Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 3401–3408

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research on the performance of water-injection twin screw compressor

Li Jianfeng, Wu Huagen *, Wang Bingming, Xing Ziwen, Shu Pengcheng
School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Due to the development of the automotive fuel cell systems, the study on water-injection twin screw
Received 19 June 2008 compressor has been aroused again. Twin screw compressors with water injection can be used to supply
Accepted 27 May 2009 the clean compressed air for the Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell systems. In this research, a
Available online 23 June 2009
thermodynamic model of the working process of water-injection twin screw compressor was established
based on the equations of conservation of mass and energy. The effects of internal leakage and air–water
Keywords: heat transfer were taken into account simultaneously in the present mathematical model. The experi-
Twin screw compressor
ments of the performance of a prototype compressor operating under various conditions were conducted
Water injection
Performance
to verify the model. The results show that the predictions of the model are in reasonable agreement with
the experimental data.
Crown Copyright Ó 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction for transportation applications. This paper indicated that improv-

The petroleum products and other fossil fuels have brought us
utility and comfort in a variety of areas for many years. However,
because of their negative effects, such as air pollution and the glo-
bal warming connected to green house gases, their application
technology is needed to protect human health and surroundings.
Moreover, the worldwide shortage of fossil energy exists due to
the increase of global energy consumption and thus it is necessary
for us to pursue the new fuel strategies. In this view, Fuel Cell Sys-
tems (FCS) can play a crucial role. Fuel cell systems can provide an
environmentally friendly high efficiency power source which can
be used in distributed power systems, submarines, aerospace
applications and automobiles.
With the advent of the fuel cell technology, a large step is being
made to improve the efficiency of PEM fuel cell systems by many
researchers in the world [1–3]. The PEM fuel cell is now considered
to be the most promising alternative energy source for internal
combustion engines in automobiles. Rajesh et al. discussed the sta-
tus of the current fuel cell system technology relative to the DOE/
FreedomCAR targets and identified the gaps in the current technol-
ogy, and they also pointed out that the likely future advancements
in the technology that may overcome the shortage to meet the
2010 and 2015 system level targets. Their simulation results pro-
vided the quantitative estimates of the various performance and
cost parameters of the near-term and the advanced systems that
could reach the requirement set for automotive fuel cell system
development [4]. Cownden et al. presented the development and
application of a performance model for a fuel cell power system
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 29 82664845; fax: +86 29 82668724.
E-mail address: hgwu@mail.xjtu.edu.cn (H. Wu).
ing the efficiency of the inlet air compressor, recovery of the ther-
mo-mechanical energy in the stored compressed hydrogen and
reducing cooling load would improve performance of the fuel cell
power system [5]. For the application, high efficiency and high
power density of the fuel cell power system are required. Pressur-
izing the fuel cell system can enhance efficiency and power density
for the fuel cell, although it will consume a percentage of the fuel
cell power output [6]. In the pressurized air systems, the compres-
sor is a key component and its performance has great effect on the
efficiency of the PEM fuel cell systems.
Recently, different kinds of air compressors have been proposed
in order to minimize the energy consumption of the compressors
and improve the efficiency of fuel cell systems. In 2001, Galen re-
ported the performance difference of PEM fuel cell systems with
two different kinds of air compressors, the twin screw compressor
and the turbocompressor [7]. At peak fuel cell load, the efficiency
of the system with the twin screw compressor was 41.6% and
40.8% with the turbocompressor, respectively. Gee investigated a
fuel cell system and he showed the air management subsystem
which consists of a mixed-flow axial compressor, radial inflow tur-
bine and a liquid-cooled induction motor mounted on a single
shaft supported on airfoil bearings [8]. In 2005, a water injection
scroll compressor was developed and used in PEM fuel cell systems
by Zhao et al. [9]. In the paper, the performance of the scroll com-
pressor was analyzed and discussed. In 2002, Kauder and Temming
presented a full review of screw compressors in fuel cell applica-
tions which included all major design and operational aspects of
the application [10]. Hinsenkamp and Romba defined the compres-
sor and compressor–expander characteristics to meet the require-
ment of improving fuel cell system performance [11]. In 2003,
Stosic et al. developed a compressor–expander specifically for fuel

1359-4311/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright Ó 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2009.05.018
3402 J. Li et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 3401–3408

Nomenclature

A area a the hollow bubble ratio coefficient of heat transfer

c specific heat e pressure ratio
C flow coefficient gi isothermal indicated efficiency
d moisture content of air gv volumetric efficiency
h specific enthalpy v specific volume
m mass of air h male rotor rotation angle
mw mass of water q density
n rotation speed
N power consumption Subscripts
p pressure 1, 2 state point
Q quantity of heat exchange a air
r latent heat of vaporization d discharge
R gas constant i leakage in step number indicated
T temperature iso isothermal
U internal energy l liquid state
V volume m mechanical
Vmax the maximal volume o leakage out
W work s suction
x ratio of air in the air–water mixture v vapor state
Z1 tooth number of male rotor w water

cell applications and considered that the compressor efficiency 2.2. Governing equations of control volume
was a crucial element for the fuel cell overall performance [12].
Moreover, this research team spent many years to be involved in On the basis of the conservation equations of energy and mass
research on the screw compressor and expander technology continuity, the simultaneous differential equations describing the
[13–16]. The twin screw compressor is an ideal machine for the internal energy and mass of air in the control volume in terms of
pressured air system in the PEM fuel cell systems in automobiles. the rotation angle of the male rotor can be written as [17,18]:
Because of oil contamination, the oil-injection twin screw com-
dðUÞ X dmi X dmo dW dQ
pressor may be unsuitable for PEM fuel cell systems while the ¼ hi  ho þ  ð1Þ
dh dh dh dh dh
water-injection twin screw compressor has no contamination. So
dW dV
it is necessary to study the performance of twin screw compressor ¼ p ð2Þ
with water injected used in PEM fuel cell systems thoroughly.
dh dh
Because of the water injected into the twin screw compressor where W and Q are work and heat, respectively, and the heat should
which is the cooling and sealing medium, the air leakage in the be included the heat transfer between the air and the water or the
compressor decreases and a lower discharge temperature is compressor body.
achieved. This reduces power consumption of the compressor The air mass change in the control volume is given by:
and improves the efficiency of the PEM fuel cell systems. In our re- dm ¼ dmi  dmo ð3Þ
search, a water-injection twin screw compressor that used in the
PEM fuel cell systems has been developed. Moreover, a mathemat- Eqs. (1)–(3) are the governing equations of the mathematical model
ical model of working process in a water-injection twin screw which can be used to calculate pressure, temperature and other
compressor considering internal leakage and heat transfer has thermodynamic properties.
been established. In addition, the performance of a prototype twin
screw compressor has been tested by the experiment.
2.3. Leakage

In order to compensate the machining tolerance, force deflec-

2. Mathematical model of water-injection twin screw
tion and thermal expansion, clearance must exist between the
compressor
moving components. These clearances form the internal leakage
paths in the twin screw compressor, including contact line path,
2.1. Assumptions
blow-hole path, rotor tip path, suction end path and discharge
end path [17–21]. In the model presented here the leakage flow
In order to simplify the calculation, the following assumptions
through the internal leakage paths can be calculated based on
are made to establish the mathematical model of the working
the homogeneous fluid as follows [22]:
process: 8 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> C aA 2qw ðp1 p2 Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
>
> ma;w ¼
(1) The changes of gravitational and kinetic energy of air are >
> ð1xÞuþx qw =qa
>
>
negligible. > m ¼ xma;w
<
(2) In the control volume, the pressure and temperature of air mw ¼ ð1  xÞma;w
>
>
and water are homogeneous, respectively at any instant. >
> u ¼ 1:48625  9:26541ðqqwa Þ þ 44:6954ðqqwa Þ2  60:6150ðqqwa Þ3
>
>
(3) Air or air–water mixture flow through all ports is adiabatic. >
>
>
:
(4) The pressure pulsation in the suction or discharge process is 5:12966ðqqa Þ4  26:5743ðqqa Þ5
w w
neglected. ð4Þ
 J. Li et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 3401–3408 3403

where A is the area of the leakage paths, p1 is the pressure of air in Q 4 ¼ naV 2=3 ðT  T b Þ ð10Þ
the high pressure chamber and p2 is pressure of air in the low pres-
sure chamber, a is the hollow bubble ratio, C is the flow coefficient where n is the correction factor, a is the coefficient of heat transfer,
considered to be a single constant, x is the ratio between the total V2/3 denotes the area of heat transfer, V is the volume of the working
mass of air and the total mass of air–water mixture in the working chamber, T is the temperature of the working fluid, and Tb is the
chamber. temperature of the compressor body.
Thus the Q in Eq. (1) can be found from the following equation:
2.4. Heat transfer Q ¼ Q3 þ Q4 ð11Þ

As the air is compressed in the twin screw compressor, the tem-

2.5. Power and efficiency
perature of the air will increase. However, when water is injected
into the working chamber of the twin screw compressor, it will ab-
As the water is injected into the compressor, the heat is trans-
sorb the heat from the air and water injection can slow down the
ferred from the air to the water and thus the polytropic compres-
increase of the air temperature and reduce the discharge tempera-
sion process approaches isothermal compression process
ture. Thus the compression process is more close to isothermal
approximately, which can improve the performance of the twin
one, the most highly efficient compression process. The process
screw compressor to a great extent.
of heat transfer between the air and water in the working chamber
The isothermal power of the compressor is obtained by the fol-
is very complex, so the heat transfer is assumed to be a steady state
lowing equation:
process in this model.
pd
_ s ln
Niso ¼ mRT ð12Þ
2.4.1. Suction process ps
When the water is injected into the suction chamber, the heat _ is the real mass flow rate of air in the compressor.
where m
exchange between the air and water exists. Here the sufficient heat
The indicated power of the compressor can be written as:
exchange between the water and air in suction process is hypoth- Z
esized, which means that the wet air is saturated, and the temper- n
Ni ¼ z1 Vdp ð13Þ
ature and the pressure of the wet air and the water are same at the 60
end of suction and before the compression process. When the water is injected into the compressor, the additional
In this process, it is considered that there is no heat exchange power consumption is required for increasing the pressure of the
between the air–water mixture and the compressor body. So the water and vapor evaporated from the water in the compressor.
equation describing the energy balance can be written as: According to the theory of phase equilibrium, the pressure of
mh1 þ md1 hv 1 þ mw hl1 ¼ mh2 þ md2 hv 2 þ ðmw  mðd2  d1 ÞÞhl2 the water in the working chamber rises with the compression of
the wet air, and then the pressure of the water is same as the air
ð5Þ
pressure in the working chamber. Like in a water pump, the power
where h1 and h2 are the enthalpies of the air, d1 and d2 are the mois- needed to raise the pressure of the water can be obtained by the
ture contents of the air, hl1 and hl2 are the enthalpies of the satu- following equation [9]:
rated water, hv1 and hv2 are the enthalpies of the saturated water
_ w ðpd  ps Þ=qw
Nw;1 ¼ m ð14Þ
vapor.
Thus, Eq. (5) can be rewritten as: where m _ w is the mass flow rate of the water injected into the
compressor.
mca T 1 þ md1 hv 1 þ mw cw T w ¼ mca T 2 þ md2 hv 2 þ ðmw  mðd2  d1 ÞÞcw T 2
The power for increasing the pressure of vapor evaporated from
ð6Þ water in the wet air can be calculated by [9]:
where hv1 is dependent upon the air temperature at the beginning 60 X
of suction, T1, hv2 is dependent upon the air temperature after the Nw;2 ¼ Z 1 V v ;i ðpiþ1  pi Þ ð15Þ
n
mix of water and air at the end of suction, T2.
The state parameters of the air and the water at the end of suc- where Vv,i is the volume of vapor in the working chamber.
tion process can be calculated by the iterative calculation for Eq. Thus, the additional power needed to raise the pressure of the
(6). water and vapor evaporated from water can be obtained.
Nw ¼ Nw;1 þ Nw;2 ð16Þ
2.4.2. Compression process
So the power consumption for the water-injection twin screw
In this process, the wet air is also assumed to be in the saturated
compressor is expressed as:
state and its temperature is considered to be the same as that of
the water. Hence, the equations describing the heat exchange in N ¼ ðNw þ Ni Þ=gm ð17Þ
the compression process can be obtained by:
The volumetric efficiency of the compressor is defined as:
Q 1 ¼ ðmw;iþ1  mw;i Þðhv ;iþ1  hv ;i Þ ¼ ðmw;iþ1  mw;i Þ  r ð7Þ
gv ¼ V actual =V th ð18Þ
Q 2 ¼ mw;i ðhl;iþ1  hl;i Þ ¼ mw;i cw ðT iþ1  T i Þ ð8Þ
where Vactual is the actual air displacement of the compressor, which
where the subscripts i + 1 and i are the step numbers in the simula- is measured by experiment or calculated by the model. Vth is the
tion program, r is the latent heat of vaporization. theoretical air displacement of the compressor that is dependent
The total heat exchange between the water and the air is ex- on the structure parameters and the rotor profile.
pressed as: The isothermal indicated efficiency of the compressor is re-
Q3 ¼ Q1 þ Q2 ð9Þ ferred to as the degree to which the compression process ap-
proaches the isothermal compression process, i.e.,
The heat transfer between the working fluid and the compressor
body is expressed by [17] gi ¼ Niso =Ni ð19Þ
3404 J. Li et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 3401–3408
2.6. Numerical calculation
In this simulation model, the geometrical parameters such as
rotor profile, volume variation, leakage path areas, and suction
and discharge port areas are calculated by the SCCAD software
[23]. Also, the operating condition parameters are taken as input
data, such as suction temperature, suction pressure, discharge
pressure, rotor rotation speed, injected water quantity.
Step-by-step calculation starting from the end of the suction
process is used in the model. To calculate the leakage, the param-
eters of the working fluid in the control volume must be known
and thus their initial values can be determined at the beginning
of the calculation with the assumption of no leakage. During the
calculation, the parameters of the state are corrected with the
fourth-order Runge–Kutta procedure. The iteration calculation of
the model finishes until the precision for the convergence reaches
0.1%. Finally, power and efficiency of the compressor can be
achieved.
3. Experimental research
In order to verify the simulation results, a prototype water-
injection twin screw compressor was developed, as shown in
Fig. 1. A pair of synchromesh gears was designed in the compressor
in order to avoid two rotors (the male rotor and the female rotor)
to contact each other. Some sealing measures were adopted to pre-
vent from the oil leakage into the working chamber because the
synchromesh gears were lubricated by oil. Moreover, the bearings
were lubricated by grease so that the air was free from the oil con-
tamination and the compressor could supply clean air for the PEM
fuel cell systems. In the prototype, the water was designed to inject
into the suction chamber of the compressor.
In the prototype compressor, the combination of rotor tooth
numbers is 3 + 5. The main parameters of the prototype compres-
sor are listed in Table 1.
The performances of the compressor, such as air flow rate,
power consumption, various efficiencies, were measured with a
test rig shown in Fig. 2. The mixture of air and water was com-
pressed in the compressor and then discharged from the compres-
sor into a water–air separator. The air entered an air tank and its
flow rate was recorded by a flow rate measurement system. The
water flowed into a water tank and it was re-injected into the com-
pressor after being cooled and filtered in a water cooler and a
water filter, respectively. The variable rotation speed of the male
rotor was obtained by a frequency-converter. The shaft power
Fig. 1. The schematic of prototype twin screw compressor.
Table 1
Main parameters of the compressor.
Outer diameter of male rotor (mm) 140
Outer diameter of female rotor (mm) 140
Rotor length (mm) 200
Wrap angle of male rotor (°) 280
Built-in volume ratio 2
Theoretical maximum cavity volume per rotation (cm3) 696.01
and rotation speed were measured by a tacho-torquemeter with
an error less than 0.2% at full load. The pressure was monitored
by a pressure sensor with an error less than 0.3%. Several T-type
thermocouples with an uncertainty of ±0.2 °C were used to mea-
sure the temperature. The flow rate of the water injected into the
compressor was measured by an LWGY-4 type revolving flowme-
ter. Its measurement range was from 40 L/h to 250 L/h and the
accuracy was within 0.5%.
The operating conditions of the compressor in the experiment
are listed in Table 2. The performance of the compressor was mea-
sured with the speed from 2000 rpm to 3500 rpm and with the
water flow rate from 80 L/h to 200 L/h.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Effects on p–V indicator diagram
The p–V indicator diagram can show the working process of the
twin screw compressor. The change of the gas pressure in the
working chamber can be described in detail by the p–V indicator
diagram. In addition, it can display the degree of approximation
of the real working process approaching the isothermal working
process. On the basis of the present mathematical model, the p–V
indicator diagrams of the water-injection twin screw compressor
can be calculated.
The p–V indicator diagrams of the twin screw compressor with
variable water injection are shown in Fig. 3. Here, the rotation
speed of the male rotor is 3000 rpm and the range of water flow
rate is from 80 L/h to 200 L/h. The diagrams in Fig. 3 were com-
pared with two kinds of ideal processes, isothermal working pro-
cess and adiabatic working process. From the figure, it can be
seen that the pressure will decrease slightly in the compression
process with the increase of the water flow rate. The reason might
be that the heat exchange between the water and the air would in-
crease when the water flow rate rises. Consequently, the working
 J. Li et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 3401–3408 3405

P T
2
m

3 4 5
1
1. Twin screw compressor
P T
2. Air filter
9 3. Power and speed meter
P
T 8 4. Motor
7 5. Frequency-converter
6. Water-air separator
6 7. Air tank
8 m Flow meter 8. Controlling valve
9. Measurement system for air
W Power and speed meter flow rate
11
10 P Pressure sensor 10. Water tank
12 11. Water cooler
T Temperature sensor
12. Water filter

Fig. 2. The water-injection twin screw compressor test system.

Table 2
Operating conditions of the compressor.

Suction pressure (MPa) 0.098

Discharge pressure (MPa) 0.28
Suction temperature (K) 294.15
Rotation speed (rpm) 2000, 2500, 3000, 3500
Water flow rate (L/h) 80, 120, 160, 200

Fig. 4. The diagrams of compressor with variable rotation speeds.

pressor, and thus the heat exchange between the water and the air
is weakened and the pressure will increase slightly. Moreover, the
volumetric efficiency will be greater due to the rise of the rotation
speed (see Fig. 5), leading to the increase of the pressure in the
compression process.
Fig. 3. The diagrams of compressor with variable water flow rates.
4.2. Effects on the efficiencies

process of the compressor will approach the isothermal working
process further with the increase of the water flow rate, as shown
in Fig. 3. It also can be seen from the figure that the air pressure in
the adiabatic compression process is the highest because there is
no heat exchange during the process, and air pressure in the iso-
thermal compression process is the lowest owing to the existence
of full heat exchange (the air temperature is constant).
Fig. 4 shows the p–V indicator diagrams of the compressor at
different rotation speed and a volumetric water flow rate of
120 L/h. As seen from Fig. 4, the p–V indicator diagrams of working
process with water will deviate from the isothermal working pro-
cess and be close to the adiabatic working process, with the in-
crease of the rotation speed. It is likely that the water injected
into each working chamber decreases owing to the rise of the rota-
tion speed and the fixed total mass of water injected into the com-
The comparison of the theoretical and experimental volumetric
efficiencies of the twin screw compressor at different rotation
speed and the water flow rate of 120 L/h is shown in Fig. 5. It
can be observed that the volumetric efficiency of the twin screw
compressor increases with the rotation speed, but the increment
rate falls down. The change trend of volumetric efficiency obtained
from the theoretical calculation is in reasonable agreement with
the data measured. Fig. 6 shows that the volumetric efficiency will
increase with the increase of rotation speed and water flow rate.
The calculated results of isothermal indicated efficiencies of the
compressor are shown in Figs. 7 and 8. As seen from the two fig-
ures, the isothermal indicated efficiencies of the compressor at
the same rotation speed will increase with the increase of the
water flow rate. It can be explained by the fact that the increase
of the water flow rate leads to more significant heat exchange be-
3406 J. Li et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 3401–3408

This can be partly contributed to that the low volumetric efficiency

results in the decrease of the isothermal indicated efficiency at low
rotation speed although the p–V indicator diagram is close to the
isothermal p–V diagram. In addition, the worse heat exchange
causes the gradual decrease of the isothermal indicated efficiency
because the water in control volume is reduced at high rotation
speed. Hence an ideal matching between the water flow rate and
rotation speed may exist.

4.3. Effects on the power consumption

The power consumption of the compressor changes with the

different rotation speed at 120 L/h water flow rate is shown in
Fig. 9. The power consumption increases with the increase of rota-
tion speed because the mass flow rate of air increases. The differ-
ence between the calculation result and measured data is shown
in the figure. The minimum error is 3.1% and the maximum error
is 5.4%.
Fig. 5. Comparison of theoretical and experimental volumetric efficiency.
The predicated additional power required by the water injec-
tion is listed in Table 3. The water flow rate is 120 L/h. It can be
seen from Table 3 that the additional power for water injection
is less than 3.0% of the indicated power of the compressor.

Fig. 6. The volumetric efficiency changes with water flow rate and speed.

Fig. 8. The isothermal indicated efficiency of the compressor (b).

Fig. 7. The isothermal indicated efficiency of the compressor (a).

tween the water and the air (also see Fig. 3). However, as the rota-
tion speed increases, the isothermal indicated efficiency with the
same water flow rate increases first and then decreases gradually. Fig. 9. The power consumption of the compressor.
 J. Li et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 29 (2009) 3401–3408
Table 3
Additional power for water injection.
Rotation speed (rpm) 2000 3000
Indicated power for air (W) 7835 12,028
Additional power for water and vapor (W) 213.2 267.8
Ratio of additional power to indicated power (%) 2.71 2.22
4.4. Effects on the discharge temperature
The change of the measured discharge temperature of the com-
pressor with the water flow rate and rotation speed is shown in
Fig. 10. The discharge temperature decreases with the increase of
the water flow rate at the same rotation speed and increases with
the rise of the rotation speed at the same water flow rate. At the
same rotation speed, the heat exchange between the air and the
water improves as the water flow rate rises, leading to the decrease
of temperature. At the same water flow rate, the water used to cool
the air in the control volume decreases when the rotation speed is
up, which results in the increase of the discharge temperature.
Fig. 11 shows the comparison of the discharge temperature ob-
tained by the model and experiment, respectively, at 3000 rpm.
It can be seen that the maximum deviation of the discharge tem-
perature by the theoretical calculation and experimental measure-
ment is about 3.8 K.
Fig. 10. The discharge temperature of the compressor.
Fig. 11. Comparison of the discharge temperature.
3407
5. Conclusions
5000 A twin screw air compressor with water injection used for PEM
20,578 fuel cell systems has been developed. A mathematical model sim-
453.7
ulating the working process of the water injection compressor has
2.2
been established based on the conservation equations of energy
and mass continuity. The internal leakage through five paths,
air–water heat exchange and heat transfer between the working
fluid and compressor body have been considered in the model.
The performance of the prototype compressor calculated by the
model shows a reasonable agreement with that measured by the
experiment.
The results of p–V indicator diagrams calculated by the model
show that the water injection can facilitate the compression pro-
cess close to the isothermal compression process. As the water
flow rate increases, the isothermal indicated efficiency and volu-
metric efficiency will improve and the discharge temperature will
decrease. With the increase of the rotation speed, the volumetric
efficiency and discharge temperature will be greater, and the iso-
thermal indicated efficiency will increase first and then decrease.
The power consumption of the compressor has an approximate lin-
ear relationship with the rotation speed. The additional power con-
sumption for water injection exists but it is only a small portion in
the power consumption of the compressor.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank to the National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China for funding this study and publishing this paper
(No. 50806055).
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