Reform and Innovation in

Higher Education

A Literature Review

Prepared by the National Center for Postsecondary

Improvement: Project 5.3
1
 Distinguishing
Distinguishing Features
Features of
of this
this
Literature
Literature Review
Review
ŠŠ This
This review
review takes
takes aa broad
broad view
view ofof teaching
teaching
and
and learning
learning improvements
improvements by by identifying
identifying the
the
nature
nature of
of links
links (if
(if any)
any) with
with assessment
assessment
ŠŠ ItIt focuses
focuses onon practices
practices that
that evolve
evolve from
from
grassroots
grassroots movements,
movements, statestate reform
reform efforts,
efforts,
and
and individual
individual initiatives
initiatives within/across
within/across
disciplines
disciplines
ŠŠ ItIt also
also identifies
identifies patterns
patterns and
and themes
themes across
across aa
wide
wide range
range of
of teaching,
teaching, learning,
learning, and
and
assessment
assessment practices
practices
2
 Purpose
Purpose of
of the
the Literature
Literature
Review
Review
ŠŠ To
To determine
determine thethe process
process byby which
which
innovations
innovations emerge
emerge
ŠŠ To
To identify
identify reform
reform and
and innovation
innovation pioneers
pioneers
ŠŠ To
To examine
examine howhow institutions
institutions identify
identify problems
problems
related
related to
to teaching
teaching and
and learning
learning (and
(and then
then
make
make fundamental
fundamental changes
changes as as aa result)
result)
ŠŠ To
To explore
explore how
how assessment,
assessment, student
student diversity,
diversity,
and
and the
the use
use of
of new
new technologies
technologies are are
incorporated
incorporated into
into reform
reform and
and innovation
innovation
movements
movements
3
 Importance
Importance of
of the
the Literature
Literature
Review
Review
ŠŠ Many
Many innovative
innovative practices
practices have
have no no scholarly
scholarly
literature
literature base
base because
because information
information about
about
reform
reform andand innovation
innovation activity
activity is
is difficult
difficult to
to find
find
ŠŠ Little
Little has
has beenbeen done
done to
to capture
capture national
national
conversations
conversations about about practices
practices used
used to to
improve
improve teaching
teaching andand learning
learning
ŠŠ There
There is is little
little documentation
documentation of of activities
activities that
that
have
have taken
taken placeplace since
since the
the call
call for
for
undergraduate
undergraduate teachingteaching reform
reform inin the
the mid-
mid-
1980s
1980s
4
 Key
Key Resources
Resources
ŠŠ Journals
Journals focusing
focusing on
on teaching,
teaching, learning,
learning, and
and
assessment
assessment practices
practices (e.g.
(e.g.College
CollegeTeaching)
Teaching)

ŠŠ ERIC
ERIC searches
searches using
using keywords
keywords linked
linked to
to
reform
reform and
and innovation
innovation
ŠŠ Conference
Conference programs,
programs, newsletters,
newsletters, and
and
association
association publications
publications (e.g.
(e.g.Washington
WashingtonCenter
Center
Newsletter,
Newsletter,AAHE Bulletin,Change,
AAHEBulletin, Change,Liberal
Liberal
Education).
Education).
5
Background
Background of
of Current
Current Reform
Reform
and
and Innovation
Innovation Efforts
Efforts

In
In response
response toto aa national
national call
call for
for reform
reform in
in
undergraduate
undergraduate education
education during
during the the mid-1980s,
mid-1980s,
many
many colleges
colleges and
and universities
universities began
began to to change
change
institutional
institutional practices
practices related
related toto teaching,
teaching,
structured
structured learning,
learning, curricular
curricular and
and co-curricular
co-curricular
initiatives,
initiatives, and
and multi-level
multi-level assessment.
assessment.

6
 Discussions
Discussions among
among
stakeholders
stakeholders led
led to
to the
the
creation
creation of
of …
…
ŠŠ Definitions
Definitions and
and distinctions
distinctions among
among reforms,
reforms,
innovations,
innovations, and
and initiatives/projects
initiatives/projects

ŠŠ Templates
Templates (or(or descriptions
descriptions ofof practices)
practices) and
and
Internet
Internet sites
sites with
with links
links to
to ongoing
ongoing
conversations
conversations

ŠŠ Characteristics
Characteristics and
and models
models to
to understand
understand
institutional
institutional practice
practice
7
 Distinctions
Distinctions between
between
Reforms
Reforms and
and Innovations
Innovations

ŠŠ Type
Type of
of Process:
Process: Top-down
Top-down versus
versus bottom-up
bottom-up

ŠŠ Impetus
Impetus for for Change:
Change: Internal
Internal versus
versus external
external
to
to the
the institution
institution (some
(some involve
involve both)
both)

ŠŠ Scope
Scope of
of Participation:
Participation: Local
Local versus
versus national
national

8
 Definitions
Definitions

ŠŠ Reform:
Reform: Described
Described asas aa “top-down”
“top-down”
approach;
approach; either
either system-wide
system-wide or or
anchored
anchored within
within several
several different
different
institutions;
institutions; based
based on
on external
external processes
processes

ŠŠ Innovation:
Innovation: Characterized
Characterized as
as aa “bottom-
“bottom-
up”
up” or
or “grassroots”
“grassroots” approach;
approach; based
based on on
internal
internal processes
processes

9
Definitions
Definitions (continued)
(continued)
ŠŠ “Educational
“Educational Innovation
Innovation Movement:”
Movement:” An An
overarching
overarching term
term that
that includes
includes both
both
reform
reform and
and innovation.
innovation. Primarily
Primarily
functions
functions as
as the
the “grassroots”
“grassroots” level;
level;
frequently
frequently national
national inin scope;
scope; based
based on
on
both
both internal
internal and
and external
external processes
processes

ŠŠ Project/Initiative:
Project/Initiative: Localized,
Localized, internal
internal
activity;
activity; usually
usually lacks
lacks capacity
capacity toto spread
spread
across
across institutions
institutions
10
 Applying
Applying the
the Terminology
Terminology

Change
Change is is often
often used
used inin aa very
very general
general sense
sense
when
when discussing
discussing efforts
efforts to
to improve
improve
undergraduate
undergraduate education.
education. WhenWhen change
change isis used
used
as
as part
part of
of aa technical
technical definition,
definition, oneone must
must
continually
continually specify
specify whether
whether the the term
term is
is being
being
used
used in
in the
the general
general or
or technical
technical sense.
sense.

Innovative
Innovative use
use of of assessment
assessment can
can also
also be
be
regarded
regarded as
as aa reform,
reform, or
or movement
movement
11
 Important
Important Questions
Questions
to
to Consider
Consider
ŠŠ How
How do
do reforms
reforms and
and innovations
innovations spread?
spread?

ŠŠ How
How are
are reforms
reforms and
and innovations
innovations adopted?
adopted?

ŠŠ What
What commonalities
commonalities dodo the
the various
various reforms
reforms
ŠŠ and
and innovations
innovations share?
share?

ŠŠ What
What are
are the
the unique
unique aspects
aspects of
of each
each initiative?
initiative?
12
 Types
Types of
of Reforms
Reforms and
and
Innovations
Innovations
Š Active Learning Š K-16
Š Collaborative Learning Š Learning Communities
Š Cooperative Education Š New Wave Calculus
Š Critical Thinking Š Science Reforms
Š Cultural Pluralism
Š Service Learning
Š Examination Reform
Š Student Peer Teaching
Š Faculty Peer Review
Š Standards
Š First Year Seminar
Š General Education Š Technology
Š International Š Undergraduate Research
Education Š Writing Across the
Curriculum
13
Table:
Table: Reforms
Reforms and
and Innovations
Innovations
Inno v atio n/Ref o rm Def initio n Targ et Ro le o f Faculty Ins titutio nal Co nceptual
Member Ty pe S hif t

Activ e Faculty utilize techniques such as "the Students & Pedagogical Multiple Moves away from
Learning one minute paper, " asking students to Faculty Reformer memorization of
develop questions related to the lecture facts to using and
material being reviewed. applying
knowledge.
Co llabo rativ e Student discussion and active work with Students & Shift from “sage on Multiple New assumptions
Learning course material is emphasized. Faculty stage” to “guide on about learning
side. ” include: learning is
an active,
constructive
process, learning
depends on
context, learners
are diverse,
learning is
inherently social.

Co o perativ e The development of interpersonal skills Students, Shift from lecturer Multiple
Educatio n is as important as the learning itself; Faculty, & to facilitator
learning to cooperate is key to high Pedagogy
quality work, group process skills are
developed. Teaches students to work
well in group settings. Process directly
tied to outcome.

14
 Table:
Table: Reforms
Reforms and
and Innovations
Innovations
(continued…)
(continued…)
Innovation/Reform Definition Target Role of Faculty Institutional Conceptual Shift
Member Type

Cultural Reform aimed at helping students to Students, Shifting syllabi, Multiple

Pluralism learn and respect other cultures; also Faculty, & inclusion of
aimed at helping institutions create Institution multiple
communities where diversity is valued perspectives
and accepted. This reform is viewed as
an essential component of maintaining a
democracy, economic empowerment,
and justice.

Faculty Peer Student evaluations and program Faculty Mentor and/or Research
Review review are conducted at the Rewards mentee Universities
departmental and institutional level.

First Year/ Adding a course during the first year Curriculum Communicate Research
Senior Year and senior year, addressing, at least in expectations of University;
Seminar part, issues that are not explicitly institution Comprehensive
addressed in the formal curriculum; a
major focus of these courses is the
transitional challenges students are
likely to face.

General Central to general education reform are Institution No definitive Multiple The idea of content
Education the concepts content, coherence, and change in role relates to what
comprehensiveness. students should
know and be able
to do after
graduation.
15
 Table:
Table: Reforms
Reforms and
and Innovations
Innovations
(continued…)
(continued…)
Innovation/Reform Definition Target Role of Faculty Institutional Conceptual
Member Type Shift

K-16 Links with K-12 systems and Students & No definitive Research
Collaboratives education. Curriculum change in role Universities
Learning Learning communities evolved out of Students & Faculty take on a Multiple
Communities the concept of living and learning Faculty range of new roles
environments. What makes this reform
distinct is that it focuses more on
curricular and pedagogical changes that
enhance linking and coordinating of
curriculum and out-of-classroom
experiences.
New Wave New Wave Calculus involves multi- Students, Facilitator of group Research
Calculus level efforts including: faculty Faculty, projects and active Universities
development, assessment, Curriculum, learning
encouragement of risk taking, &
cooperative homework groups, Structures
development of community in class,
standards which emphasize problem
solving, geometric visualization, and
quantitative reasoning.
Science The emphasis on interdisciplinary Students, Shifting of the Multiple
Reforms teaching and curriculum is meant to Faculty, & curriculum toward
foster students understanding of Curriculum problem-oriented
connections between various ways of assignments and
looking at the world through different group work
disciplinary lens. There is an emphasis
on examples and process other than
simply memorizing facts.

16
 Table:
Table: Reforms
Reforms and
and Innovations
Innovations
(continued…)
(continued…)
Innovation/Reform Definition Target Role of Faculty Institutional Conceptual
Member Type Shift

Service Service-learning utilizes experience and Integrating outside Multiple

Learning practice to teach students in areas that experience into the
may be difficult to teach through classroom
abstract reasoning such as empathy.

Student Peer teaching helps students feel more Students & Teaching role is Multiple
Peer Teaching comfortable taking educational risks as Curriculum extended to
students try out ideas with each other students
rather than in front of the faculty
member initially.

Technology/Distanc Curriculum Community builder All

e Learning &
Structures

Undergraduate Undergraduates (recently shifting Students & Supervisor of Comprehensive

Research toward first and second year students) Faculty undergraduate
are involved in faculty research in a researchers
similar fashion to graduate research
assistants.
Writing Across Institutes writing in virtually all Curriculum Creating writing- Multiple
the Curriculum university courses in order to improve based class work
students' writing and critical thinking
skills

17
 Leadership
Leadership Roles/Goals
Roles/Goals
ŠŠ Key
KeyIndividuals:
Individuals:Individuals
Individualswho
whostart
startmovements,
movements,or
or
who
who“spread
“spreadthe
theword”
word”across
acrosscampuses
campuses
ŠŠ Associations:
Associations:Organizations
Organizationsthat
thatdisseminate
disseminate
information
informationabout
aboutvarious
variouseducational
educationalinnovation
innovation
movements
movements
ŠŠ Funding
Fundingagencies:
agencies:Governmental
Governmentalsources
sources(NSF
(NSFfor
for
sciences,
sciences,FIPSE
FIPSEfor
forothers)
others)that
thatprovide
providefunding,
funding,with
with
the
thegoal
goalof
ofstimulating
stimulatingfundamental
fundamentalchanges
changesininthe
the
way
wayeducation
educationisisdelivered
deliveredand
andreceived
received
ŠŠ Campuses:
Campuses:Institutions
Institutionsthat
thatstrive
striveto
tocreate
create“smaller”
“smaller”
environments,
environments,or
orunique
uniquecampus
campuscultures/identities
cultures/identities
18
 Targeted
Targeted Areas…
Areas…

ŠŠ Reform
Reform and
and innovation
innovation efforts
efforts often
often target
target
more
more than
than one
one group,
group, or
or issue:
issue:
„„ Students:
Students:Behaviors;
Behaviors;levels
levelsof
ofengagement
engagement
„„ Faculty:
Faculty:Approaches
Approachestototeaching
teachingand
andlearning
learning

ŠŠ However,
However, long-term
long-term change
change does
does not
not happen
happen
without
without fundamental
fundamental institutional
institutional change…
change…
„„ Curricula:
Curricula:Reinforcing
Reinforcingnew
newteaching/learning
teaching/learning
behaviors
behaviors
„„ Structures:
Structures:Rewards;
Rewards;physical
physicalenvironment
environment
19
 Teaching
Teaching and
and Learning
Learning
Outcomes
Outcomes

ŠŠ New
New assumptions
assumptions about
about learning
learning (e.g.,
(e.g., active
active
and
and collaborative
collaborative learning)
learning)

ŠŠ New
New regard
regard for
for teaching
teaching (e.g.
(e.g. peer
peer teaching)
teaching)

ŠŠ New
New regard
regard for
for the
the student
student (e.g.
(e.g. science
science
reform,
reform, calculus
calculus reform)
reform)

20
 The
The Role
Role of
of Faculty
Faculty
ŠŠ From
From “sage
“sage onon the
the stage”
stage” to to “guide
“guide on
on the
the
side”
side” or
or facilitator
facilitator (e.g.,
(e.g., collaborative
collaborative learning,
learning,
cooperative
cooperative education)
education)
ŠŠ Mentor
Mentor (e.g.,
(e.g., faculty
faculty peer
peer review,
review,
undergraduate
undergraduate research)
research)
ŠŠ Sharing
Sharing role
role of
of teaching/learning
teaching/learning (e.g.,
(e.g., faculty
faculty
peer
peer review,
review, student
student peer
peer teaching)
teaching)
ŠŠ No
No definite
definite change
change in in role
role (e.g.,
(e.g., general
general
education,
education, K-16
K-16 collaboratives)
collaboratives)
21
 Models
Models for
for Adoption
Adoption of
of
Innovation
Innovation

IN D IV ID U A L L E V E L
(B ennis, 1973)

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5 Stage 6

O pposition R esistance Toleration A cceptan ce S upport E m brace

R elated m odels: G ilbert, 1995; H all et al 1984, H am elink, 1984;

H avelock, 1971; R ogers, 1983.

22
 Models
Models for
for Adoption
Adoption of
of Innovation
Innovation
(continued)
(continued)

INSTITUTIONAL LEV EL
(H arvey & M iller, 1970)

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

Issue Formation of Search Choice of Redefinition
Perception G oals Solution

Related models: Fung, 1992; Hage & Aiken, 1992; Levine, 1980;
M ann & Neff, 1961; M ilo, 1971; Rogers, 1981.
23
 Examples
Examples of
of Assessment
Assessment
Practices
Practices
Student-centered

ŠŠ Value-added
Value-addedassessment
assessment
ŠŠ Portfolio
Portfolioassessment
assessment
ŠŠ Performance-based
Performance-basedassessment
assessment
ŠŠ Multiple
Multipleevaluators
evaluatorsof
ofstudent
student
performance
performance
ŠŠ Classroom
Classroomassessment
assessmenttechniques
techniques
ŠŠ Assessment
Assessment“101”
“101”(training
(trainingfor
forfaculty)
faculty)
ŠŠ Department
Department//Program
ProgramBench-marking
Bench-marking
Faculty/Department-centered
24
 Implications
Implications
for
for Institutional
Institutional Researchers
Researchers
ŠŠ Participate
Participate early
early inin the
the planning
planning process
process to to
assist
assist in
in the
the development
development of of useful
useful assessment
assessment
models
models
ŠŠ Stay
Stay abreast
abreast of of reform
reform activities
activities onon campus
campus
ŠŠ Remember
Remember that that involvement
involvement may may require
require
evaluation
evaluation of of standard
standard as as well
well as
as innovative
innovative
educational
educational practices
practices
ŠŠ Involve
Involve more
more individuals
individuals in in the
the assessment
assessment
process
process as as the
the results
results of of the
the innovation
innovation reach
reach aa
broader
broader audience
audience
25
 Implications
Implications
for
for Educational
Educational Researchers
Researchers
ŠŠ Work
Work to
to extend
extend research
research on on reform
reform and
and
innovation
innovation -- examine
examine how how such
such efforts
efforts affect
affect
undergraduate
undergraduate teaching,
teaching, learning,
learning, and
and
assessment
assessment
ŠŠ Modify
Modify existing
existing theoretical
theoretical frameworks
frameworks using
using
current
current reform
reform and
and innovation
innovation efforts
efforts as
as the
the
bases
bases for
for empirical
empirical inquiry
inquiry
ŠŠ Develop
Develop new
new theories
theories and and conceptual
conceptual
frameworks
frameworks to to guide
guide future
future reform
reform and
and
innovation
innovation efforts
efforts in
in higher
higher education
education
26
National Center for
Postsecondary Improvement

http://ncpi.stanford.edu

27