УДК 81'37:811.

111

CHANGES IN THE SEMANTIC STRUCTURE OF THE

ADJECTIVE «GREEN»

O. Pervashova, senior lecturer, KhNAHU

Abstract. New linguistic environments of the adjective «green» and factors

conditioned their occurrence have been analyzed. New components in the semantic
structure of the adjective «green» have been identified.

Key words: denotative meaning, connotative meaning, collocation, contextual

meaning, extra-linguistic context, linguistic context, grammatical meaning, lexical
meaning, primary meaning, loss of meaning, secondary meaning, development of a
word-meaning.

Introduction The methods employed included lexicographic,

The adjective green has now come to be used in
new and often unusual linguistic environments.
Such combinations as green designs, green
driving, green technology, green power, which
are widely used in present-day texts, would have
been considered semantically incompatible and
meaningless several years ago. These
collocations usually occur in texts relating to
energy problems, economic and environmental
issues, advanced automotive technologies, and
advertising. Students often misinterpret these
expressions because they focus on the
denotative meaning of the adjective green and
are unaware of recent changes in its semantic
structure.
The object of our studies was the adjective
green in new linguistic environments.
The aim of our studies was to analyze the
present-day semantic development of the
adjective green, to identify the factors that
contributed to this event, and determine new
components in the semantic structure of the
adjective green.
The material for the studies was drawn from
texts of such periodicals as «Newsweek» (2007)
and «Scientific American» (2006-2007). We
also used the ABBYY Lingvo 11 dictionary
(2005) and the Encarta World English
Dictionary (2003).
structural, semantic, and contextual analysis.
The results of the studies could be used in
teaching English-Ukrainian translation, in
lectures on English lexicology, and in the
English language teaching in technical
institutions of higher education.
Word-meaning and its structure
There exist several concepts of a word-meaning
structure, neither of which, however, can fully
describe it, and the problem remains the subject
of debate in present-day linguistics [8].
Nevertheless, according to universally accepted
semantic theory, a word-meaning structure can
be analyzed at two levels.
At the first level, it is possible to identify the
lexical and the grammatical component in the
structure of a word-meaning [6]. The
grammatical component is the meaning of the
formal membership of the word expressed by its
grammatical forms. For example, nouns possess
the grammatical meaning of substantivity,
adjectives have the grammatical meaning of
quality, and verbs possess the grammatical
meaning of action, process or state. In English,
grammatical meaning if often revealed through
context. The lexical component of a word-
meaning reflects the concept the given word
expresses and the basic properties of the entity
this word refers to. The correlation between the
lexical and grammatical meaning in a word is
usually revealed at the syntactic level. Word-
meaning in English is more syntactically
conditioned than it is in Ukrainian or Russian
due to the analytical character of the English
language. The examples below illustrate
changes of the meaning of the verb mean when
it is followed by an infinitive and gerund.
1. To mean + Vinf. > I didn’t mean to offend
you. – Я не хотел вас обидеть.
2. To mean + Ving. > That meant changing our
plans for summer. – Это означало
изменение
наших планов на лето.
At the second level, it is possible to identify two
components within the lexical meaning: the
denotative meaning and the connotative
meaning. The denotative meaning provides a
criterion for the correct use of the word. For
instance, the denotative meaning of the word
bird is ‘feathered creature with two legs and two
wings, usually able to fly’. The denotative
meaning is associated with its referent. Referent
is an object or phenomenon, which the given
word names. The denotative meaning may have
one or several constant referents. It should be
mentioned that the denotative meaning has a
diffusive character in many adjectives and
adverbs, such as, for instance, good, bad, cheap,
expensive, slowly, quickly.
The connotative meaning is an additional
component in the lexical meaning of a word. It
conveys expressiveness, evaluativeness,
emotiveness, specific cultural peculiarities of a
community, and stylistic coloring. The
connotative meaning is relatively unstable and is
apt to vary according to culture, world-outlook,
historic period, and experience of people.
Connotative meaning is very flexible. It may be
inherent when it is a constant part of the lexical
meaning, and adherent when it appears only in a
particular context and expresses personal
emotions. In some cases (for instance, in
propaganda), the denotative meaning is
1. conditioning of burning
2. an instant of 3. a fireplace, a stove:
destructive There is a fire in the
burning: next room.
a forest fire
Fig. 1. The first type of a polysemantic word structure
subordinated to the connotative component and
is manipulated in its interests. For instance, in
the Soviet period, people who were engaged in
private business were often called частники,
irrespective of their personal qualities or the
quality of their business. The denotative
meaning of this word was overshadowed by the
negative connotation referring to selfishness and
avarice.
The structure of a polysemantic word
Polysemy is more developed in English as
compared with Ukrainian and Russian due to
monosyllabic character of English words and
predominance of root words. The more
frequently the word is used in speech, the more
meanings it can acquire in the process of the
evolution of a language.
The analysis of the semantic structure of a
polysemantic word reveals two basic types of
relationships between its elements. The example
in Fig. 1 illustrates the first type [2].
In this structure, meaning 1 holds dominance
over meanings 2, 3, 4, and 5 because it conveys
the concept in a most general way. This meaning
is called the primary meaning. Meanings 2-5 are
called secondary meanings because they are
derived from meaning 1. The primary meaning
is the first meaning listed in a dictionary under
the entry of a given word. The primary meaning
has the most generalized character, the highest
combine-ability and valency, is more frequently
used in speech and is less dependent on context
than derived meanings. Derived meanings are
transferred meanings conditioned by various
linguistic and extra-linguistic factors. They
occur in speech less frequently and are more
dependent on context.
The second type of a word polysemantic
structure is arranged on a different principle.
The example in Fig. 2 illustrates this type [2].
Fire, n.
4. the shooting of a 5. a strong feeling, passion,
gun: enthusiasm: a speech
to open fire lacking fire

deficient in some quality
Fig. 2. The second type of a polysemantic word structure
The semantic structure of the adjective dull is
represented as a set of meanings having a
common component, which denotes the
deficiency of some quality.
Contextual meaning and types of contexts
Every meaning in a language is signaled either
by the form of the word or by the context in
which it occurs. In our studies we have used the
definition according to which context is the
minimal stretch of speech necessary to signal an
individual meaning of a word [3]. It is important
to distinguish between linguistic and extra-
linguistic contexts. Linguistic context includes
lexical and grammatical contexts. In lexical
context, a particular meaning of a polysemantic
word is determined by its lexical environment.
The examples below illustrate changes of the
meaning of the noun “case” depending on its
lexical context.
It’s a rare case. – Это редкий случай.
I think it a chronic case. – Я думаю, что это
хроническое заболевание.
The court will not hear this case. – Суд не
будет заслушивать это дело.
Grammatical context can also reveal a particular
lexical meaning of a polysemantic word.
Compare, for instance, the sentences He stopped
smoking. – Он бросил курить. and He stopped
to smoke. – Он остановился, чтобы закурить.
In these sentences, the grammatical form of the
verb smoke conditions a particular meaning of
the verb stop.
Lexical and grammatical contexts are usually
interdependent. For instance, in the collocations
deadly pale and deadly tongue, the adjective
pale and the noun tongue condition not only the
lexical meaning of the word deadly, but also its
grammatical category. In English, the meaning
Dull, adj.
deficient in interest or excitement: a dull book
deficient in intellect: a dull person
deficient in light or colour: dull weather
deficient in sound: a dull sound
deficient in sharpness: a dull knife
deficient in joy: a dull horse
deficient in activity: a dull season
of a word often depends on the position of this
word in a sentence. The examples below
illustrate changes of the meaning of the word
well as conditioned by its position in a sentence:
Well, he speaks English. – Ну, он говорит по-
английски.
He speaks English well. – Он хорошо говорит
по-английски.
A particular meaning of a word can also be
determined by extra-linguistic context. For
instance, if you say on a rainy and stormy day
“What a wonderful day!” everyone will
understand that you have used the word
wonderful in the meaning of ‘nasty’, ‘bad’.
Extra-linguistic context is conditioned by the
following factors:
1. the subject matter of communication;
2. the purpose of communication;
3. the situation of communication (working,
teaching, learning, chatting, playing a game,
etc.);
4. the status of the participants (their age, sex,
mentality, cultural background, education, social
status, occupation, etc.);
5. the speakers’ attitude to the situation of
communication;
6. the speakers’ emotional state at the moment
of communication.
The development of meaning
The development of a word-meaning includes
such processes as extension of meaning,
narrowing of meaning, elevation of meaning,
degradation of meaning, and loss of meaning.
The causes of changes in a word-meaning may
be linguistic (split of polysemy, influence of
borrowings) and extra-linguistic (changes in
people’s life, discovery and invention of new
objects, phenomena, ideas, emergence of new
things).
In the process of extension of meaning, a word Continuation of table 3
comes to denote more objects, phenomena,
qualities or actions than it did earlier. As a 1 2 3
result, the word-meaning acquires either a 4. a federal law
enforcement officer who
higher degree of abstraction or a more
carries out court orders
generalized character. in a given federal
judicial district and
Table 1 Examples of extension of meaning
whose duties are similar
Word The original The present-day to those of a local
meaning meaning sheriff.
manuscript something any copy either fond fool 1. feeling love,
affection, or a strong
handwritten written by hand
liking for somebody or
or printed
something;
utopia imaginary something ideal
2. liking something, or
island and perfect, but
finding enjoyment in
unrealizable
doing it;
3. showing or
In the process of narrowing of meaning, a word characterized by
comes to denote fewer objects, phenomena, affection, love, or
qualities or actions than it did earlier. As a pleasant feelings;
result, the word-meaning acquires a more 4. unrealistic, though
specialized character. often dearly wished for.
nice foolish, pleasant
Table 2 Examples of narrowing of meaning shy

Word The original The present-day In the process of degradation, the meaning loses
meaning meaning its “respectability”, drops its “status”. Words,
corpse a human or a dead body, once respectable, may become less respectable.
animal body, especially of a
living or dead human being Table 4 Examples of elevation of meaning
deer a mammal a particular animal
distinguished by species The
the branched Word original The present-day meaning
antlers on males meaning
gossip godparent 1. conversation about
In the process of elevation, the meaning acquires personal or intimate rumors
a greater importance than it used to have. or facts, especially when
malicious;
Table 3 Examples of elevation of meaning 2. informal and chatty
conversation or writing
Word The The present-day about recent and often
original meaning personal events;
meaning 3. somebody given to
1 2 3 spreading personal or
marshal a horse 1. an officer of the intimate information about
servant highest rank in some other people.
armies and air forces; silly happy 1. lacking common sense;
2. somebody in charge 2. unworthy of serious
of or controlling an concern;
event or gathering such 3. dazed or helpless.
as a parade, ceremony,
or sports competition; The main semantic causes of the loss of
3. somebody who is the meaning are split of polysemy, borrowings, and
honoree in a parade,
homonymy. Highly polysemantic words may
and who usually rides
in a vehicle at the head
develop meanings, which in the course of time
of the lines of marchers deviate far from the central one and start their
and floats; independent linguistic life. A good example that
illustrates the process of the loss of meaning
under the influence of borrowings and split of
polysemy is the noun board. In Old English, the
word board conveyed the meaning ‘table’. It
was derived from the meaning ‘a piece of
timber’ by the association of contiguity between
an object and the material, from which it is
made. The meanings ‘a daily meals especially as
provided for pay’ and ‘an official group of
persons who direct or supervise some activity’
were derived through metonymical transference
as well, because meals are easily associated with
a table on which they are served, and European
people usually discuss their problems at table.
When the Norman-French word table was
introduced into English, the word board lost its
first meaning, and in the course of time the
semantic structure of the word board
disintegrated into independent lexical units.
Analysis of the present-day semantic
structure of the adjective green
According to ABBYY Lingvo 11 dictionary [1]
and the Encarta World English Dictionary [5]
the meaning of the adjective green includes the
following components:
0. of a color in the spectrum between yellow
and blue, like the color of grass;
0. pale and sickly-looking;
0. consisting of, covered with, or containing
green grass, plants, foliage, leaves;
0. mild, temperate (refers to climate);
0. made of vegetables having green color
(refers to food);
0. relating to protection of the environment;
0. produced in an environmentally friendly
way;
0. unripe or not mature;
0. nonhealing, persistent (refers to wound);
0. new, recent, or fresh;
0. young and lacking in experience;
0. naive;
0. unbacked, unbroken (refers to horses);
0. prancing merrily (refers to horses);
0. youthful, vigorous;
0. envious or jealous;
0. not yet tanned (refers to leather);
0. not yet fired (refers to metallurgy).
These components can be arranged into a
structure, in which meaning 1 is the primary
meaning and meanings 2 – 18 are secondary
meanings derived from the primary meaning
through metaphoric and metonymic transfer.
Our analysis has revealed numerous
collocations, in which the adjective green
conveys meanings that have not yet been
registered in dictionaries available in Ukraine.
These collocations are often used in texts
relating to energy problems, economic and
environmental issues, advanced transportation
and automotive technologies, and advertising.
Examples of collocations where the adjective
green means ‘pro-environmental’ or ‘meeting
environmental requirements’ are given below.
Examples
1. As public interest in the threat of climate
change grows in the U. S., a large number of
companies are announcing that they are going
green. … Vetrix isn’t the only bikemaker going
green. (Newsweek, March 5, 2007. – P. 38.).
2. Of course, almost all companies will be more
careful to comply with the law, and the smart
ones will design sophisticated public-relations
strategies to showcase their green creds.
(Newsweek, March 5, 2007. – P. 38.).
3. But now, many of the same banks that grew
rich financing companies’ strip mines, oil rigs
and SUV plants are advising clients that the
way to get the green is to go green.
(Newsweek, March 12, 2007. – P. 73.).
4. Several major firms have formal green
policies. (Newsweek, March 12, 2007. – P. 73.).
5. Vastly more important, it’s the hottest hybrid
on the market and provides a halo for Toyota,
making it appear to be the world’s greenest
carmaker even as it places new emphasis on
huge gas-guzzling trucks. (Newsweek, March
12, 2007. – P. 31.).
6. Green business means good business.
(Scientific American, Dec., 2006. – P. 19.).
7. Meanwhile, industry insiders say that green
consultants are begging up to $ 1,000 an hour at
large firms. (Newsweek, April 16/ 23, 2007. –
P. 56).
8. Schwarzenegger traces his green sensitivities
to his childhood in postwar Austria, where he
grew up with rationed food and electricity – and
had to haul bath water from a well. (Newsweek,
April 16/ 23, 2007. – P. 83).
9. To the green crowd Toyota is a turncoat.
…Several environmental groups have launched
a “How green is Toyota?” … Is Toyota really
committed to being green, or are they just green
scamming?” … The 48 mpg Pruis remains the
green standard. … But as friends turn into foes,
Toyota is discovering it isn’t easy being green
while going for green. (Newsweek, November
26, 2007. – P. 56).
In the following examples the adjective green
means ‘nonpolluting, pollution-free’ or
‘ecologically clean’.
Examples
1. These cars are where muscle cars meet green
cars. (Newsweek, December 25, 2006. / January
1, 2007. – P. 73).
2. Green driving. A quarter of the world’s
energy – including two thirds of the annual
production of oil – is used for transportation.
(Newsweek, January 29, 2007. – P. 43).
3. Among its (General Electric’s) targets: to
expand research on greentechnology from $700
million in 2005 to $1.5 billion by 2010.
(Newsweek, March 5, 2007. – P. 38).
4. Toyota: The Lean, Green, Profit Machine.
(Newsweek, March 12, 2007. – P. 66).
5. This time Honda won’t make the mistake of
wrapping its hybrid in the sheet metal of its
everyday cars: instead, analysts expect the new
Honda will have the larva styling the Pruis
pioneered – which now embodies the green-car
look. (Newsweek, September 3, 2007. – P. 46).
6. Will tire kickers ever swoon over Honda’s
hybrid? Only if it sends a clear message that it’s
the greenest car on the planet. (Newsweek,
September 3, 2007. – P. 47).
7. The Green-car Domino Effect. (Newsweek,
September 24, 2007. – P. 69).
8. Green power: The Lexus LS600h L hybrid
promises low emissions – and high style.
(Newsweek, October 8, 2007. – P. 71).
9. Panasonic, for example, has formed the
Panasonic Home and Environment Co., a new
US group that focuses on green technology to
improve energy efficiency in homes and the
health of the home dwellers, that latter concern
being a fairly new wrinkle in corporate energy-
saving, carbon-cutting approaches. (Scientific
American, December, 2006. – P. 19).
As seen from the examples, texts in which the
adjective green appears in new lexical contexts
relate to environmental issues, the energy crisis,
and new technological advances in automotive
industry.
The meanings of such collocations as green
design, green technology, green driving, green
power, green credentials, green carmaker, being
once identified usually do not need wider
contexts for their interpreting. Other
collocations need wider contexts to be correctly
interpreted. For instance, the expression green
car does not always mean ‘a pollution-free car’;
it may refer to a car green in color.
Conclusion
The semantic structure of the adjective green is
undergoing changes through the extension of its
meaning.
The adjective green is now widely used in new
lexical environments. Collocations like green
design, green driving, green technology, green
power regularly appear in present-day texts and
cannot be called occasional occurrences.
The new components found in the semantic
structure of the adjective green include such
meanings as ‘pro-environmental’, ‘meeting
environmental requirements’, ‘using
environmentally safe technologies’, ‘pollution-
free’, ‘ecologically clean’.
These meanings have appeared as a result of
secondary derivation. They were derived from
meanings 6, 7 (see the semantic structure of the
adjective green above).
The appearance of these components was
conditioned by extra-linguistic factors, such as
social concerns in environmental issues, the
threat of climate change, the global energy
crisis, and new technological advances in
automotive and transportation industry.
6. As a result of these changes, the adjective
green has increased its valency and
distributional potential.
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Рецензент: С.А. Федорец, доцент, к. филол.
н., НТУ «ХПИ».
Статья поступила в редакцию 6 декабря
2007 г.