be 7 3
y = - x - .
used to determine an equation of the line. 5 5
Related Exercises 37–40
 Appendix A 1157

Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Two lines in the plane may have either of two special relationships to each other: They
may be parallel or perpendicular.

y
slope M Parallel Lines
Parallel Two distinct nonvertical lines are parallel if they have the same slope; that is, the lines
lines
slope m with equations y = mx + b and y = Mx + B are parallel if and only if m = M.
Two distinct vertical lines are parallel.
O x

mM EXAMPLE 6 Parallel lines Find an equation of the line parallel to 3x - 6y + 12 = 0

that intersects the x-axis at 14, 02.
SoLution Solving the equation 3x - 6y + 12 = 0 for y, we have

1
y = x + 2.
2
This line has a slope of 12 and any line parallel to it has a slope of 12 . Therefore, the line
that passes through 14, 02 with slope 12 has the point-slope equation y - 0 = 12 1x - 42.
After simplifying, an equation of the line is
1
y = x - 2.
2
Notice that the slopes of the two lines are the same; only the y-intercepts differ.
Related Exercises 41–42
➤ The slopes of perpendicular lines are
negative reciprocals of each other.
Perpendicular Lines
y Two lines with slopes m ≠ 0 and M ≠ 0 are perpendicular if and only if
slope m mM = -1, or equivalently, m = -1>M.

Perpendicular
lines mM  1 EXAMPLE 7 Perpendicular lines Find an equation of the line passing through the
O x
point 1 -2, 52 perpendicular to the line /: 4x - 2y + 7 = 0.
7
SoLution The equation of / can be written y = 2x + 2 , which reveals that its slope is 2.
Therefore, the slope of any line perpendicular to / is - 2 . The line with slope - 12 passing
1

slope M through the point 1-2, 52 is

1 x
y - 5 = - 1x + 22, or y = - + 4.
2 2
Related Exercises 43–44

APPEndiX A EXErciSES
Review Questions 6. Write an equation of the set of all points that are a distance 5 units
1. State the meaning of 5x: - 4 6 x … 106. Express the set from the point 12, 32.
5x: - 4 6 x … 106 using interval notation and draw it on a 7. Explain how to find the distance between two points whose
number line. coordinates are known.
2. Write the interval 1- ∞ , 22 in set notation and draw it on a 8. Sketch the set of points 51x, y2: x 2 + 1y - 222 7 166.
number line.
9. Give an equation of the upper half of the circle centered at the
3. Give the definition of  x . origin with radius 6.
4. Write the inequality  x - 2  … 3 without absolute value 10. What are the possible solution sets of the equation
symbols. x 2 + y 2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0?
5. Write the inequality  2x - 4  Ú 3 without absolute value 11. Give an equation of the line with slope m that passes through the
symbols. point 14, -22.
1158 Appendix A

12. Give an equation of the line with slope m and y-intercept 10, 62. 37–40. Working with linear equations Find an equation of the line /
that satisfies the given condition. Then draw the graph of /.
13. What is the relationship between the slopes of two parallel lines?
37. / has slope 5>3 and y-intercept 10, 42.
14. What is the relationship between the slopes of two perpendicular
lines? 38. / has undefined slope and passes through 10, 52.
39. / has y-intercept 10, -42 and x-intercept 15, 02.
Basic Skills
15–20. Algebra review Simplify or evaluate the following expressions 40. / is parallel to the x-axis and passes through the point 12, 32.
without a calculator. 41–42. Parallel lines Find an equation of the following lines and draw
3 their graphs.
15. 11>82-2>3 16. 2 - 125 + 21>25
1a + h22 - a 2 41. The line with y-intercept 10, 122 parallel to the line x + 2y = 8
17. 1u + v22 - 1u - v22 18.
h 42. The line with x-intercept 1-6, 02 parallel to the line 2x - 5 = 0
1 1 2 2 43–44. Perpendicular lines Find an equation of the following lines.
19. - 20. -
x + h x x + 3 x - 3
43. The line passing through 13, -62 perpendicular to the line
21–26. Algebra review y = -3x + 2
21. Factor y 2 - y -2. 22. Solve x 3 - 9x = 0. 44. The perpendicular bisector of the line joining the points 1-9, 22
and 13, -52
23. Solve u4 - 11u2 + 18 = 0.
24. Solve 4x - 612x2 = -8. Further Explorations
45. Explain why or why not State whether the following statements
1x + h23 - x 3
25. Simplify , for h ≠ 0. are true and give an explanation or counterexample.
h
a. 216 = {4.
1x + h - 1x b. 242 = 21- 422.
26. Rewrite , where h ≠ 0, without square roots in
h
c. There are two real numbers that satisfy the condition
the numerator.
 x  = - 2.
27–30. Solving inequalities Solve the following inequalities and draw d.  p2 - 9  6 0.
the solution on a number line.
e. The point 11, 12 is inside the circle of radius 1 centered at the
2 x + 1 origin.
27. x - 6x + 5 6 0 28. 6 6
x + 2 f. 2x 4 = x 2 for all real numbers x.
x 2 - 9x + 20 g. 2a 2 6 2b 2 implies a 6 b for all real numbers a and b.
29. … 0 30. x1x - 1 7 0
x - 6
46–48. Intervals to sets Express the following intervals in set notation.
31–34. Inequalities with absolute values Solve the following inequali- Use absolute value notation when possible.
ties. Then draw the solution on a number line and express it using
interval notation. 46. 1- ∞ , 122

31.  3x - 4  7 8 32. 1 …  x  … 10 47. 1- ∞ , -24 or 34, ∞ 2

33. 3 6  2x - 1  6 5 34. 2 6 0 2x - 5 0 6 6 48. 12, 34 or 34, 52

35–36. Circle calculations Solve the following problems. 49–50. Sets in the plane Graph each set in the xy-plane.

35. Find the equation of the lower half of the circle with center 49. 51x, y2:  x - y  = 06
1- 1, 22 and radius 3. 50. 51x, y2:  x  =  y  6
36. Describe the set of points that satisfy x 2 + y 2 + 6x + 8y Ú 25.