Geography 

Notes
Year 11, 2012

1. Terms

 2. Skills

3. Natural Resources

4. Population Geography 

5. Development Geography 
Terms
Acronyms/Abbreviations
LDC - less developed country
MDC - more developed country
KIPPERS – kids in parents pockets eroding retirement savings
CUBS – cashed up bogans (eg. Plumbers)
DINKS – double income no kids
SINKS – single income no kids
SPUDS – single person urban dwelling
TRF – tropical rainforest

Definitions
Deleterious - causing harm or damage ie. Deleterious effects
Emigration – movement of people out of an area
Eutrophication – a drop in sunlight + oxygen levels in a water body ( ↑ nutrients =
eutrophication = ↓sunlight = ↓ photosynthesis = ↓ oxygen = ↓ oxygen = ↓ organisms = ↑
nutrients)
Immigration – movement of people into an area
Infant Mortality Rate – number of deaths before age 1 per 1000 births per year
Lacustrine - anything to do with lakes
Land Gale -
Keystone Species - indicator species. If we want to discover the health of an ecosystem, we
look at the population of a keystone species (top of the food chain) eg. Tigers, lions, sharks,
whales
Mortality Rate – number of deaths per 1000 ppl per year
Natural Increase – when births exceed deaths
Population Sex Ratio – number of males per 100 females in the population
Tailings – mining waste eg. Mercury is disposed of in the Amazon River and sends the
Amazons crazy
Natural Resources
The Nature of Natural Resources:
 Varies between cultures and people eg. Aboriginals vs. miners
 According to Kleeman, a natural resource is “something from the natural
environment that, after processing or manufacture, meets the needs of society.”
o Ladler adds that “a natural resource doesn’t always need to be processed.”
Eg. Water, fish, some timber (eg. For firewood)
 The Australian economy is largely based on the exploitation of the natural
resources bestowed by nature
 The discovery, extraction, transport and processing of these resources is
dependent on the country’s “human resources” ie. The skills, knowledge and
ability of its people

What is a Natural Resource?

1. Must have a use
2. A country must have the skill to transform the item
3. Must be economically viable ie. Better than using an alternative
4. Any adverse impacts must be acceptable to society

Types of Natural Resources:

1. Renewable
 Will eventually be replenished
 Eg. Forests, groundwater, wildlife and fish
 Forests – it is assumed that after a forest is used for timber, given time, a
very similar ecosystem would be reproduced in its place. However is
forestry activity causes a reduction in either plant or animal populations,
or degrades water catchments and rivers, then timber is not a truly
renewable resource
2. Non-renewable
 Quantity is finite.
 Eg. Oil, natural gas, coal and uranium
 Petroleum based resources – products of the carboniferous geological
age. Climatic conditions under which they were formed are very different
from those of today. They are being used in just a fraction of the time
span over which they accumulated and they are not presently being
replaced.
3. Recyclable Resources
 Can be recycled after use (changed into another form)
 Eg. Many mineral resources, and plastic and rubber products
  Scrap iron and steel, paper, aluminium cans, glass bottles, plastic
bottles, copper wire, silicon, gold and lead from car batteries
4. Continuous Resources
 Will virtually always exist
 Eg. Solar energy, rainfall, wind energy, hydro-electricity, tidal power and
geothermal power
 Globally wind power quadrupled between 2000 and 2006

Factors Affecting Natural Resources:

ECONOMIC FACTORS:
 Supply and Demand (refer to pg. 264
o Eg. Low supply + high demand = very high prices

TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS:
 Technology can impact natural resource use by creating or stimulating demand ie.
New technology needs new materials (which may not have been resources earlier)

CULTURAL FACTORS:
 The amount and type of resources the culture has available
 Traditions regarding taboo/sacred resources eg. Indigenous Tasmanians don’t eat
fish with scales, Jews and Muslims are forbidden to eat pork
 Trying to transport cultures eg. Colonists in Australia used traditional English farming
practices which don’t work in Australia, kan garoo meat has only recently been
approved for human consumption

ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH:

 Fossil fuels vs. the health and functioning of the environment
• Nuclear power positives vs. unsafe disposal and catastrophic side effects
 Renewables vs. Non-Renewables
*Renewables are often less economically viable but this is changing

POLICY AND POLITICS:

 For strategic economic/political reasons governments may actively promote
resource exploitation (eg. Coal seam gas)
 Incentives used to encourage the development of mines/new agricultural enterprise
in unpopulated areas or areas with high levels of unemployment eg. 1960  – bounty
on locally produced cotton (led to the construction of large dams and the eventual
transformation of large grazing holdings into intensively irrigated cotton-farming
land)

Examples/Case Studies:
ECONOMICS
 Each Year:
o Earth’s deserts ↓ by 6 million hectares
COPPER AND COBALT – TECHNOLOGY
 It is in every cell phone you used, and if you have a mobile device of any kind then
you contribute to the current civil war destabilising the Democratic Republic Congo
that has left 100, 000s of women, girls and boys traumatised from a war culture in
which they have been subjected to rape and forced to work in these mines
 2008 – Congolese government signed a deal with China for 10.6 billion tons of 
copper and 626 000 tons of cobalt. To get these resources people in the Republic of 
Congo are forcibly removed from land (which becomes mines) and forced to mine
for very little, or nothing.
 NB: half the products in your house have raw materials from Africa, not just mobile
phones.

PESTICIDES – ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH

 Used to kill parasites on livestock and insects, mice, rats, weeds and fungi on crops
 Dieldrin and DDT (Agent Orange) have been used for years (seemed to be a miracle
cure and were sprayed on everything eg. Sprayed in hair to kill lice, sprayed all over
groups of children) but have been banned in numerous countries because of their
deleterious effects

ASBESTOS – ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH

 Wide-spread use  effective insulator, high strength-to-weight ratio
 James Hardie Industries produced most of Australia’s asbestos
 Negative Health Impacts  mesothelioma (lethal lung cancer), lung disease
asbestosis
 There was a delay finding alternatives because of ignorance of health impacts,
industries wanting to profit from its use, and governments not prepared to tackle
the problem
 Asbestos is still used l ike it’s cardboard in many developing countries and is still used
under heavy restrictions in some developed countries (eg. Australia)

COAL SEAM GAS

What?
 Fracking  hydraulic fracturing  sand, water and chemicals blasted into coal seams to
fracture the seams releasing the gas trapped
 Methane and explosive gases leak from a lot of the wells
 Some of the toxic fracturing fluid resurfaces, but most remains underground and pollutes
the water table
 Huge amounts of water are extracted from the wells to allow the gas to escape (depletes the
water table, and the extracted water can be contaminated)
Perspectives:
 Companies say it is safe and sustainable  want the huge profit it provides
 Farmers say they have been kept in the dark and conned
 Governments crave revenue and job creation
Australia (Four Corners):
 Great Artesian Basin – contaminated and depleted
 Supplies huge amounts of QLD farmland  knock on effect to crops etc.

 Conservative estimates suggest coal seam gas wells could draw 300

gigalitres of water from the ground each year

  Estimated that it would take 1000 years for the Artesian to return to pre-
coal seam gas (CSG) standards & that the amount of water used by CSG was
22 times the amount estimated.
 Planning to desalinate and use waste water however this will produce 21 -

31 million tons of salt (depending on the estimates of the water used) which
companies haven’t planned what to do with. 31 million tons of salt is enough
to fill the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) to the brim 15 times
 Aim to build 40 000 wells in Australia; there are already 3000 on prime farming land
in QLD
 Owners receive only $250 a year per well
o Each well makes the company $1 000 000 a year
 Some wells leak so much gas that the water around them bubbles
 Industry could produce as much greenhouse gas as all the cars on the road

in Australia
 QGC (Queensland Gas Company) supplied out of date data sheets (+ leave things out,
and not up to Australian standards) about fracking chemicals, such as THPS. (THPS
can cause pneumonia and death and shouldn’t be released into waterways; QGC
poured 130L of THPS sown a well and didn’t tell farmers about it for 13 months and
after over 2 years still can’t confirm the problem is fixed)
 23 chemicals used in fracking haven’t been properly assessed by any govt. agency
before use
 Up to 40% of chemicals used will remain in the seams and move through the
waterways
America:
 Marcellus Shale Formation – very valuable
o New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee,
Alabama (strip running north to south; New York to Alabama
 6 states have documented over 1000 reports of contaminated water from hydraulic
fracturing
 Nixon made many environment laws eg. Clean Water Act
o Oil and Gas companies have been made exempt from them all
 Gas is coming from 34 states
 Fracking fluid – mix of over 596 chemicals
 40 trillion gallons of water used (all now containing fracking fluids)
 A lot of it dumped illegally in fields and streams

 Of the water that goes down only half comes up

 Need 600+ trucks to bring the water to flush one well (erosion, disruption)

 Some of the waste water is sprayed in the air so it evaporates quicker (this

has hundreds of chemicals which are now in the atmosphere and may cause
damage eg. Dangerous levels of ozone, acid rain falling on grasslands)
 After wells were drilled people began getting sick, animals’ hair started falling out,
workers had chemical burns, people have to start filtering or buying their water,
children get asthma – can’t play outside anymore, smell and taste is weaker
 people have to sign non-disclosure agreements

 Known effects on humans – of just one of the chemicals used

 Testicular toxicity, malformation of the embryo, bone marrow depression,
hemolysis (destruction of red blood cells)
 US Environment Protection Agency – congress said they didn’t need to investi gate.
Shown it was toxic then said it was harmless
 Sometimes wells destroy family haunts and beautiful natural formations
 Wells leak lots of gas – lots of people have whole creeks which can be set on fire and
are bubbling, and tap water that can be lit up.

OIL – POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC

 1970’s  US ration oil  American car manufacturing Japanese small cars (use less
fuel)
 Iraq  Version 1 (Gulf War) & 2 are all about securing oil
 Petroleum companies $$
 Gov. – gets about 33¢ per $1 (Fuel Excise – used to maintain roads etc.)

COAL - POLITICAL
 Mining companies removed PM Rudd
 Because of the Super Profits Tax, Emissions Trading Scheme

 Through advertising campaigns

Threatened Resources

Fish/Marine Resources Forests Soils

Overview Depletion of fish and Accelerated Land Degradation
marine stocks Deforestation (especially Soils are part of the non-
Evidence indicates that in TRFs) living physical
unsustainable harvesting Forests are clearly being environment on which
of “wild populations” is removed in many areas almost all terrestrial life
the main cause of the at a faster rate than they ultimately depends. Soils
decline in marine are able to replenish are also seen as an
populations and themselves. Forests are essential link between
diversity. Other factors also habitats which, once the lithosphere,
also threaten their removed, contribute to a biosphere and
“renewability” serious decline in hydrosphere.
biodiversity in
deforested areas
(evidence of “population
collapse” in keystone
species toward the top
of the food web)
Specifics  Overfishing – inc.  Logging (eg. PNG,  Vegetation removal,
things like seaweed, Africa, Malaysia, Pacific esp. in semi-arid areas.
sand Islands) Increases the chances of 
 Habitat  Agriculture human induced
Degradation/destruction × As a result of  “desertification” eg. Land
  Pollution population pressure & gales
 Global Warming recent logging (eg.  Overgrazing, esp. in

× Changes in ocean Indonesia, Malaysia) semi-arid areas

temps. Change food × For export (eg. Brazil)  Inappropriate crops

supplies & affect fish  Fuel (eg. Sub-Saharan (unable to cope in times
pop’ns. Eg. ↑ El Nino’s = Africa, South Asia) of drought). This hastens
↓ fish pop’ns of S.  Urbanisation vegetation loss & exposes
America  effects the soil to wind erosion
villages  One serious concern

× ↑ acidity = ↑ stress with soils is the very slow

on coral reefs = ↓ coral rate of renewability on
= ↓ marine pop’ns in many continents, esp.
coral reefs & environs. arid areas compared with
the pace of erosion and
deg’n.

Sustainable Development 
 Our Common Future (the Brundtland Commission Report) defines sustainable
development as ‘development that meets the needs of the present generation
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs’ But
some regard the primary focus on meeting ‘human needs’ as being too
anthropocentric (human-centred) and argue for ‘global sustainability’ that includes
all the components of the biosphere.
Population
Geography
Nature and Rate

World Population When Reached How long did it take?

1 billion About 1800 All of human history (2
million years)
2 billion 1930 130 years
3 billion 1960 30 years
4 billion 1974 14 years
5 billion 1987 13 years
6 billion 1999 12 years
7 billion 2011 12 years
8 billion 2025 (projection) 14 years
9 billion 2050 (projection 25 years
 Growth = 77 million a year
 Growth Rate = 1.5% (1950-51) to 2% (early 1960’s) now declining due to rising age of 
marriage and increasing availability & use of contraception
 31% of world population is under the age of 15 creating momentum for growth even
as fertility rates decline
 Ageing – by 2050 there’ll be 2.5 ppl 60+ for every child 4 or younger
 Fertility Rates – 5 (1950) to 2.7 (2000) to 2.56 (2007)

Restrictions on Continual Population Growth

 Water
 Food/Land
 War
 Disease
 Natural Disasters: eg. Floods, heat waves, droughts (this sometimes turns off 
reproductive systems

Global Pattern of Population Increase

 LDC’s account for 80% of world’s population yet also account for 98% of annual
increase
 MDC population is now 1.2 billion, expected to increase to 1.4 billion by 2050, with
nearly all of this due to immigration to USA
 Africa
  Population expected to double by 2050
 Fertility Rate = 7 kids per woman

 41% of population under 15

 Europe
 Expected to shrink by 9% by 2050
 South America
 Relatively high but uneven population (eg. Women in French Guiana have

twice as many children as those in Chile)

 Asia
 China – drop in fertility rate from 6.5 (1968) to 1.6 (2007) even so, China’s

population (1.3 billion) is more than the whole of the developed world
 India – 1.1 billion and growing by 0.6% per year. By 2050 India will

overtake China as the most populous country (1.7 billion compared to 1.4
billion)
 Philippines – 21 million (1950) to 150 million (2050); more ppl than Russia

or Japan
 Russia – expected to shrink by 23% between 2007 and 2050; from 142

million down to 109 million

 Japan – expected to shrink by 26%

 Urbanisation
 2% of ppl lived in cities (1800) to 12% (1900) to 47%+ (2000)

 1900 (not one metropolitan region had 10million+ ppl), by 1950 (one  – NY)

by 2000 (19 – only 4 [Tokyo, Osaka, NY, LA] in industrialised countries)

 Population Density
 45 ppl/km² (2000) to 66ppl/km² (2050)

 Assuming 10% of land is arable, population densities per unit of arable

land will be roughly 10 times higher

Fertility Rates
th
FALLING FERTILITY RATES IN MDCs IN LATTER 20 CENTURY
Factors:
 Social
o “liberation” of women:
 Changing sex roles

 ↓ Perceptions of women as “child bearers”

 ↑ Education & career opportunities for women

= more single women

= later avg. age of marriage
= later avg. age of birth of first child
= ↓ avg. number of children
o Changed lifestyle choices
 Rise in “DINK” phenomenon

= ↓ avg. children per family

 Changed perceptions that “family” is the only pathway to fulfillment in life

= more single women

 o Rise of “secularism” (reduced influence of religion on personal lives and
choices)
 Economic
o As incomes rise in societies, fertility rates tend to fall (unless influences of 
religion play a part). Average incomes in MDC’s have risen since WWII
o Perception that children are a financial burden (eg. $250 000 to raise a child
to adulthood)
 Medical/Technological
o Wider range of relatively cheap methods of contraception
Impacts:
 Population will begin to age
 Economic
o There will be less people in the workforce to support the ageing population
o As there are less people in the workforce and more on government support,
taxes will rise, and people will struggle to pay them
 Social
o ↓ in importance/value of family unit in societies
 Political
o Immigration policies that target young families and migrants in areas of key
skills shortages (eg. Nursing, medical specialists). UK, Australia in battle for
nurses at present
o Funding for anticipated population structure challenges in the future:
 The “future fund” set by the Australian government to put money away

for funding of services related to the ageing of the population

 Policies designed to boost superannuation in the workforce

o Policies designed to ↑ birth rates via financial and other incentives, such as
in Australia:
 Changed tax regimes for families with children (reductions and rebates)

 Australia’s $4000 “baby bonus” causing a mini “baby boom”

 Extra funding for preschool child care

 Encouragement of firms to create workplace “crèches” and child care

services
th
FALLING FERTILITY RATES IN LDCs IN THE LATTER 20 CENTURY (NB: Some of these are
almost developed)
 Overall fertility rates ↓ since late 60’s
 The high was in the late 50’s (6.2) to a low of 2.9 (2007)
BUT  This masks regional variations (eg. The fertility rate in sub-Saharan
Africa is 5.5
Factors:
 Lack of access to reliable birth control methods and other forms of contraception
 Lack of education
 Different cultural/religious expectations
o Christianity
o Women don’t have the right to say no
 HIV/AIDS
 Poverty – need children to work & compensate for infant mortality
  Trends
o As urbanisation ↑, fertility rates ↓
o As living standards ↑, fertility rates ↓
o As education standards for women ↑, fertility rates ↓
o As women’s rights ↑, fertility rates ↓
 Family size preferences globally have ↓
 Average age of marriage has ↑ which has had the overall effect of ↓ fertility rates
because the time in which you can have babies ↓
 Cost of living ↑ which ↓ fertility rates

Mortality Rates
 Worldwide – 9
 Africa – 14 (some African countries are in excess of 20 eg. Swaziland  – 29)
 In some places as many as 1 in 10 infants die before turning 1 (highest in Sierra
Leone – 158)
 Whole or Africa (infant mortality)  – 86
 Worldwide (infant mortality) – 52
Factors:
 Nutritional Standards
 Standards of personal hygiene and effluent disposal
 Access to safe drinking water and the incidence of infectious diseases
 Access to medical and public health technology, including immunisation, antibiotics
and insecticides
 High infant mortality is usually due to under-nutrition (inadequate food) and
malnutrition (poor diet)

Population Movements
Migration
 Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intention
of staying permanently or for a long period of time
 Immigration is the movement of people into an area
 Emigration is the movement of people out of an area

Types of Migration
1. International Migration
2. Internal Migration

International Migration
 Voluntary or Forced
 4 Main Reasons:
 1. Resettlement Migration
 Better Quality of life, close to family who moved
2. Workers
 Shortage of workers in many countries
 Governments encourage people from other countries to come in and
work for a set period of time in order to solve the labour shortage
 Growth of TNCs has led to an increase in companies sending suitably
qualified personnel overseas
 Eg. Olympics
3. Students
 Students from developing countries looking to go to school in
developed countries
4. Refugees
 “A person who, owing to a well -founded fear of persecution for
reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social
group or political opinion, is outside his/her country of nationality and
who is unable or unwilling to return.” (UN Protocol 1976)

Internal Migration
 Movements within countries across the world are largely due to people moving from
rural areas to the cities
 In the year 2025, it is expected that 60% of the world’s population will live in cities
compared with only 14% at the beginning of the 20 th century
 This process (urbanisation) is due to a number of reasons, often referred to as
push/pull factors
 Push Factors Pull Factors
 Unemployment  More jobs
 Lower wages  Higher wages
 Crop failure  Better living conditions
 Poor living conditions  Better education and health
 Poor health and/or education services
services  Better facilities
 Few facilities  Less chance of natural disasters
 Natural disasters  Lifestyle (eg. Acceptance)
 Civil war  Entertainment
 Political/Religious Factors
 Lifestyle (eg. Gay man in Broken
Hill)
 Landlessness
 Move from subsistence to
commercial production
 Rapid population growth
 Desertification
 Lack of opportunities

Issues Arising from the Changing Size and Distribution of Population

1. Environmental
 Increasing urbanisation puts a huge demand on the environment. The most
common problems include noise, water and air-pollution. The provision of 
infrastructure and waste disposal is often above the capabilities of 
developing nations’ governments; this can lead to the development of shanty
towns or ghettos
2. Social
 Employment – Developing countries of the world are facing an employment
crisis. Their age structure means that many new jobs need to be created to
keep up with population growth. High levels of urbanisation mean that
traditional subsistence farming is no longer viable
 Land availability: Rapidly increasing population means that there is often not
enough land to go around. In developing countries, there is also pressure
from TNCs. Without land on which to grow food people must find money to
buy it, this leads to increased rates of poverty and malnutrition. Farmers also
become reliant on TNCs for seed (genetic modification means that seeds only
flower once and don’t drop more seeds).

Examples
DETROIT
 Car Manufacturing (GM, Ford, Chryster)
 1950’s - ↑ population (African Americans, Mexican Americans, some Chinese/Asian
coming to work in car factories – wages were 3x higher)
  1970’s – huge oil crisis (people wanted smaller Japanese cars rather than the huge
American ones
 1980’s/1990’s – white wealthy Americans begin leaving, while poor immigrants
remain

CABRAMATTA (ONE DAY IN CABRAMATTA)

 Fraser opened doors to Vietnamese but didn’t put any support structures in place
 Both parents work very long hours just to feed families and kids had no connection
to them (often parents could only speak Vietnamese and kids could only speak
English). Often kids turned to gangs, drugs and criminal activity to find the
acceptance they lacked (often only in early teens)
 John Newman assassinated (first Australian political assassination) by Phuong Ngo
 2 restaurants only sold heroin
 1998/99: increase in police, stop & search at random
o Dealers have to go behind closed doors
 used apartments – put steel doors on them with slots to pass

drugs/money in or out. The police had to get through the doors in which time
the dealers would hide the drugs and police would find only a group of 
people playing cards etc.
 Everyone stayed inside (couldn’t walk down the path without seeing syringes lying
on the footpath)
 Didn’t speak out
o Didn’t trust the political system
o Didn’t trust Vietnam government either
 Thang Ngo ran for office and got elected (partly by fluke because other candidates
gave him their preferences because they didn’t think he stood a chance)
 Detox centre opened – 20 beds but received 150 calls a day

SKILLED WORKERS IN AUSTRALIA

Tony Abbott’s Migration Policy:
 Wants to increase skilled workers (white collar) (at the expense of refugees or family
migration?)
 BUT don’t really need white collar workers and not even really that many blue collar
workers
Government Immigration Policy:
 Since WWII Australia has taken over 6 million migrants (more migrants per capita
than Canada, NZ or the US)
 ¼ Australians were born overseas from over 170 countries
 Skilled migration program targets people who aren’t sponsored by an Australian
employer. Applicants must be over 18 and under 45. Must have good English, recent
skilled work experience or a recently completed, eligible Australian qualification. Top
group is computing professionals, accountants and elementary clerical, sales and
service workers
Older Workers:
 Govt. pays employers $1000 to employ someone over 50 (must keep them over 3
months and then are subject to fair work laws)
  Govt. pays $10 000 to elderly to pay for house renovations to make houses more
livable
Trade Training Centres:
 Government gave $9 million to Loyola School, Mt Druitt to build a Trade Training
Centre where students can take either full or partial apprenticeship training as well
as complete their HSC. They offer automotive, electrical and hairdressing with more
courses to come.
 $2.5 billion to last over 10 years from 2008 from federal government to create Trade
Training Centres to boost Australia’s skilled labour force

THE PHILIPPINES
 Population over 88.7 million, and density in excess of 296 ppl/km² (6 times the world
avg.)
 Population growth in 2007 was 1.76%, down from 2.07% in 2000
 Growth outstripped capacity of the land and the economy
Internal Migrations
 Pressure on agricultural land, so people have been moving to less densely settled
upland areas (population of these areas has been growing by about 4% annually)
 Eg. Mindanao – male-dominated migration has disrupted the livelihood and social
stability of the existing Muslim or indigenous groups and embroiled parts of the
island in political conflict.
 Agriculture has expanded into previously forested and/or with a slope greater than
18°. As a result, the country lost 1/3 of its forest cover between 1990 and 2005.
Rates of water runoff and erosion have increased as forest cover has been removed.
Other consequences include loss of habitat for wildlife, microclimatic change and the
situation of downstream rice growing areas. Also more flooding and mudslides (loss
of life)
International Migrations
 4.8 million Philippine citizens are working temporarily in more than 160 countries.
More, perhaps as many as 100 000 leave to seek work or residence ‘illegally’ in
Europe, US and East Asia
 Although population pressure is a significant factor in this, other factors include
opportunities for higher standards of living for the well- educated, ‘chain migration’
(family migration), and demand for Filipino labour in Middle East for all types of 
labour, in Hong Kong and Singapore as domestic servants, and in Europe as service
workers

COLLAPSE OF THE YUGOSLAV FEDERATION

Background

Development 
Geography
What is Development?

Can Development be measured?

Characteristics of Developing Countries

Poverty