Far

Eastern University – Nicanor Reyes Medical Foundation - Its main function is to decide what you want to find out
RESEARCH about.
MACARIO F. REANDELAR, JR., MD, MSPH, FPAFP - The way the problem is formulated determines
- almost every step that follows.
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Reviewing the Literature
Kinds of Research - After we have identified our research problem, reviewing the
Based on broad objectives, research may be classified as; literature is next essential task in order to acquaint ourselves
- Basic with the available body of knowledge in our area of interest.
- Epidemiological - Literature review is an integral part of entire research process
- Clinical and makes valuable contribution to every operational step.
- Its functions are;
Kinds of Research o to bring clarity and focus to our research problem;
- Basic research uses healthy humans and experimental o to improve our methodology;
animals as subjects. o to broaden our knowledge; and to contextualize our
- It aims to develop better understanding of the nature, findings.
including relationships, of normal events in the human body.
- It serves as basis for some future action or Developing the objectives
- application in biomedical sciences. - Objectives are the goals we set out to attain in our study.
- They inform the reader what we want to attain through the
Kinds of Research study.
- Epidemiologic research uses populations or groups of people, - It is extremely important to formulate them clearly
healthy and with disease as subjects. - and specifically.
- Its primary use is in the identification of risk factors and - Objectives can be listed under two headings, the
causes of diseases which serve as basis for the development - General objective and the Specific objectives.
of preventive measures. - The General objective is an overall statement of the thrust of
our study.
Kinds of Research o It is also a statement of the main associations and
- Clinical research is done on patients. relationships that we seek to discover or establish.
- Its objective is understanding of the disease process including - The Specific objectives are the specific aspects of the topic
the identification of determinants of the outcome of illness. that we want to investigate within the main framework of our
- It forms a basis for the development of technology study.
- for the diagnosis and treatment of the disease.
Preparing the Research Design
The Research Process - Research design is the conceptual structure within which
- The research process is similar to undertaking a journey. research would be conducted.
- In a research journey there are two important decisions to - The function of research design is to provide for the collection
make: of relevant information with minimal expenditure of effort,
o What we want to find out about or what research time and money.
questions (problems) we want to find answers to - The preparation of research design, appropriate for a
o And how to go about finding their answers. particular research problem (what research design to use),
- There are practical steps through which we must pass in our involves the consideration of the following:
research journey in order to find answers to our research o the objectives of the research study,
questions. o the method of data collection to be adopted,
- The path to finding answers to our research questions o the source of information and the sampling design,
constitutes research methodology. o the tool for data collection,
o and the data analysis.
Steps in Research Process
1. Formulating the Research Problem Determining Sampling Methodology
2. Reviewing the Literature - Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by
3. Developing the objectives taking a sample.
4. Preparing the Research Design - A sample is a segment of the population selected to represent
5. Determining Sampling Methodology the population as a whole.
6. Collecting the Data - Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow the
7. Analyzing Data researcher to make accurate estimates of the characteristics
8. Generalizing and interpreting results and behavior of the larger population.
9. Preparing the Report or Presenting Results- Formal write
ups of conclusions reached Collecting the Data
- The construction of a research instrument or tool for data
Formulating the Research Problem collection is one of the most important aspects of a research
- The first and most crucial step in the research process. project.

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 - Because anything we say by way of findings or conclusions is shorter height with an increased risk of CAD remain
based upon the type of information we collect. unclear. (C.P. Nelson et al., 2015)
- And the data we collect is entirely dependent upon the - Research question
questions that we ask of the respondents. o Can genetic variants that affect a trait provide a means
of exploring the relationship between height and the
Analyzing Data CAD?
- Processing and analyzing data involves a number of closely - Research hypothesis
related operations; o Genetic variants that affect a trait provide a means of
o summarizing the collected data; exploring the relationship between height and CAD.
o and organizing them in a manner that they answer the
research questions (objectives). Note that the Research problem is a statement, not a question.
Many ask a research question when they talk of a statement of the
Preparing the Report problem.
- Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult
step of the research process. A Misnomer
- The report informs the world what we have done, what we Statement of the Problem:
have discovered and what conclusions we have drawn from - Do satisfied employees perform better? Conversely, if
our findings. employees are satisfied would they be motivated to work
- The report should be written in an academic style. hard, be loyal and stay devoted to the Hospital?
- Language should be formal and not journalistic. The preceding texts are questions, not a Statement Nor are they a
problem
RESEARCH PROBLEM, RESEARCH QUESTION AND RESEARCH They are more appropriately called theresearch questions
HYPOTHESIS
Revised Research Problem
Research Problem - There is a high employee turnover rate in Hospital A
- The issue that leads to the need for a study. especially in the nursing unit. This high rate has resulted to
- The issue to be settled. inconsistent delivery of good quality service to patients, a
- The first and most crucial step in the research process. need to give continuous training, additional expenses in
- Its main function is to decide what we want to find out about. searching for qualified replacements and training, and loss of
- Without a problem, there is no need for one to undertake morale of employees.
research.
- The research problem is central to research, its identification The Research Questions
and definition is the starting point of any research activity - What are the factors affecting turnover rate in Hospital A?
- Its identification and definition should be made as clearly as - Specifically, are the demographic profile, perception of salary
possible. rate, job satisfaction and work place stress related to turnover
- When the problem is not clear, it would be difficult to rate in Hospital A?
understand the significance of the study.
Research Hypotheses
Research Question - Perception of low salary rate, poor job satisfaction and
- Research problem is often confused with the research workplace stress make employees leave the Hospital A.
question – the question that the investigator wants answered
in order to explain the problem; the question to be answered Statement of the Problem
or resolved. - This study aims to find the difference between the perceived
- The research question is formulated from the research - stressors and coping styles of stressors in the clinical
problem environment of Philippine-raised and Foreign-raised Filipino
- Phrased in such a way that answers to the research questions Junior Inters at a University Hospital in the Second Semester
will help solve the research problem of the School Year 2013-2014.
- Inquires about the relationship among the variables the o Specifically, it aims to answer the following questions:
investigator wants to know o What are the profiles of the Philippine-raised Students
and Foreign-raised Students in terms of:
Research Hypothesis o Gender, Age, Country, Family income, Family Type,
- Predictions the researcher makes about the expected and Religion
relationship among variables
- A statement of what the researcher believes in regarding the Statement of the Problem
supposed relationship - What stressors in the clinical environment are considered
most stressful according to the following groups:
Example: o Philippine-raised Students, and
- Research problem: o Foreign-raised Students?
o There is a well-established association between a - What are the most often utilized coping styles used by the
shorter adult height and an increased risk of coronary following groups:
artery disease (CAD)… the precise mechanisms linking o Philippine-raised Students, and

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 o Foreign-raised Students? o Because now we can collect data to help us answer the
question.
Statement of the Problem - Clarity
- IS there a relationship between what the Philippine-raised o Terms and concepts have to be clearly defined.
Students from what the Foreign- raised Students perceive to o In a research study it is important that the concepts
be a stressor in the clinical environment? used should be operationalized in measurable terms so
Do not confuse the research problem withthe research question! that the extent of variations in respondents’
understanding is reduced if not eliminated.
SOURCES OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM - Significance
o Research questions should also be worth investigating.
Sources of research problems o In essence we need to consider whether a question is
- Intellectual curiosity worth spending time and energy and often money on to
o For any professional who is not so much adept in doing get an answer.
a researcher, o The problem is significant if,
o intellectual curiosity is the most common source of § it affects a large population;
research problems. § it has serious morbidity consequences;
o In the course of his practice, he often comes across § and it is related to on-going projects.
some problems he cannot solve or questions he cannot o It is also significant if the answer to the question,
answer. § fills a gap in knowledge or technology;
o If he is alert to research opportunities, this could be the § has practical application;
origin of the research problem. § and it will improve the practice of the profession.
- Serendipity - Feasibility
o When research methodology was less developed, this o An important issue in designing research studies is that
was often the of feasibility.
o beginning of a research. o A feasible question is one that can be investigated with
o Something happens at the right time and place to the available resources.
right individual. Or an idea simply comes up to the o To look into whether a research question is feasible, we
individual who has research interest. examine whether;
- Analysis of needs and practice § Adequate subjects can be gathered for the study
o Researchers generally identify research problems by § The procedures are technically possible
careful appraisal of the needs or situational analysis of § The information needed can be collected
the particular subject of interest to them. § Resources are available
o From the analysis, gaps in knowledge, technology or skill § The study can be completed within a reasonable
for which research is indicated are identified. period of time
- Organized and systematic determination of research needs - Critical Mass
o The identification of research problems in the o The research problem is broad and large enough such
Philippines has been raised to a higher plane by the that there would be adequate mass of information to
Philippine Council for Health Research and work on.
Development (PCHRD) under the Department of o It should not be too specific and too small in scope as to
Science and Technology (DOST). limit the researcher to collect only two or three
o Gaps in knowledge and research needs in health and variables.
medicine have been determined by panels of experts. o For example in a study that seeks to determine the
association between Aortic calcification in a Chest X-ray
Considerations in selecting a research problem and Coronary artery disease, if these two (aortic
- Researchability calcification and coronary artery disease) are the only
o A problem is researchable if it can be resolved through variables to collect, then the study lacks critical mass.
research. - Interest
o That is, it can be tested empirically, data can be o Though interest alone may not be a sufficient
collected to answer the question or resolve the justification for an investigation of a research problem,
problem there must be current interest in the problem area, not
o There are other kinds of questions, however,about only for the researcher but for the general population
which information cannot be collected. as well.
o Here are some examples: o The research question must be in the priority of or
§ Should same sex marriage be legalized in the within the national or institutional mission
Philippines? - Research Questions Should Investigate Relationships
§ Can pain killer be used even if its administration o They frequently (but not always) suggest a relationship
can shorten the life of the patient? of some sort to be investigated.
o If the first question is changed to ‘do people think same o A suggested relationship means that two qualities or
sex marriage be legalized in the Philippines’ it then characteristics are tied together or connected in some
becomes researchable. way.

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 o Examples of research questions that investigate SEARCHING THE LITERATURE
relationship:
§ Is there a relationship between Chronotype of
§ individuals and their Intelligence?
§ Is there a relationship between BMI and Asthma?
§ Is interpregnancy interval associated with
gestational diabetes?








Formulating a research problem Planning the Search
- Identify or determine the topic of interest. Dissect the broad
area into sub areas.
o The researcher should first identify the general area of
his interest.
o Then he should narrow this down to a specific topic
o or subject.
o Breakdown the broad problems into smaller
components or sub problems.
o Identify or determine the topic of interest. Dissect the
broad area into sub areas
o Example:
§ Research question from a main problem
§ What are the factors affecting turnover rate in
Hospital A?
o Dissect a broad research question to a specific research
question. Search for the First Key Word
o Specifically, are the demographic profile, perception of
salary rate, job satisfaction and work place stress
related to turnover rate in Hospital A?
- Clarify the problem statement
o Clarify what you really want to find out.
o Use clear terms.
§ For example, use the term “effectiveness” instead Search for the First Key Word
of “benefits,” “accuracy” instead of “useful”.
o Be specific.
§ For example, health status can be described as to
nutritional status using z-scores of BMI, or
presence or absence of intestinal helminthes.
o Problem clarification is aided by literature review
and/or consultation with experts. These can provide
information on the current problem, what has been
done, and the methods used in resolving similar or
related problems.

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Combining your Search Results Limiting your search

Combining your Search Results Limiting your search

Combining your Search Results

Limiting your search

Combining your Search Results

Limiting your search

Limiting your Search



Limits

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Looking at the results of your search Selecting References to Save/Print/Email

- A message will appear under the search box to say that the
items were added successfully, the items you’ve added will be
marked as being in the clipboard, and you’ll notice the
number of items in your clipboard has changed.

Saving, Printing and Emailing References
- To do any of these things you must first put the references in
Clipboard, and click on the “Clipboard” tab.
- Change the display format as required.
- NB. If you have the summary view on the screen, you will
save/email/print the summary details. If you want the abstract
you must change the display.

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Searching using MeSH (Medical Subject Headings)

Next, return to the MeSH browser, and search for “Oxygen Therapy”
in the same way.
- You may find it useful to search for Oxygen as a separate
MeSH Heading.
- Again, make sure you send each term you select to the
“Search Box with OR”.

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 - Reveals demonstrated and/or theorized relationships among
variables that the researcher is interested in or wishes to
study

Writing the ROL
- Evaluate the literature rather than just summarizing it;
Compare/contrast sources to each other,
- Connect the literature to your research.
- Include some theoretical discussion about your chosen
methodology; Argue why your research is necessary.

What the ROL is Not
- Not a discussion of the patho-physiology of the disease Not a
discussion of the signs and symptoms
- Not a write up of laboratory examinations to come up with the
diagnosis of the disease

OBJECTIVES

Objective
- A summary of what is to be achieved by the study
- Provides the aim or goal of an action.
- Tells the researcher what he expects to achieve or the
outcome
- he hopes would be produced by the study.
- Defines the expectations of the researcher.
- Its attainment will give affirmation or non-affirmation to the
hypothesis that has been formulated.
- May be expressed as a statement or in a question form.
- Should be closely related to the research hypothesis
formulated from statement of the problem.

Why should research objectives be developed?
- Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials);
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE - Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary
for understanding and solving the problem you have
What is a literature review? identified;
- An account of what has been published on a topic by - Organize the study in clearly defined parts or phases.
accredited scholars/authors and researchers; Properly formulated, specific objectives will facilitate the
- A discussion of published/unpublished information in a development of the research methodology and will help to orient the
particular subject area, and sometimes information in a collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization of data.
particular subject area within a certain time period;
- A description, an evaluation of the major theories, Role of the Objectives in a Research Study
methodologies, and controversies in the scholarly literature - They serve as the “steering wheel” in theconduct of a research
on a subject. project.
- May be a self-contained unit, or a preface to and rationale for - They serve as guides in:
engaging in a primary research. o Specifying the research variables
- A summary and analysis (synthesis) of current knowledge o choosing the research design to be used
about a particular topic or area of inquiry. o determining the data to be collected
o planning the analysis of the results
Purpose of the Review of the Literature (ROL)
- The central focus - examining and evaluating previous topics, Formulating the Research Objectives
and establishing the relevance of this information to your - Cover the different aspects of the problem and its
own research. contributing factors in a coherent way and in a logical
- Identify what has not been examined in the literature on a sequence;
subject - ‘a gap in the literature’. - Are clearly phrased in operational terms, specifying exactly
- Helps uncover ideas about which variables are important in a what you are going to do, where, and for what purpose;
given field of study - Are realistic considering local conditions;
- Provides information about what research has already been - Use action verbs that are specific enough to be evaluated.
done and what needs to be done

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Types of Objectives - Objectives specify the analysis to be done
- The general objective of a study states what researchers - Example:
expect to achieve by the study in general terms. o To calculate the mean Neck circumference in patients
- It is possible (and advisable) to break down a general with OSA
objective into smaller, logically connected parts - the specific - Objectives are too broad.
objectives. - Example:
o To describe the benefits of a rehabilitation program
The General Objective - Too many objectives and redundant statements
- Gives the overall purpose of the - Example
- research o To determine the if age is associated with OSA
- Derived from research question or hypothesis, problem o To determine the if BMI is associated with OSA
statement o To determine the if neck circumference is associated
- Often introduced by the phrase “to determine” with OSA
o To determine the if abdominal circumference is
The Specific Objective associated with OSA
- Statements of the specific outcome expected of the study o To determine the if waist circumference is
- Should systematically address the various aspects of the o associated with OSA
problem as defined under ‘Statement of the Problem’ - Objectives include analysis of confounders
- Should specify what you will do in your study, where and for o To determine the relationship between educational
what purpose. attainment and Alzheimer's Disease controlling for the
effects of age, sex, and family history
Guidelines for Writing Objectives - Objectives contain recommendations
- Begin with the word “to” followed by action word. o To recommend measures to promote good hospital
- Be specific. practice in disinfection of hospital supplies and
- Indicate measures for success Indicate target time equipment
- Avoid stating “why” & “how” the desired results will be Exercise #1
achieved - General objective
- Use clear and easy to understand phrases o To determine the predictors of myocarditis in patients
- State relevant and attainable goals diagnosed with Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
Exercise #2
Common Mistakes in Objective Writing - Specific objectives
- Writer makes a plan of activity – Program o To determine the association of demographic factors
- Objective VS Research Objective such as age and sex and nutritional status with the
- Exercises: development of myocarditis in patients with dengue
o To address problem of unemployment so hemorrhagic fever.
prevalent among minority groups. o To determine the relationship between bradycardia and
o To educate the community on the the development of myocarditis in patients with clinical
importance of good hygiene. dengue
- Objectives specify procedures, not outcome Exercise #3
- Example: - To correlate hematologic parameters particularly hemoglobin,
o To conduct a survey among medical practitioners hematocrit, WBC levels, platelet count, differential count of
o To gather data on the practices of doctors patients with clinical dengue in the development of
o in the management of fever. myocarditis.
- Objectives contain imprecise terms
- Example: Exercise #4
o To determine the whether Physicians are humanistic in - GENERAL OBJECTIVE: To determine the perception of the
relating with patients. hospital staff on sexual activity
- Objectives talk about demographic profile - SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE: To formulate questions on the
- Example: perception of the hospital staff on sexual activity.
o To determine the demographic profile of patients with
diabetes mellitus Exercise #5
- To determine the profiles of the Philippine-raised Students and - General objective:
Foreign-raised Students in terms of: o To determine the association of caesarean delivery and
o Gender, severity of asthma and allergic rhinitis.
o Age, - Specific objective:
o Country, o To compare the severity of asthma in children born by
o Family income, c-section compared with those delivered vaginally.
o Family Type, and o To compare the severity of allergic rhinitis in children
o Religion born by c-section compared with those delivered
vaginally.

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Exercise #6
- GENERAL OBJECTIVE:
o To determine the efficacy of oral magnesium tablets in
the management of pregnancy-induced leg cramps.
- SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
o To compare the efficacy of oral magnesium tablets
versus placebo in the relief of pregnancy associated leg
cramps.
o To identify any adverse effect of oral Magnesium
supplementation during pregnancy
Exercise #7
- General:
o To determine the effect of Lactobacillus sp,
Bifidobacterium sp, and Streptococcus thermophilus
supplementation on the course of the illness in Filipino
children aged 7 months to 5 years with PCAP-C
- Specific:
o To compare the age and sex of subjects in the
treatment and placebo groups.
Exercise #8
- General:
o To determine the effect of Lactobacillus sp,
Bifidobacterium sp, and Streptococcus thermophilus
supplementation on the course of the illness in Filipino
children aged 7 months to 5 years with PCAP-C
- Specific:
o To compare the following parameters between the
treatment and placebo groups:
§ Length of hospital stay
§ Duration of fever
§ Respiratory rate
§ Presence of hypoxemia
§ Other signs and symptoms (presence of chest
indrawing, crackles, coughing)
Exercise #9
- General Objective
o To identify the factors that may lead to the
development of chronic ITP in a cohort of pediatric
patients with ITP.
- Specific objective:
o To determine the relationship of the factors identified
with the development of chronic ITP as possible
predictors of this disease condition.
Exercise #10
- General
o To determine the risk factors for candidemia among
critically ill neonates in a tertiary hospital in Quezon
City
- Specific:
o To determine the incidence of candidemia in the NICU
of a tertiary hospital from 2008 to 2010
o To describe the clinical profile of patients with
candidemia according to age, gender, manner of
delivery, birth weight and age of gestation
Exercise #11
- General:
o To determine the risk factors for candidemia among
critically ill neonates in a tertiary hospital in Quezon City
- Specific:
o To identify the risk factors for candidemia in critically ill
neonates

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