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CHAPTER 1 6
MAGNETIC SURVEYING
TECHNIQUES
Magnetic surveys are used in a wide variety of exploration programs. The

of
interpretation and geologic application of magnetic data are the subjects Chap. 17, but
because the geologic targets determine the design of a survey,
some of the more important applications will be discussed here.
In oil exploration, magnetic surveys are used as part of the geophysical mapping of
such
basement structure and to delineate other magnetic structures, as volcanics, which
generally have large susceptibilities and often remanences. In addition, there has been
considerable interest in mapping the intrasedimen-tary magnetite deposits believed to be
of
associated with the upward migration hydrocarbons from oil reservoirs. For this
application high-resolution surveys
are required.
because
Magnetic surveys have an important part in mineral exploration many
mineral deposits are associated with anomalous magnetite concentra-tions. Kimberlite
pipes are often directly detected by magnetic surveys at close sample spacings. The
in
alteration of hematite to magnetite by burning coal seams is also easily detected by
magnetic surveys.
the
Magnetics have also been used in a number of other ways. For example, magnetic anomalies
in
associated with hydrothermal alteration have been used
at the
geothermal exploration, as has mapping of the magnetization contrast
Curie transition.
Another interesting application is in archaeological exploration. Fire pits are
easily detected by their magnetic anomalies; even the soil disturbances associ-ated
by
with building foundations and trenches can be mapped noninvasively
use of magnetic surveys.
676
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MAGNETIC SURVEYING TECHNIQUES 677
There are three major types of magnetic survey: airborne, marine, and ground.
Of these, airborne surveys are probably the most common for large areas (in the
order of hundreds to thousands of square kilometers). They offer rapid coverage,
generally high accuracy, and can be combined with radi-ometric, multispectral
scanner, and other geophysical surveys. Although pres-ently controversial,
airborne gravity surveys combined with magnetics may be available and could be
extremely useful.
However, airborne surveying is limited by flying speed, terrain clearance
requirements, and navigational accuracy. For surveys requiring very close
sampling (less than IO m) or track spacings (less than 100 m) or extreme location
accuracy, airborne platforms are unsuitable. In addition, lack of suita-bly precise
navigation equipment has tended to limit the use of airborne surveys over water.
The availability in the near future of the global positioning system (GPS) offers the
opportunity to expand the use ofaeromagnetic surveys over water. Aeromagnetic
surveys as conventionally navigated can be suc-cessful over water if more than
100-m position precision can be tolerated.
While airborne surveys are used in near and limited offshore areas, marine
surveys are the only currently practical method for magnetic-data acquisition at sea.
They offer a good rate of coverage and generally more than adequate sampling
rates. Marine magnetic data are often acquired in conjunction with marine seismic
surveys at a low incremental cost. However, the inability to position a magnetic
base station (or magnetic storm monitor) in the survey area creates potentially
serious problems in removing temporal variations. Two-magnetometer systems-
marine gradiometers-can be used to overcome this problem at least partially.
Other problems include the fact that the ship is generally itself magnetic, requiring
that the sensor be towed hundreds of meters astern. Finally, shipborne surveys are
generally regarded as too expensive for magnetics alone. Therefore, magnetic-data
acquisition is usually confined to lines planned for seismic study, which can lead to
sparse and irregular cover-age.
Land surveys are slow and often encounter problems with land access. Land
surveys can, however, be positioned with great accuracy, and sample spacings as
low as I m are perfectly feasible. Thus, land surveying is often used for detailed
follow-up of areas identified as interesting in reconnaissance surveys. In
archaeological studies, for example, because of the small size of the targets, land
surveys are used almost exclusively.
In planning a magnetic survey, the choice of instrument, platform, sample rate,
track orientation and spacing, and (for airborne surveys) altitude should be
determined by the magnetic signal of the geological survey targets. The expected
amplitude of the anomalies dictates accuracy requirements, both in instrument
sensitivity and positioning tolerances (Jensen').
The orientation of the anomalies determines the proper track orientation.
Because the along-track sample distance is always smaller than the track
separation, the survey tracks should always be oriented perpendicular to the
678 CHAPTER 16: MAGNETIC SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
predominant strike direction of the anomalies. This is generally the same as the
predominant geological strike except near the magnetic equator, where east-west
elongation of the anomalies may require north-south track directions and may
create ambiguous interpretations.
The required sampling interval along track is determined by the expected
along-track anomaly width. The track spacing necessary for adequate anomaly
definition is determined by the cross-track anomaly dimensions, as is the flight
altitude for airborne surveys (Reid2).
The following section outlines the instrumentation and operations for each
survey type.
16-1 AIRBORNE DATA COLLECTION
Components of an Airborne System

Aircraft Airborne surveys can be performed using either fixed-wing or rotary-
wing (helicopter) aircraft. The major factor in choosing between the two vehicles
is that helicopters are more suitable for semidetailed work and in rugged terrain.
Under normal circumstances, fixed-wing aircraft are less ex-pensive, cover an
area faster, and produce higher-quality data, where quality in this case is defined
as less noisy, higher-sensitivity results.
Two basic sensor configurations are used in airborne magnetic surveys: towed-
bird and tail-stinger installations. In the towed-bird configuration, the sensor is
housed in an aerodynamic bird attached by a cable to the aircraft (see Fig. 16-l).
This type of installation places the sensor far enough away from the aircraft that
the vehicle's magnetic field is negligible at the sensor. At the low speeds typical of
helicopter surveys, the towed-bird configuration produces very good data, and
this configuration is most commonly used in helicopter installations. At the
relatively high speeds of fixed-wing aircraft (approximately 150 mi/h, or 240 km/h),
however, the towed bird is subject to platform (bird) motion and tow cable
vibrations. While towed-bird installations are sometimes used with fixed-wing
aircraft, the most common configuration today is the tail-
stinger mounting.
In a tail-stinger installation, the sensor is housed in a rigid boom at the rear of the
aircraft (see Fig. 16-2). Occasionally, the sensor will be mounted in a wingtip pod
instead. Similar considerations apply to a wingtip mounting as to a tail-stinger
configuration.
At a distance of 6 to 10 m from the major components of the aircraft, the
aircraft's magnetic field is not negligible. As changes in yaw, pitch, and roll occur,
the magnetic field at the sensor changes. Additional effects from chang-ing
electric currents and from eddy currents in the aircraft skin may also be important.
Coil systems and permalloy (Mumetal) strips located near the sen-sor are used to
compensate for the major components of the aircraft's magnetic field. In high-
sensitivity installations, it is essential to further reduce these effects by use of
analog or digital compensation systems, either on board the
AIRBORNE DATA COLLECTION 679
FIGURE 16-1 Helicopter magnetometer in-

stallation with towed bird.
FIGURE 16-2 Fixed-wing aircraft with tail-stinger-mounted sensor.
-- - - -
aircraft or in processing the data. With such compensation, excellent data can be
obtained from tail-stinger installations in fixed-wing aircraft.
Stinger booms have also been used occasionally in helicopter systems.
However, helicopters tend to be highly magnetic, so it is difficult to compen-sate a
helicopter installation adequately.
Instrumentation
An airborne magnetic survey system usually includes the following basic equip-
ment:
Magnetometer Stinger-mounted or towed-bird sensor.
Digital Data Acquisition System To record digitally magnetometer, al-
timeter, time, synchronization, navigation, and other pertinent survey data.
Analog Recorder To record selected parameters, usually magnetics and
altimeter data, for in-flight quality control and quick review after flight.
Doppler Navigation System To provide spatially based sampling and nav-
igation support.
Track Recovery System Usually a vertically mounted video camera or 35mm
film camera system to provide actual, visual track information to supple-ment the
doppler navigation.
Recording Altimeters Barometric and radar altimeters for vertical posi-tion
information.
Magnetic Conpensation Unit (fixed-wing only) To compensate for the
induced (both electrical and platform motion) and permanent magnetic fields of
the aircraft.
Additional ancillary equipment may consist of:
Other Navigation Systems Electronic or inertial systems.
Other Geophysical Instruments Gamma-ray spectrometer, active or pas-sive
EM (electromagnetic) system, multispectral scanners, etc.
Ground Equipment Base-station magnetometer and recording unit, and field
computer system.
A typical airborne magnetic system block diagram is shown in Fig. 16-3.
Doppler Navigation
Many survey aircraft today use doppler systems to assist in navigation and provide
spatial- (constant ground distance) based sampling. As a result, the doppler system
is generally used as the central timing unit or master clock for
the system.
The doppler system is a dead-reckoning (i.e., self-contained) navigation system.
It provides information on actual ground speed and cross-track dis-
Analog Magnetic Data
Mign.tom.t.r (Proton/Cesium) Clock DDc*IHMMSS
MMM
Mignatio Field Value e
a
AU
Digital Data Acquisition System
Dita
r i xxxxx [ AAAAA
Dita Dati Identification Analog Data
Scan Count Information Input
Doppler Interval Control Analog Recorder
Sample Distano, E1
Analog 1N I
a
Analog
i
iiI or
Digital L
Video I
Doppler Radar 9arom.iric Other Other

Flight I
Path
Navigation Altim.t Altnet.r Navigatio Sensor
System Systems
System I I
Analog
¡
Analog
FIGURE 16-3 Survey system block thagram.
tance (distance left or right of desired track). Doppler systems generally use a
magnetically slaved gyro compass as the inertial frame of reference from which
all location information is derived.
By transmitting three or four precisely directed radar beams at the ground,
the doppler system measures along-track (flight direction) and cross-track
ground velocities. Using this information, the doppler interval controller can
determine the actual distance traveled. Normally, aeromagnetic surveys use a
sample interval of 50 to 160 ft (15 to 50 m), depending upon the survey
objectives. The sample distance desired is manually selected at the doppler
interval controller (Fig. 16-3). Each time the aircraft traverses the desired
distance, a sample trigger is sent to the digital data acquisition system. The data
acquisition system then samples all parameters, including a data scan count,
the time of the sample, and all analog data (by analog-to-digital conversion).
After sampling, the data are written to digital magnetic tape. A typical 160-ft (50-m)
sample interval in an aircraft traveling at 150 mi/h (250 km/h) is 0.8 s.
Simultaneously with the digital recording, selected data are recorded on an
analog recorder for immediate viewing, both for quality checks and manual
interpretation. With the advent of the field computer, the use of analog records for
analysis has been significantly reduced. In these cases, analog data are considered
useful only for in-flight data quality checks.
Other Navigation Systems

Navigation methods depend on the type of survey being conducted (i.e., target
size, depth, location-land or water-and the availability of recent detailed
topographic maps and/or photos). The techniques used can be classed as visual,
dead-reckoning, inertial, or electronic. Visual navigation is done with maps or
photomosaics as aids; flying the survey lines via visual reference; and performing
photo flight-path recovery by use of vertical camera systems. Dead-reckoning
systems are self-contained and are usually doppler systems. Inertial platforms are
also dead-reckoning navigation systems but are not in common use due to drift
problems. Electronic navigation can be either active or passive. Active systems
require multiple transmitters on the ground and a transponder in the aircraft.
Typical active systems are Syledis, Del Norte, and Mini-Ranger. Passive systems
use a receiver in the aircraft and rely on existing networks such as Loran C, Omega,
Decca. and satellite systems (i.e., SatNav and UPS).
Support Instrumentation
High-quality aeromagnetic data require not only a good airborne system but also
that time variations in the earth's magnetic field be simultaneously re-corded for
later removal. This ground-data set is generally recorded both digitally and in
analog form. In order to correlate these data sets, an accurate clock must also be
recorded. This clock should be synchronized with the airborne system to within I s.
Analog recording is necessary for immediate evaluation of the time variation in the
earth's field that would cause inter-ference in the airborne data and result in
erroneous information.
Positioning of the base-station magnetometer is critical. It should be placed in an
area free from cultural noise and other synthetic interference, such as vehicular
traffic. As a rule of thumb, if corrections of the airborne data for time variations
are to be about to 10 gammas, the base station should be no more than 100 km from
1
the survey area. in addition, there should be no major geological discontinuities

between the survey area and the base station. Such occurrences cause phase and/or
amplitude shifts in the time variations relative to the aircraft. These phase shifts can
cause artificial anomalies in the corrected airborne data.
Another major support instrument is the field computer. This system is used to
evaluate the quality of the airborne digital data at the end of each day's
flying. Additionally, it can be used by field personnel to perform preliminary

interpretation while on site in the field. Such results might be used for redirec-tion
of the airborne survey or other exploration crews.
Airborne Field Operations

A field crew for an airborne magnetic survey will, at a minimum, consist of a pilot,
electronics technician, and a data person. The pilot flies the aircraft and is
responsible for maintaining flying specifications. The pilot usually performs his or
her own navigation. The electronics technician operates the instrumentation
during flight, maintains the equipment as required, and is responsible for ensuring
that good-quality data are recorded. The data person performs the flight planning,
flight-path recovery, and, if a field computer is used, reviews the quality of digital
data. The data person is also responsible for monitoring the base-station
magnetometer and ensuring that all data are within specifica-tions.
During a survey, the aircraft pilot endeavors to fly a course at a constant
altitude above the terrain (mean terrain clearance, MTC), or above sea level
(constant barometric altitude, CBA), dependent upon the type of survey being
performed. The two types ofaltitude control will distort anomalies in different
ways and will require some differences in both data reduction and interpreta-tion.
Flight direction and line spacing are maintained via visual navigation, doppler
navigation, or other electronic navigation methods, using flight-path maps or
photomosaics or combinations of these.
The region to be surveyed is covered by a series of parallel flight lines (traverse
lines) at a specified horizontal separation and at a specified altitude (either MTC or
CBA). These flight lines are crossed at regular intervals by tie lines, which are
typically flown at right angles to the traverse lines. In general, the ratio between
traverse lines and tie lines will be from 4:1 to 10:1 That is, if the traverse lines are
spaced at km, then the tie lines will be spaced from 4 to 10 km, depending upon the
1
survey objectives.
The complete grid of flight lines (traverse and tie lines) is translated into a
standard cartographic coordinate system by use of the data obtained from the
navigation system. This then provides a mappable coordinate system to which the
field data can be transformed.
In the past, airborne field operations that took place in remote locations could
not perform data checks until the data were returned to the computer center. If
data were not acceptable for some reason, the results from the survey would be
delayed while the survey was reflown. To alleviate this burden, in-field computer
systems are becoming common. These systems preprocess the digital data, verify
the quality of the data, and provide a method of data backup during shipment of
original tapes. Some field computer systems are powerful enough to perform
limited interpretation at field sites.
When magnetics is used to guide seismic or other field methods, a geo-physicist
is usually present in the field. By use of a field computer, simple
inversion techniques and 2-D or 3-D modeling methods may be applied to the data
fOr structural analysis, thus providing preliminary results immediately. The
analysis allows immediate redirection and any changes in survey param-
eters which may be required.
16-2 MARINE DATA COLLECTION

Marine magnetic surveys are generally conducted simultaneously with other
surveys, such as seismic and gravity. When combined with gravity alone, the
survey can be designed for these potential-field methods. When combined with
seismic, magnetics becomes a secondary technique and must rely upon the design of the
seismic survey, thus resulting in generally sparse coverage.
In general, the equipment is similar to that used in airborne surveys. The sensor is
towed behind the vessel at a distance ofup to 1500 ft (500 m), which is necessary to reduce
simul-
the magnetic effects of the towing vessel. Data are taneously recorded in both
analog and digital form. Sampling is usually time based rather than spatially based. Typical
sample times are 4 to 20 s, producing sample intervals ofbetween 25 to 50 ft (8 to 16 m) at a
ship speed of4 to 6 knots (7 to 12 km/h). Positioning systems typically include satellite
navigation, Loran C, and Decca. In some cases, such as geohazard and archaeological
surveys, positioning may require active systems such as .Mini-Ranger.
Time variations in the earth's magnetic field produce problems similar to those
encountered in aeromagnetic work. Unfortunately, the vessel is usually too far
removed from land to use magnetic base stations effectively. Hence the magnetic
data are often of questionable use. As a result of this problem, the marine
longitudinal gradiometer was developed.
The principles underlying the marine gradiometer are simple. Two magne-
tometers are towed behind the ship on a single tow cable (see Fig. 15-33). The
forward sensor is at a sufficient distance from the ship to minimize the effects of
the ship's magnetic field, generally about 980 ft (300m). The trailing sensor is
placed far enough behind the forward sensor that the difference between the
sensor readings is dominated by the geologic differences (rather than the noise),
but close enough that the difference can be used to approximate the magnetic
gradients due to geology. In practice, the sensor separation is usually
about 500 ft (150 m).
The difference between the field values of the two sensors is essentially free of
the effects of time variations in the earth's field. The difference reading reflects
only magnetic gradients due to the geology differences between the sensors. By
dividing the difference by the distance between the sensors, a good approximation
to the geological gradient is then obtained. In theory, the anom-alous total field (up
to a constant of integration) may be recovered by numerical integration of the
gradient along the tracks. In practice, the problem is some-what more difficult,
due to several types of errors which produce relatively small effects at the sensor
but are amplified in the process of forming the gradient and integrating it. Several
means of overcoming these problems have been developed and are in use today
(see, for example, Hansen4).
DATA PROCESSING 685
16-3 MAGNETIC SURVEYS ON LAND
Field Procedures
Land magnetic surveys are often used for detailed follow-up in areas identified as
interesting from reconnaissance surveys, in archaeological studies, and hazardous
waste studies. Station spacing for these surveys can be as close as
I m. In petroleum exploration, land magnetic and gravity surveys are often
conducted in conjunction with land seismic surveys. Since the primary tech-nique is
seismic, station spacing will vary widely. In either case. positioning of the stations
can be performed as precisely as desired-from visually spotting stations on a
topographic map, to surveying in each station using highly accurate laser systems.
Regardless of the objective, stations should be set at safe distances from all
magnetic interference such as power lines, bridges. and other cultural features.
Typically, railroad tracks should be no closer than 360 ft (120 m), automobiles 75 ft
(25 m), and wire fences 90 ft (30 m). The magnetometer operator should be relatively
free of magnetic material. The importance of checking for such interference
sources cannot be overemphasized if measurement accuracy on the order of 1
gamma is desired.
Two separate instruments should be used: a recording base-station magne-
tometer and the field unit itself. This allows direct subtraction of the time variation
in the earth's field from the field data. If a base station is not used, then a "base"
site must be chosen for periodic reoccupation during the survey. Reoccupation of
the base site should be performed at least once per hour; if stations are of the order
of meters apart, it should be performed every 10 to 15 min. Differences between the
base readings are linearly interpolated for use in correction of the field data.
It is important to establish that the magnetometer is providing valid data. The
simplest means of doing so is to take multiple readings at each station. Since
present total-field magnetometers require no setup and can make mea-surements in
seconds, multiple readings impose no delay in data collection. Once the operator is
sure of a stable reading, then, and only then, should the measurement be recorded.
Successive readings should be within one resolution element (e.g., for a 1-gamma
resolution system, successive readings should be within ± I gamma).
16-4 DATA PROCESSING
Land Surveys
Prior to mapping the ground data, corrections for diurnal and other time
variations must be applied. To further reduce the data for interpretation, a local
regional field may be removed. In general, land surveys do not require the complex
data-reduction procedures described later in the chapter for airborne surveys.
With the advent of microcomputers and data storage in field-portable mag-

netometers, processing of these data becomes greatly simplified. For example,
TABLE 16-1 SAMPLE REDUCTION CALCULATIONS USING DATA FROM A RECORDING BASE STATION
Station
1 2 3 4 5
Time 0900:00 0905:00 0912:30 0917:15 0922:45

Field reading (gammas) 51325.1 51345.5 51350.8 51382.6 51380.4
Base-station reading (gammas) 51340.0 51340.2 51340.4 51340.6 51340.6
Residual total field -14.9 5.3 10.4 42.0 39.8
using an IBM PC (trademark of IBM) microcomputer and an EG&G Geo-metries

Memory (trademark of EG&G), 300 stations of data can be read into the
computer, corrected for time variations, and plotted in less than 2 h.
Performed manually, a similar reduction will require significantly more time. A
sample of the manual procedure is shown in Table 16-l. The data shown use a
separate recording base-station magnetometer. which is the preferred field
procedure. Both magnetometers are total-field instruments of the proton-pre-
cession type. In this case, the base-station data are subtracted directly from the
field data and the result is a residual field value with the dc components of the main
field removed. The local regional field still remains.
Table 16-2 shows the method used when no base station is available. In this
case we must take the values obtained in reoccupation of the base site and
linearly interpolate between the two readings, taken I h apart. This produces an
estimate of the rate of change in the main field over the time interval. These
results are then used tú correct the field readings. In this case, the results are
slightly different due to a relatively large field change which occurred after our
station readings. While the difference between the results is small, it ca be
TABLE 16-2 SAMPLE REDUCTION CALCULATIONS USING DATA FROM REOCCUPATION OF A BASE
SITE AND INTERPOLATING BETWEEN TIMES
Station
1 2 3 4 5
Time 0900:00 0905:00 0912:30 0917:15 0922:45

Field reading (gammas) 51325.1 51345.5 51350.8 51382.6 51380.4
Interpolated base-station reading
(gammas) 51340.0 51340.5 51341.8 51341.6 51342.0
Residual total field -14.9 5.0 9.0 41.0 38.4
Reoccupation Time Reading

0900:00 51340.0
1000:00 51345.5
Linear interpolation gives 0.1 gammas/mm
DATA PROCESSING 687
significant if measurements in the l-gamma range are desired. On the other hand, if
anomalies of about IO gammas are to be resolved, these results would be adequate.
Unfortunately, one does not know beforehand that the main field will shift only 5.5
gammas over the I-h interval. It could have shifted 10 to 20 gammas or more, which
would have hidden all useful information.
Airborne and Marine Surveys

In the early days of magnetic surveying, data from analog charts were often used
directly for interpretation. Where surveys were made without Continuous strip-
chart recording. the data were plotted in profile form by hand. Contour maps, if
required, were constructed by transferring the data values to plan map form and
drawing contour lines between the plotted values.
These techniques can still be used when small quantities of data are involved
and where accuracy is not a major consideration. This is often the case, for
and
example, in land surveys for strongly magnetic minerals. However, airborne
shipborne surveys result in data sets too large to be handled practically without
digital computer processing. Furthermore, the demand for more accu-rate results
has led to increasingly elaborate treatment of both the magnetic measurements
themselves and of the location data that accompanies them. Computer processing
and plotting has therefore become an integral part of the magnetic survey and in
some cases is actually performed in the field.
Figure 16-4 shows a generalized flow chart for processing magnetic survey data.
Typically, the data consists of three sets: the magnetic field measure-ments, which
are the primary data; the locaton recovery, generally in the form of station
numbers transferred onto topographic maps or sets of aerial pho-tographs; and
the base-station data. The following sections describe the steps required to
transform this information into final profile plots and contour maps.
Editing
The first step in processing is the removal of extraneous data. Surveys are
normally organized into a series of profiles; the data are logically partitioned
during the edit into blocks corresponding to these profiles, discarding the portions
acquired during rapid turns in airborne or marine surveys. Lines which are broken
for some reason during acquisition are treated as distinct segments.
The base-station data are treated in a similar manner. Since the base station is
normally operated on a continuous basis during the survey, anywhere from SOto
70 percent of these data are superfluous. The start and stop times for each survey
track are used to edit the base-station data to correspond to the airborne data.
The next step is to remove from each line (including the base-station data), the
spikes in each data variable. These erroneous values, introduced by record-
DATA BASE STATION DATA

LOCATION RECOVERY SURVE'?
t-
DIGITIZE I
EDIT I
EDIT
f "f
CORRECT f
a(MERGELOCATIONSÌ ( FILTER
REMOVE TIME
VARIATIONS
COMPENSATION
REMOVE (CRI
LEVEL FINAL PROFILE DATA
flOLAT E FINAL GRIDDED DATA

1
( CONTOUR
CONTOUR MAPS
f
flow chart.
FIGURE 16-4Generalized magnetic data processing
lesser
ing errors, electrical interference, and the like, are present to a greater or
degree in essentially all raw digital data sets. Uncorrected, spikes can create
wildly erroneous final data, particularly if filtering is applied.
A noise spike in the data is normally only one to two samples wide. Careful
visual examination of the data will generally show these defects without diffi-
single-
culty. Figure 16-5 shows an expanded portion of a magnetic profile with
may
sample spikes. Usually if such anomalies are wider than two samples, they
represent actual near-surface geologic features. However, in determining
sample
whether an outlying value is a spike, consideration must be given to the
interval, distance to the source, and expected source geometry.
Many different algorithms have been developed for deleting and replacing
spikes. All such techniques fail on some data sets, particularly data containing
large numbers of spikes interspersed with large, high-frequency anomalies. In
such cases, a program which allows erroneous values to be flagged manually (preferably using an
However,
interactive graphics terminal) is indispensable.
value with a
isolated spikes can generally be detected by comparing each data
DATA PROCESSING 689
60
50-I- Positive Noise Spike
R
30
o
r'r
t-'-. Possible Negative Noise Spike
8 40
4 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
P&ltER 0F DIGITAL SA1PLES

FIGURE 16-5 Expanded magnetic trace showing noise spikes.
group of adjacent ones, and flagging those values which differ from the neigh-
boring values by an amount exceeding some threshold. This general principle
underlies most spike detection algorithms (Nyman,5 Hood et al.,3 Halpenny6).
Algorithms for replacing spikes are as plentiful as those for spike detection and
have the same pitfalls. Often, the predicted value used to detect the spike also
serves as a replacement. Another method which generally produces good results
on magnetic data is replacement by cubic splines (Deboor7). This latter technique
has the advantage that all spikes in a line can be replaced simul-taneously.
However, it may be necessary to select replacement values man-ually in extreme
cases. Here again, interactive editing is essential. Any lines for which doubt
remains about erroneous values should be plotted as a final quality control and
corrected as necessary.
Locations
The methods for determining and plotting locations depend to a great extent on
the positioning system used. For example, electronic positioning systems such as
Loran C, VLF, and GPS often yield absolute location data recorded on digital tape
and synchronized with the magnetic data. Beyond spike removal and possibly
some filtering, these data require few adjustments except for
690 CHAPTER 16 MAGNETIC SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
calibration and conversion. Electronic systems such as these are almost always
used in marine surveys, and sometimes in airborne work.
Typically, however, airborne surveys employ some combination of visual and
doppler or inertial navigation. The procedures discussed here are applica-ble to a
positioning system of this type. The general strategy is to exploit the redundancy in
location information between the two positioning systems to reduce the errors that
invariably occur in either one alone.
Until recently, only visual flight-path recovery was used for data location. This
consisted of using the aircraft position recorded on film to locate the aircraft
relative to ground features found on topographic maps or on aerial photos. Since
most data were collected on a time base (e.g. one sample per second), a large
,
number of points [as many as one point every 2300 ft (700 m)} were required if well-
located, airborne data were expected. flecause of the influence of wind velocity,
the ground speed is rarely if ever constant. A considerable and variable error thus
results in the desired uniform spacing.
As the doppler system came into common use, data were collected on a spatial
base, e.g., one sample every 50 m. This reduced the effect of variable aircraft
ground speed and allowed definition of bad visual locations. Since the doppler acted
as a "ruler" when flying a straight line, and the deviation (cross-track error) from a
predetermined line could be measured and digitally re-corded, this provided the
necessary data to improve location accuracy by as much as a factor of 5 to IO. At the
same time, the number of recovered points could be significantly reduced.
In the newer digital doppler systems, X, Y coordinates in a specified grid system

can be directly recorded on digital tape. The doppler uses a magnet-ically slaved
gyro compass as reference. Since this reference is subject to directional heading
errors, the recorded location data will drift slowly from the actual position during
the course of a flight.
On the other hand, if several points along a line are located "absolutely" by use
of visual recovery methods, the doppler location errors can be greatly reduced.
This approach is the one commonly used by many of today'saerial
survey contractors.
The track recovery is performed in the usual way by film or video methods. As
few as two to four visual points along the profile are required, though more
complete recovery is desirable. These station numbers, along with their coordi-
nates, are then digitized. The doppler data are then fitted to the visually located
data, in the least-squares sense, by use of a low-order polynomial adjustment in X
and Y. A ground-speed check is performed for each profile line to validate the
results. Since the doppler ground-speed measurement has a repeatability of
better than 1 percent, and the errors are not cumulative, overall location
precision can be expected to be within 50 m if a reasonable map base is
available.
The flight path is then plotted to evaluate the overall performance of both the
positioning and the adherence to the survey specifications.
DATA PROCESSING 691
Once location is complete, these position data are merged with the geophysi-cal
data.
lt should be noted that the above applies only to surveys over land, since water
surface movement adds a velocity component to the doppler measure-ment. As a
result, airborne doppler-controlled surveys over water are limited in their location
precision. This is the reason for using other positioning methods in offshore
surveys.
Data Correction
The magnetic data must be corrected for the time variations of the earth's magnetic
field and aircraft platform motion. In addition, a model such as the international
geomagnetic reference field (IGRF) is used to remove the non-crustal effects from
the data.
Time Variations
The magnetic variations experienced during the survey are the result of both
geologic (spatial) and external (time) influences on the earth's magnetic field.
Significant time variations with periods of seconds, minutes, and hours are the
effect of solar-induced activity. This activity distorts the magnetosphere (or
external magnetic field) of the earth. Daily or diurnal variations are generally most
pronounced during local daylight hours (see Fig. 16-6). The range of these
variations is not predictable and may be as large as lOO gammas. Superimposed on
these diurnal variations are micropulsations which occur more or less
FIGURE 16-6 Typical diurnal variations in total-field intensity. (Bremer.20)

MID-NORTHERN AND MID-SOUTHERN LATITUDES
HOURS:O 1200 2400 1200 2400 1200 2400

DAYS: DAY1 OAY2 DAY 3
GAMMAS EQUATORIAL LATITUDE

150
iAS
FIGURE 16-7 Typical micropulsations. (Bremer.20)
randomly in time. These can have almost any amplitude, but are generally smaller
than the diurnal variations except during periods of sunspot activity. Figure 16-7
will have periods
shows a typical micropulsation. Micropulsations ranging
from 0.01 s to several minutes. Of much greater concern are magnetic storms,
which can occur several times per month. These are directly related to solar active
regions and may reoccur with the solar period of 28 days. Since these can have
from
amplitudes of up to several hundred gammas and periods
an
seconds to minutes, they may be interpreted as geologic features on airborne record. The magnetic
for
storms cause the most concern to those responsible
Opera-
magnetic surveys. Figure 16-8 shows a typical magnetic storm trace. tions normally
cease during magnetic storms.
Information on the time variations is obtained from the base-station data. These
data are processed as previously noted in the editing section. Depending on the type of
survey and the activity of the time variations, these data may be
FIGURE 16-8 Typical magnetic storm. (Bremer.20)
GAMMAS
150
4 IDAY
DATA PROCESSING 693
subtracted directly from the airborne data, or a low-order curve, representing the
activity, may be removed from the airborne data. For direct removal, the base-
station data are normally low-pass filtered, as propagation effects cause phase
shifts between the variations observed at the base station and those at the survey
position.
Compensation
A major source of error in airborne and marine magnetic measurements is the field
ofthe survey vehicle. In marine surveys, these effects are minimized (but not
eliminated) by towing the sensor up to 1500 feet (500 m) from the ship. In airborne
work, the standard procedure is to obtain passive compensation by three-axis coil
systems and permalloy (Mumetal) strips to correct for the induced and permanent
fields of the aircraft. This method can remove only certain components and has a
limited accuracy. For example, it does not remove errors introduced by aircraft
motion in the earth's field. Hardware and software have been developed for
military applications which allow compensa-tion for these effects (Leliak8). These
techniques are now being adopted for geophysical survey work. The aircraft
attitude, rate of change of attitude, and, in some cases, electric current and control
surface position are recorded digitally. Prior to a survey, a set of maneuvers is
performed to "calibrate" these sensors. The coefficients for the 16 terms of the
aircraft magnetic field are calculated and used in conjunction with the physical
attitude of the platform during survey to correct the data. Figure 16-9 shows a
sample of aeromagnetic data before and after such correction. Note the apparent
anomalies in the uncompensated data. These would appear as a real, near-surface
geologic
feature during interpretation. The end result would be an erroneous view of the
area of concern, providing misleading information.
IGRF Removal
The IGRF is a mathematical representation of the earth's main magnetic field due
to sources in the core. Once this field is removed from the data, the results are
actually residual magnetic anomalies due solely to the geology. This as-sumes, of
course, that the core field is accurately described by the IGRF model. Since the
dynamics of the core field are not completely understood, this is not truly the case.
In actuality there are a number of earth field models to
choose from (Peddle,9 Langel et al.'°). All of these models are based on
empirical fits to observatory and, in some cases, satellite data; each one is slightly
different and produces different results. The major application of the IGRF
removal is in the survey of large areas which will be surveyed over long periods of
time (several months to years). In small area surveys, particularly those which will
not be matched to adjoining areas, a local regional trend removal may suffice. Both
tables and analytical forms of the IGRF exist from which these corrections may be
made.
e
= o
= 't
'e
Css
st I
L
0-
o
o
Lo
w,-,
>r -
1000 n,
0° ,r
L
o
I-
FIGURE 16-9 Transverse gradient before and after computer heading corrections. Average background noise
level = 0.015 gammas/rn peak to peak.
DATA PROCESSING 695
Leveling
The location procedure, and the data corrections just described, always leäve
residual errors in the data. In addition, altitude variations from line to line are
always present to a greater or lesser degree in airborne surveys. To distribute
these errors in such a way as to minimize their effect on localized anomalies, some
leveling or tieing procedure is always used. For this purpose, a series of tracks,
called tie lines, perpendicular to the survey lines and generally at a wider spacing
are usèd.
The general strategy of all leveling algorithms is to reduce or eliminate the
differences between the corrected magnetic field values at intersections be-tween
the survey and tie lines. This is accomplished by applying an empirically
determined correction to one or both of the lines. The form of the correction
varies widely. At one extreme, a single value may be allowed for each line and
adjusted to minimize, by least-squares methods, the residual differences. At the
other extreme, a linear or higher-order polynomial (up to third order) correction
may be allowed along each line between intersections, with the residual
differences eliminated completely (Bhattacharya' 1). Other methods, generally
lying between these extremes, are also in common use (Foster et al.,'2 Green,'3
Ray'4). There are other variations used by some contractors, such as the
adjustment of the location of the intersections. Whatever algorithm is employed,
the adjustments almost always reduce to a linear least-squares system to be solved
for the corrections.
Since the leveling procedure is essentially empirical, no single algorithm will
perform best in all situations. Consideration of the major contributions to the
residual errors for a particular survey may suggest a preferred procedure. In any
case, final manual adjustments must often be made by visual examination of a
preliminary map.
Interpolation to a Regular Grid

The data now consist of a series of profile lines with a high data density along the
line and a low data density between lines. In order to prepare contour maps, it is
necessary to reduce these data to a regular grid. This process is known as
interpolation. A number of algorithms exist to interpolate irregular data to a
regular grid (see, for example, James,'5 Cram and Bhattacharya,'6 Bhat-
tacharya,'7 Briggs,'8 Royle et al.'9). In some cases, interpolation is done in
two stages. The first stage produces a coarse grid, which is further refined by
techniques such as the bicubic spline (DeBoor7). Whatever the method, the
computer requirements are generally quite large.
This interpolation process is critical to good, usable contour maps. One measure
of quality is that a profile exhibited from the resultant grid should agree with the
original profile data to within one-half of a contour interval. For example, if a
survey is to be contoured to a 5-gamma level, then, when a profile is laid over the
contour map, all data should match to within 2.5 gammas.
/ "-
-:
Q a
T \\
Survey, Dr.
FIGURE 16-10 Residual total field contour map. (Data courtesy of Minnesota Geological
M. Walton,
Director, and compiled by EG & G Geometrics.)
DATA PROCESSING 697
Li_i L
Geo-
FIGURE 16-11 Offset magnetic profiles shown as fence' diagram. (Processing and display by Comap suiveys,
Inc.)
The gridded data from the interpolation process provide the database from
which most methods of presentation are derived (exclusive of profiles). These
include contour maps and other presentations, such as perspective plots and
pseudoimage maps.
Data Display
The types of data displays are limited only by the user's imagination. There are,
however, a number of common types. These include residual contour maps, offset
profiles, and multiparameter profiles.
A typical contour map is shown in Fig. 16-10. The following survey specifi-cations
were used: sensitivity 0.25 gammas, sampling interval 250 ft (75 m), altitude 500 ft
(150 m) mean terrain clearance-radar controlled. The flight lines are north-south
spaced 1300 ft (400 m) apart with tie lines east-west spaced at 6500 and 13,000 ft (2.0
and 4.0 km). A geomagnetic reference field was re-moved, based upon the
American World Charts Model, 1975, updated to 1980.
FIGURE 16-12 Typical digital plot of magnetic profile. Full-scale deflection is 500 gammas. Trace is stepped to retain
sensitivity, yet accommodate over ranging.
REFERENCES 699
At 47°
30'N and 92°W the American World Charts Model gives a magnetic inclination
of 75° ITN, a magnetic declination of 3° 13'E, and a field intensity of 60,195 gammas. The
contour-mapping process used approximately one-fourth of all data samples to create a
213 m by 213 m primary grid with minimum curvature interpolation. The final grid was
refined with a bicubic spline tech-nique. The primary contour interval is 20 gammas with
down-gradient shading at 10 gammas.
Offset
profiles are another common method of displaying magnetic data. Figure 16-11
shows a typical set of offset profiles. The data are from the U.S. Department of Energy
and were collected under the National Uranium Re-source Program.
Digitally plotted magnetic profiles are usually obtained as a part of an aeromagnetic survey.
Figure 16-12 shows a a typical profile. These profiles are invaluable even in qualitative interpretation
of magnetics. From these, esti-mates of source depth and source dimension can be made.
REFERENCES
Jensen,H.
I : Important Details and Applications of a New Airborne Magnetometer,
Geopin'sis, vol. 45, pp. 973-.976, 1965.
2 Reid, B.
A. : Aeromagnetic Survey Design, Geophysics, vol. 45, pp. 973-976, 1980.
3 Hood, P. J. M.
, T. Holroyd, and P. H. McGrath: Magnetic Methods Applied to Base
Metal
Exploration. pp. 77-104, in P. J. Hood (ed.), "Geophysics and Geochemistry in the Search for Metalic
Ores," Geol. Surv. Can. Econ. Gro!. Rep. 3!, Ottawa,
I 979.
4
Hansen, R. O. Two Approaches to Total Field Reconstruction from Gradiometer Data, 54th
:
Anna. mt. SEG Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia. 1984.

5 Nyman, D.:
The Interpolation Error Operator: Time Series Error Detection and Correction, Geophysics, vol.
42, pp. 773-777, 1977.
6
Halpenny, J.: A Method of Editing Time Series Observations, Geophysics, voI. 49, pp. 521-
524, 1984.
7 DeBoor,
C.: Bicubic Spline Interpolation, J. Math. and Phys., vol. 41, pp. 212-2 18,
(962.
8 Leliak, P.: Airborne
Identification and Evaluation of Magnetic-Field Sources of Magnetic
Detector Equipped Aircraft, IRE Trans. Aerospace Navigational Elect., vol. 8, pp. 95-105. 1961.
9 N.
Peddie, W.: International Geomagnetic Reference Field 1980, PAGEOPH, vol.
120, 1982.
10
Langel, R. A., R. H. Estes, G. D. Mead, E. B. Fabiario, and E. R. Lancaster: Initial Geomagnetic Field
Model from MAGSAT Vector Data, Geophys. Res. Leu., vol. 7,
pp. 793-796, 1980.
11 Bhattacharya, B. K.: An Automatic Method of Compilation and Mapping of High-Resolution Aeromagnetic
Data, Geophysics, vol. 36, pp. 695-716, 1971.
12 M. Errors at
Foster, R., W. R. Jines, and K. van der Weg: Statistical Estimation of Systematic Intersections of
Lines of Aeromagnetic Data, J. Geophys. Res., vol, 75,
pp. 1507-1511, 1970.
13 Green, A.
A.: A Comparison of Adjustment Procedures for Leveling Aeromagnetic Survey Data,
Geophysics, vol. 48, pp. 745-753, 1983.
14 Ray, R. D.: "Correction of Systematic Error in Magnetic Surveys: An Application of

Ridge Regression and Sparse Matrix Theory," preprint, Western Geophysical Company
of America, Houston, Tex., 1984.
15 James. W. R.: FORTRAN 1V Program Using Double Fourier Series for Surface Fitting
of Irregularly Spaced Data, Computer Contribution 5, State Geological Survey, The
University of Kansas, Lawrence, 1966.
16 Cram, I. K., and B. K. Bhattacharya: Treatment of Non-equispaced Two-Dimen-sional Data
with a Digital Computer, Geoexploration, voI. 5, pp. 173-194, 1967.
17 Bhattacharya, B. K.: Bicubic Spline Interpolation as a Method for Treatment of Potential Field
Data, Geophysics, vol. 34, pp. 402-423, 1969.
18 Briggs, I. C.: Machine Contouring Using Minimum Curvature, Geophysics, vol. 39, pp. 39-48,
1974.
19 Royle, A. G., F. L. Clausen, and P. Fredericksen: Practical Universal Kriging and
Automatic Contouring, Geo-Processing, vol. I, pp. 377-394, 1981.
20 Bremer, S.: Application Manual for Portable Magnetometers, EG&G Geometrics,
1973.

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CHAPTER 1 6

Magnetic surveys are used in a wide variety of exploration programs. The

16-1 AIRBORNE DATA COLLECTION

Components of an Airborne System

FIGURE 16-1 Helicopter magnetometer in-

FIGURE 16-2 Fixed-wing aircraft with tail-stinger-mounted sensor.

Analog Magnetic Data

Mign.tom.t.r (Proton/Cesium) Clock DDc*IHMMSS

Doppler Radar 9arom.iric Other Other

FIGURE 16-3 Survey system block thagram.

Other Navigation Systems

the survey area. in addition, there should be no major geological discontinuities

flying. Additionally, it can be used by field personnel to perform preliminary

Airborne Field Operations

16-2 MARINE DATA COLLECTION

16-3 MAGNETIC SURVEYS ON LAND

16-4 DATA PROCESSING

With the advent of microcomputers and data storage in field-portable mag-

Time 0900:00 0905:00 0912:30 0917:15 0922:45

Residual total field -14.9 5.3 10.4 42.0 39.8

using an IBM PC (trademark of IBM) microcomputer and an EG&G Geo-metries

Time 0900:00 0905:00 0912:30 0917:15 0922:45

Residual total field -14.9 5.0 9.0 41.0 38.4

Reoccupation Time Reading

Airborne and Marine Surveys

DATA BASE STATION DATA

LEVEL FINAL PROFILE DATA

flOLAT E FINAL GRIDDED DATA

50-I- Positive Noise Spike

t-'-. Possible Negative Noise Spike

P&ltER 0F DIGITAL SA1PLES

In the newer digital doppler systems, X, Y coordinates in a specified grid system

FIGURE 16-6 Typical diurnal variations in total-field intensity. (Bremer.20)

HOURS:O 1200 2400 1200 2400 1200 2400

GAMMAS EQUATORIAL LATITUDE

FIGURE 16-7 Typical micropulsations. (Bremer.20)

FIGURE 16-8 Typical magnetic storm. (Bremer.20)

Interpolation to a Regular Grid

Anna. mt. SEG Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia. 1984.

14 Ray, R. D.: "Correction of Systematic Error in Magnetic Surveys: An Application of

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