Optoelectronics:

Photons Meet
Electrons
Prof. Greg Kovacs
Department of Electrical Engineering
Stanford University
EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 2
 Overview of Optoelectronics

• Light emission:
– Incandescent lamps
– Light emitting diodes
– Laser diodes
– Vacuum fluorescent devices
– Plasma devices
– Gas lasers
– Electroluminescent devices

• Light detection:
– Photoconductors
– Solar cells
– Photodiodes
– Phototransistors
– Integrated photodetector chips

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 3

 Lamps - Properties and Uses
• Incandescent lamps - the most common type
used around the house - rely on heating up a thin
wire (usually tungsten) to white heat.
• The resistance of the wire increases with
temperature (as do the resistances of most
materials) so that it doesn’t have “thermal
runaway.”
• As seen in the original Hewlett-Packard Wein
bridge oscillator, a light bulb can be used as a
regulator for power or amplitude.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 4

 LEDs - Overview

• Light emitting diodes, or LEDs, are inexpensive,

solid-state light emitters.
• With improved new technologies, they are bright
enough that they can be used for illumination
(e.g., flashlights) with very little power.
• They do no emit heat, resist shocks, and last for
tens of thousands of hours.
• They are increasingly being used for traffic
signals (red now, yellow and green coming).

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 5

 LEDs - Displays + Annunciators

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 6

 LED Mechanisms - Nerd Stuff
Electron Injection
Large Numbers of
Electrons
Transitions on the n+
side are non-radiative.
n+
Typical materials: GaP,
GaAs, GaAsP, SiC, etc.
• When a forward bias is
applied to an LED, electrons
acquire enough energy to
cross from the n+ through
hν the depletion region to
recombine in the p+ region
(similar for holes leaving the
valence band).
Large Numbers of
Holes • Photons are emitted with no
p+ phase relationship to each
other (incoherent).
• Very bright LEDs are now
commonplace (>3 cd).
• Direct bandgap, large
quantum efficiency (>80%).

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 7

 LED
Die Bond Wire

Epoxy Lens Metal

Lead-Frame

CATHODE ANODE
(-) (+)

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 8

 LEDs - Proper Use
• If driving from a
voltage source,
should limit current
using a series VSUPPLY
IMAX =
resistor. R
• Need to know the
forward voltage of
the LED to calculate If
the resistor’s value.
• Determine the LED
forward voltage,
select the current
you want (usually
not more than 20
mA) and compute Vf I=0
RLED. VSUPPLY − VfLED When all voltage
RLED = is dropped
across the diode
I LED
EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 9
EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 10
 Visualizing Infrared Emitters
• Infrared-emitting LEDs can be visualized using a CCD
camera (such as a camcorder) because silicon detectors are
sensitive to short-wavelength infrared light.
• You can also use special infrared phototransistors (in
smoky gray packages).
• A simple visualizer is an IR phototransistor in series with a
visible LED.
• Phosphor cards are also available (Radio Shack, Edmund
Scientific, Kodak) that “translate” IR into visible light.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 11

 Optoisolators

hv
LED Input

LED
Glass
Insulator Silicon
Phototransistor
Lead-Frame

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 12

 Beer Level Sensor
• Can use visible or
infrared LEDs with a
photodetector to sense
when a beer has been
consumed down to a
dangerously low level.
• Wire output to alarm.
• Better: wire output to
robot that fetches
another beer.
Beer
• Better?: wire output to Level
the brain of a roommate - Sensor
ZOMBIE BEERS!

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 13

 Modulation of LEDs
• LEDs can be modulated very fast, using current
sources or simple voltage switches.
• MHz data rates are possible, and this is a common
way to transmit signals optically (e.g., some
consumer audio equipment).
• Interestingly, your retina can resolve light pulses
in the few nanoseconds, but the perceived length
is as much as eight orders of magnitude longer -
this is the impulse response of your visual
system.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 14

 Example Blinker - LM3909

Source: National
Semiconductor
LM3909 Datasheet.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 15

LED Bar Graph Driver - LM391X Series

Current-source
drive - no resistors
required!

Source: National Semiconductor

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs LM3914 Datasheet. 16
 Do not try this at home…

Leave it to trained professionals.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 17

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 18
EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 19
 Idea: Simple Gated Pulser
V+

Output

R2
R1 C

Gate

Can use 74HC, 74HCT, or

1
fo ≈
4000-series CMOS (4000-
R1 ≈ 10R2 series can operate over
wider supply voltage
R1 C ranges).

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 20

 LED Flashlight

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 21

 Homemade LED Illuminator

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 22

 Solid-State Lasers

• Single Heterojunction - pulsed - needs very small

pulses of very large currents to lase.
• Double Heterojunction - CW - what is in laser
pointers, laser printers, etc.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 23

 Inexpensive Laser Pointers

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 24

 Inside Laser Pointers

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 25

 Hacking the Laser Pointer

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 26

 Laser Transmitter

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 27

 High-Power Laser Diodes

1 cm

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 28

 Avalanche Transistor Pulser

• By triggering
avalanche
breakdown in
transistors, very
high energy, short
current pulses can
be obtained.
• The energy stored
in a capacitor is
rapidly discharged
through the laser.
Source: “Semiconductor Diode
Lasers,” R. W. Campbell and F. M.
Mims, H. W. Sams & Co., 1972.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 29

 Williams’ Avalanche Pulser
• Excellent way to generate
ultrashort pulses. + 90 VDC
• Can be modified to drive lasers
or LEDs. 1 MΩ
• See LTC AN-47 for details on
choosing the transistor, etc. 2N2369 2 pF

Output
10 kΩ 50 Ω

Source: Linear Technology, AN-47

“High Speed Amplifier Techniques,”
1991.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 30

Williams’ Avalancher on 1 GHz Scope

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 31

 Avalanche LED Driver

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 32

 Laser Tag

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 33

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 34
 Don’t Forget Gas Discharges
• A variety of cool
displays can be
achieved using gas
discharge lamps.
• Simple NE-2 (neon)
lamps break down
around 65 - 90V and
can be used for
blinkers and power
indicators.
• More complex
devices are also
possible.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 35

 Detecting Light

• Light sensors are essential for a large variety of

devices.
• Examples: optical data links, camera exposure
meters, automatic night lights, clock display
dimmers, etc.
• There are basically two types to be considered in
EE122: junction type and photoconductors.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 36

 Mechanisms of Light Detection
INTRINSIC PHOTOCONDUCTOR EXTRINSIC PHOTOCONDUCTOR
Ep ≥ Ea
E p ≥ Eg Free
Electron Conduction
Ec
Band
Ec
Neutral
Photon Acceptor
Eg Atom
Photon
Ea

Ev Ev
Free Valence Electron Free
Hole Band Trapped by Hole
Acceptor

PHOTOVOLTAIC
E p ≥ Eg
Ec Electron Produced by
Photoionization Moving
to n-Region

Ec
Photon
Ef
Ev
p-Region

Ev

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 37

 Solar Cells

• Solar cells are

photojunctions that
are designed to
produce useable
electrical power.
• Many surplus
sources have good
deals on them, and
you can easily design
simple circuits that
are entirely light
powered.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 38

 Photodiodes/Phototransistors
• Photodiodes and phototransistors (usually the
base lead is not used, so they can be treated as
similar parts) are common detectors for light.
• They are capable of detecting fast light pulses (up
to GHz rates in some cases) if they are
appropriately designed and have fast circuitry to
work with.
• They are inexpensive, and are available for visible
light and for IR (some have built-in smoky gray
filters).

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 39

 Typical Photodiodes

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 40

 Typical Photodiodes

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 41

 Light-To-Frequency Converter

Source: National
Semiconductor
LM331 Datasheet.
EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 42
Color-to-Sound
Thing

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 43

 Fast Optical Data Receiver

Peak Detector

Max Peak

Min Peak

Midpoint

Source: Linear Technology, AN-47

“High Speed Amplifier Techniques,”
EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 1991. 44
 Shannon’s Theorem

S 
C = Blog 2 +1
N 

C = channel capacity in bits/second

B = bandwidth in Hz
S = signal level
N = noise level

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 45

Photoconductors
Light
- The CdS Cell
• Incoming photons of sufficient
energy promote carriers into
the conduction band.
• If they have sufficiently long
lifetimes, the resistance of the DC
+

photoconductor decreases. Ammeter

Output
• Thus, they act like light- Leads Photoconductor
controlled resistors and can Top
Metallization
be substituted for ordinary Ceramic
resistors in circuits. Substrate

• Key - they are much slower to

respond than photojunctions! L

Top View Side (Cut-Away) View

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 46

 Typical CdS Cells

1 cm

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 47

Example - Light-Controlled Amplifiers
R1
V1 Rf
i
• All of the common op- 1 R2
V2 if
amp configurations can R3 V-
V3
be made light sensitive V+ VOUT
R4
by substituting a CdS V4
cell for one or more
resistors. Rn
Vn
R2

• Could make an amp

that turned down the i fb
R2 VIN R1
volume on a stereo AV = − V- VOUT
when the lights were R1 i in V+

dimmed, or could use

R2
this to make a radio
that got louder when i2
R1
the sun came up.  R2  V-
AV =  1+
R1  V+ VOUT
i1
VIN

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 48

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 49
EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 50
 Integrated Photosensors

• There are several integrated photodetectors on

the market, incorporating amplifiers and even
current-to-frequency converters on the same chip
as the photosensor.
• Texas Instruments: www.ti.com
• Burr-Brown: www.burr-brown.com
• Hammamatsu: www.hamamatsu.com
Source:
Texas
Instruments
Datasheet

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 51

 Integrated Light Detectors

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 52

 Integrated IR Detector for
Remote Controls

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 53

 Infrared Intrusion Alarms

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 54

 IR Board Bottom

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 55

 IR Board Top

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 56

 Rods Cones
More photopigment Less photopigment ASIDE:
Slow response: long integration time
(can detect flickering light up to 12 Hz)
Fast response: short integration time
(can detect flickering light up to 55 Hz) BIOLOGICAL
High amplification: single quantum detection Probably less amplification
Saturating response Nonsaturating response
PHOTOSENSORS
Not directionally sensitive Directionally sensitive
Highly convergent retinal pathways Less convergent retinal pathways
High sensitivity Low sensitivity
Low acuity High acuity
Achromatic: one type of pigment Polychromatic: three types of pigment

Retina Discs

Fovea
Cytoplasmic space
Outer
segment
Plasma
membrane
Outer
Light segment
Cilium

Mitochondria

Inner
Optic disc Inner Segment
Optic nerve Segment
Nucleus
Bipolar cell Receptor
Synaptic Synaptic
terminal terminal
Ganglion cell Rod Cone

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 57

 Aside: Night Vision
Glass

Silicon

Phosphor
and
Transparent
Anode
Glass

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 58

Aside: Micromechanical Television?

Images courtesy Texas

Instruments, Inc.
Used with permission.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 59

 Idea: Infrared Blinker

• Easy to modify an
inexpensive safety
blinker light to use
infrared LEDs instead
of visible.
• Can also hack the
flash frequency.

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 60

 IR
Tracker

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 61

EE122, Stanford University, Prof. Greg Kovacs 62