AGE 300 Air Photo Interpretation and Field Course

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
Institute Of Open Learning
AGE 300:
AIR PHOTO INTERPRETATION AND
FIELD-COURSE
BY:
Prof. Chris Allan Shisanya
&
David Abel Magiya Osebe
© 2004
Table Of Contents
Table Of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 2
PART ONE
LESSON I:....................................................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION, HISTORY, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHY........................................................................................................................5
Objectives: .................................................................................................................................5
1.0 Introduction..........................................................................................................................5
1.1 History .................................................................................................................................5
1.2 Economy ............................................................................................................................12
1.3 Definition of Key Words/Concepts ...................................................................................13
LESSON II: ................................................................................................................................18
ACQUISITION AND TYPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY...........................................18
Objectives: ...............................................................................................................................18
2.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................18
2.1 TYPES OF AIR PHOTOGRAPHS ...................................................................................26
2.2 Further Reading .................................................................................................................33
LESSON III:...............................................................................................................................34
PROPERTIES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS.....................................................................34
Objectives ................................................................................................................................34
3.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................34
3.1 Photo Mosaics....................................................................................................................43
3.2 Forms in which Photography is Used ................................................................................44
LESSON IV: ...............................................................................................................................47
STEREOSCOPY........................................................................................................................47
Objectives ................................................................................................................................47
4.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................47
4.1 Procedures in Stereoscopic Viewing .................................................................................51
4.2 Further Reading .................................................................................................................53
LESSON V:.................................................................................................................................54
AIR PHOTO INTERPRETATION AND PROCEDURES ...................................................54
Objectives ................................................................................................................................54
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................54
5.2 Basic Principles of Air photo Interpretation ......................................................................54
5.3 Procedure in Photo Interpretation ......................................................................................63
5.4 Further Reading .................................................................................................................66
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PART TWO
LESSON VI: ...............................................................................................................................67

FIELD-COURSE IDENTIFICATION OF STUDY PROBLEMS, SITES, OBJECTIVES
AND HYPOTHESES.................................................................................................................67
6.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................67
6.1 Objectives ..........................................................................................................................67
6.2 Aims of Fieldcourse...........................................................................................................68
6.3 Intended Learning Outcomes.............................................................................................68
6.4 Field course content ...........................................................................................................68
6.5 Identification of field-course Study or Research Problem.................................................69
6.6 Linking Theory and Practice..............................................................................................72
6.7 Stating the Research Problem ............................................................................................72
6.8 Identification of Research Matrix (Site) ............................................................................74
6.9 The Significance of the Study............................................................................................75
6.10 The Objectives .................................................................................................................75
6.11 Hypotheses.......................................................................................................................77
6.12 Revision questions ...........................................................................................................78
6.13 Further Reading ...............................................................................................................79
LESSON VII: .............................................................................................................................80
NATURE OF DATA AND METHODS OF DATA................................................................80
ACQUISTION............................................................................................................................80
7.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................80
7.1 Objectives ..........................................................................................................................80
7.2 Introduction and Sources of Data ......................................................................................80
7.3 Aspects of Data Collection ................................................................................................81
7.4 Types of Data Collection Methods ....................................................................................81
7.5 Sample Surveys..................................................................................................................82
7.6 Probability Samples ...........................................................................................................84
7.7 Systematic Sampling..........................................................................................................85
7.8 Non-Probability Sampling .................................................................................................86
7.9 Summary ............................................................................................................................88
7.10 Further Reading ...............................................................................................................89
LESSON VIII:............................................................................................................................91
TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION.........................................................................................91
8.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................91
8.1 Objective ............................................................................................................................91
8.2 Introduction........................................................................................................................91
8.3 Questionnaire .....................................................................................................................91
8.4 The Schedule and Interview Guide....................................................................................93
8.5 Human Observers...............................................................................................................94
8.6 Mechanical Devices ...........................................................................................................96
8.7 Content Analysis................................................................................................................96
8.8 Focus Group Discussion (FGD) ........................................................................................96
8.9 Definition of Key Concepts ...............................................................................................97
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8.10 Further Reading ...............................................................................................................97
LESSON IX: ...............................................................................................................................98
MANAGEMENT OF FIELD NOTES .....................................................................................98
9.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................98
9.1 Objective ............................................................................................................................98
9.2 Field Jottings......................................................................................................................98
9.3 The Diary ...........................................................................................................................99
9.4 The Log..............................................................................................................................99
9.5 Field Notes .......................................................................................................................100
Sample One:...........................................................................................................................101
Sample Two: ..........................................................................................................................102
LESSON X:...............................................................................................................................104
WRITING OF FIELD-COURSE REPORTS .......................................................................104
Objectives ..............................................................................................................................104
10.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................104
10.1 References......................................................................................................................107
PART THREE
LESSON XI: .............................................................................................................................109

PARTICIPATION IN A ONE-WEEK ..................................................................................109
FIELD-COURSE .....................................................................................................................109
11.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................109
11.1 Participation ...................................................................................................................109
11.2 Accommodation and Catering .......................................................................................109
11.3 Safety .............................................................................................................................109
11.4 Student Involvement in Fieldtrips..................................................................................110
11.5 A Proposed Action Plan for Taking the Ideas Forward.................................................110
11.6 Problems Associated with Field Trips ...........................................................................110
11.8 Course Organisation ......................................................................................................111
11.9 References......................................................................................................................112
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PART ONE
LESSON I:
INTRODUCTION, HISTORY, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF AERIAL
PHOTOGRAPHY
Objectives:
By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

1) Define aerial photography,
2) Describe the major developments in the history aerial photography, and
3) Analyse the scope and significance of photography.
1.0 Introduction
The word photography was coined in 1839 from the Greek terms "phos" for light and
"graphs" meaning to write or draw or record. Photography is therefore nothing more than
graphic recording of light energy of different intensities. The scope of photography is now
understood to include all processes that are used to record the action of radiant energy on
different forms of matter. This definition extends the scope of photography beyond the
visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum to include both chemical and electronic
methods of recording the action of radiant energy. The term "electro-photography" is
occasionally used to distinguish between physical and chemical processes of photography.
When the word "aerial" is coupled with the term photography, it denotes that photography is
conducted from an observation point in the air and involves the use of a variety of cameras
mounted in specially modified aircrafts. Aerial photography can also be done from other
stationary or mobile airborne vessels such as balloons, kites, aeroplane, rockets, and
satellites. Aerial photography is distinguished from terrestrial photography by the fact that
the latter involves photography carried out from a point on the ground.
1.1 History
The history of photography dates back to more than one and half centuries ago. Nicephore
Niepce is credited with the invention of photographic camera thereby giving mankind the
opportunity to record vision. Although Niepce's camera dates back to 1822 (Figure 1.0), it
was not until 1858 when a camera was hauled aloft a balloon and pointed downward to take
the first "aerial" photograph. A Pevisian photographer by the name Gaspard later in 1858
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used a balloon to ascend to a height of 80 metres from where he took a 'bird's-eye-view'
photograph of Petit Bicetre village in France. After these hilarious events, balloon
photography flourished widely. Wallace (1860) is also remembered for having taken from a
balloon, the earliest existing aerial photograph over Boston. Although kites were initially
used for collecting meteorological data, they later became useful platforms from which aerial
photography could be taken. Archibald (1882) is credited for having obtained the first aerial
photography from the kites.
The aeroplane, which was invented in 1903 was not used as a camera platform until 1909
when a "biosphere" motion picture photographer accompanied Wilbur Wright to take the
very first pictures over Centocelli in Italy during one of Wright's training sessions for the
Italian naval officers. Thereafter, procurement of aerial photography became a much more
practical matter unlike in the age of kites and balloons. Photography from aircraft received
heightened attention in the interest of military reconnaissance during the First World War
when military strategists realized the potential of this medium in the acquisition of military
information. During the First World War, aerial photography became established as an
operational military reconnaissance tool.
During the two decades between First and Second World Wars, many non-military
applications of aerial photography appeared. Civil engineers were among the first people to
use aerial photography for non-military purposes when they begun using it in the early 19th
century as a means for surveying and mapping. In the United States, the U.S. Department of
Agriculture began nation-wide application of aerial photography for soil survey during the
1930s.
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Figure 1.0: The development of equipment and platforms of photography and
remote sensing operations
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George Eastman, perhaps more than any other individual, pioneered in the improvements
of photographic processes which made photography widely available to the average
person. This had however begun after World War II when specialised cameras for aerial
survey were developed for improved photography. Many of these new cameras became
operationally reliable even at extreme temperatures to which they were occasionally
subjected.
The practice of using a human interpreter to analyse photographs obtained from airborne
cameras was well established by 1940's. Further progress towards both colour and infra-
red photography greatly improved the effectiveness of aerial camera as an important
sensor of the earth surface. The first widespread use of colour infra-red film was in form
of the "camouflage detection film" which was used during World War II.
During the 1950's and early 1960's the advent of digital computerisation and modelling
together with advanced photographic processes associated with human intelligence
combined to accelerate the development of Pattern Recognition, a data analysis
technology. During the same period, significant developments were also made in the
design of sensor systems, particularly in the measurement of energy within the infra-red
wavelengths. Taken together, these advances were later to give rise to a whole new
branch of science called remote sensing.
Today, there are two major branches of aerial photography. The first branch is viewed as
being image-oriented because it capitalises on the pictorial aspects of aerial survey data
and utilises analytical methods which rely heavily on the generation of the image. The
second branch can be viewed as being numerically-oriented because it results directly
from the use of aerial photographic data in computer applications where emphasis is
placed mainly on the inherently quantitative aspects of air survey data. Such a process
involves an abstract treatment of the data collected through a variety of measurements. In
this respect, an image is not considered as data but rather as a convenient mechanism of
viewing information.
This module covers little of the numerically-oriented-aerial photography and dwells more
on image-oriented photography, which is older and more fully developed. Such
development has come about because photographic cameras which are the most common
sensors for image-oriented systems, have long been in use. This is also true for the
common aerial photo-interpretation and its analytical techniques.
Development of Aerial Surveys in Kenya
In 1947, both 82 and 13 squadrons of the Royal Air Force [RAF] commenced air survey
trial operations in Kenya. The results that emerged were extremely satisfactory. Most of
these trials organised by the then Colonial British Directorate of Air Surveys were carried
out between the months of November and March which were selected as the most suitable
flying period for Kenya when there is least cloud cover. A considerable part of this
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photography was however not of sufficiently high standards due to the fact that the whole
exercise was mainly undertaken as a training programme.
The advent of the earliest air survey as a medium for economic survey and expeditious
production of topographic maps in Kenya started in early 1950s. In 1954, two private air
survey companies were contracted to take photographs for various public and private
projects. Among the first areas to be photographed in Kenya included the city of Nairobi
where air photographs were required for planning purposes. Elsewhere, areas around
Sabuk and the south eastern parts of Embu were photographed quite early in a bid to plan
for existing irrigation schemes. Eldoret area was also photographed as early as the 1950s
mainly to facilitate implementation of the Swynnerton plan (1954). Another area which
benefited from early aerial surveys in Kenya was Mombasa where information was
required for town planning and crown land allocation for the white settlers.
By 1950s, it is estimated that the RAF Squadrons had photographed approximately 145
600 km2 or a third of the area of Kenya. Over the same period, an additional 80 000 km2
of central Kenya was photographed on a mean contact scale of 1:30 000. The bulk of this
early photography was done from Lancaster aircrafts utilising normal radar flight control.
In high ground areas of Mount Kenya, Elgon and Nyandarua [Aberdares], Mosquito
aircrafts were preferred to Lancaster because the altitude proved to be too high for the
latter.
Aerial photography in Kenya received increased attention in 1958 particularly in areas
formerly settled by European farmers where the need for 1:50 000 maps was great.
During this time, a good start was also made on basic mapping at a scale of 1:100 000 in
the sparsely inhabited north eastern parts of the country. In the late 1950s further
mapping of the country was also carried out at 1:250 000 from aerial photography mainly
in areas already covered at large scales.
In the 1970s and 1980s much of Kenya was re-photographed with the bilateral co-
operation from several western countries such as Canada, Britain, Japan and USA. The
Kenya Air Force has also managed to cover many parts of the arid and semi-arid lands of
Kenya in large scale photography.
Scope and Significance of Aerial Photography
Aerial photography provides us with two types of information: metric and semantic
information. Metric information is concerned with the position of objects on the earth's
surface. The exact position of an object is determined by measuring linear dimensions
such as distances and angles which is covered under the field of "photogrammetry."
Photogrammetry as a science is concerned with procurement of accurate and reliable

measurements of objects by means of photographs. It utilises the principles of geometry,
mathematics and physics to obtain reliable details concerning configuration of the earth
surface. This discipline is particularly concerned with the quantitative characteristics of
the terrain, notably the aspects of distance, elevation and contours. These are all derived
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from aerial photographs through stereoscopic viewing. It is through photogrammetric
analysis that most small and large scale topographic maps can accurately be made. This is
achieved using instruments that are called stereo- plotters which accommodate stereopairs
mounted in special projectors. The projector can recreate a precise model of the terrain
involved which in turn is used to plot maps without the distortions inherent in
photographs. Modern photogrammetry depends largely on computers and mathematical
modelling to solve photogrammetric problems. Such computer-mathematical procedures
constitute the field of analytical photogrammetry.
Semantic information, on the other hand, is concerned with the nature and identity of
objects. Investigations into the identity of objects imaged on aerial photography
represents the field of aerial photo-interpretation which provides the most effective way of
discovering many obscured or hidden facts about the physical world around us. In
addition, there are many other advantages namely: improved vantage point; increased
spatial resolution; geometric fidelity; permanent recording; and broadened spectral
sensitivity, among many others.
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1.1.0 Improved Vantage Point
The height of an average person standing on level ground can only see the plan view of
objects on the earth surface that are within about 15-20 m from his position. From the air,
however, an observer's field of view is tremendously increased. Depending on
atmospheric clarity as well as other factors including altitude, an observer may be able to
detect critical objects or conditions several kilometres away. Aerial photography
therefore provides a bird's eye-view of large areas which enables the observer to see
features on the earth surface in their spatial context. This permits the observer to look at
photography where such objects of interest reside, allowing completely different
information to be extracted by different people looking at the photograph. For instance,
the hydrologist may concentrate on surface water-beds, the agriculturist on soil and crop
type, the geologist on bedrock structure, the phytogeographer on vegetation zones and so
on.
1.1.1 Increased Spatial Resolution and Geometric Fidelity

With the proper selection of camera, film, and correct flight parameters, it is possible to
record more spatial detail on a photograph than can be seen with the unaided eyes. This
detail particularly becomes available to the observer by viewing the photographs under
magnification. With also proper ground reference data, accurate measurements of
positions, distances, areas, heights, volumes and slopes can be obtained easily from air
photographs. In fact, most planimetric and topographic maps are currently produced
using measurements that have been extracted from air photography.
1.1.2 Broadened Spectral Sensitivity
Human vision is spectrally limited. Photographic film on the other hand, can "see" and
record over a wavelength range about twice as broad as that of the human eye [0.3-0.9 µm
versus 0.4-0.7 µm]. In photography, invisible ultraviolet and near infra-red energy can be
detected and subsequently recorded in the form of a visible image, hence certain
phenomena can be seen that the unaided eye cannot see.
1.1.3 Permanent Recording
Aerial photographs are virtually permanent records of existing conditions. As such, these
records can be studied at leisure under office environment rather than field conditions. In
this way, a single image can be studied by a large number of end users. Air photographs
can also be conveniently compared against similar data acquired at different times so that
changes over time can be monitored easily.
One area in which the records of photography have been extensively used is the study of
soil erosion in Kenya. For example, in their book, More People Less Erosion, Gichuki
et.al. (1994) have used photographs to depict that many parts of Machakos District had
been exposed to serious soil erosion since the 1930's. They have also compared the
11
situation with photographs taken in 1950's and 1991. In the latter photography, there is no
evidence of similar magnitude of soil erosion in any part of Machakos District as shown in
the former photography.
Capability of ‘Stop Action’
Unlike the human eye, photographs provide a "Stop action" view of dynamic conditions.
For example, aerial photographs are very useful in studying dynamic phenomena such as
floods, wildlife migrations, traffic intensity in urban roads, oil spills and forest fires. By
shooting systematic periodic photographs of traffic on major urban highways from the air,
for example aerial photography can effectively be used in major large cities to study the
size, timing and location of traffic jams. This information is a vital tool in the planning of
efficient urban transport networks.
1.2 Economy
When things of interest to us are large and inaccessible, aerial photo interpretation usually
provides the answers needed in a faster, and frequently in a more accurate manner than
would be acquired on visiting such areas on the ground. This saves time and money.
1.2.1 Communication and Illustration

Photography as a means of communication should be considered as real life experiences
that are images in a mirror. It reflects its harsh realities, its brutalities or equally its
moments of tenderness and greatness. When a photograph is used for illustration, it
really saves one from writing thousands of words to describe a particular phenomenon. It
thus emphasises and confirms what could otherwise be discussed in so many words in a
textbook.
Generally, aerial photography presents other numerous opportunities from which many
users can benefit. For cartographers, air-photography provides an excellent
complementary source of information on the nature and characteristics of the Earth
surface, particularly when used together with maps. Where maps are unavailable, aerial
photographs can constitute an excellent source of alternative information. Aerial
photography is well advantaged in that it can afford to be experimental. By use of
suitably selected set of sensor platforms such as manned aircrafts, aerial photography is
much more favourable in experimenting new ideas. However, this is more difficult in the
case of satellites in which once launching is done such vessels cannot easily be retrieved.
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1.3 Definition of Key Words/Concepts
Aerial photography denotes photography conducted from an observation point in the air
and involves the use of a variety of cameras mounted in specially modified aircrafts.
Terrestrial photography involves photography carried out from a point on the ground.
Photogrammetry is a science, which deals with procurement of accurate and reliable

measurements of objects by means of photographs.
Metric Information is concerned with the position of objects on the earth's surface.
Semantic Information is concerned with the nature and identity of objects in the
photographs, and investigations into the identity of objects imaged on aerial photography
represents the field of aerial photo-interpretation which provides the most effective way
of discovering many obscured or hidden facts about the physical world around us.
Questions
1. Citing specific examples, trace the development of Aerial Photography
since the invention of a photographic camera and discuss its
significance in the exploitation and planning of resources.
2. What are the major differences between plates 1(a)-Aerial Photograph
and 1(b)-Terrestrial Photograph of Mathari valley and its environs in
Nairobi?
3. Examine Plate 1c and identify the major land uses in the aerial
photograph of 1972 of Kerio valley.
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1.4 Further Reading
Carter, D.J. (1986): Remote Sensing Source Book: A Guide to Remote

Sensing
Products, Services, Facilities, Publications and other Materials. Kogam
Page, Macanta Limited.
Fabio, V.E. (1999): “Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: More Precision,
More
Choice, More Applications.” In GeoEurope Magazine, Issue. No. 8.
Hota, K.R. ed. (1973): The Surveillant Science: Remote Sensing of the
Environment.
Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston.
Janza,
Carter, J.F; H.M. Remote
D.J. (1986): Blue andSensing
J.E. Johnston
Source(1974):
Book:Manual
A GuideoftoRemote
RemoteSensing.
Sensing
Amer.Services,
Products, Soc. Facilities, Publications and other Materials. Kogam Page,
of Photogrammetry,
Macanta Limited. Falls Church, Virginia.
Lillesand, T.M. and R.W. Kiefer (1994): Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation.
John Wiley & sons, Inc. New York.
Reich, H. (1966): The World from Above. Hills Wang, New York.
Sabina, F.T. Jr. (1978): Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretation.
W.H. Freeman
and Co., San Francisco.
14
Plate 1a: Air photograph of Nairobi’s Mathare valley and its environs
15
16
Plate 1c: A 1972 Kerio Valley image
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LESSON II:
ACQUISITION AND TYPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Objectives:

(a) Describe the acquisition of aerial photography,
(b) Understand the different types of aerial photographs.
2.0 Introduction
The acquisition of aerial photographs can be considered in two ways. Firstly, there is the
procurement of air photographs which have previously been taken. The procedures for this
will vary from country to country and are important to be known particularly with regard to
prospective users. Secondly, there is the actual process of taking air photographs in places
where they do not exist or in areas where fresh photographs are required for certain purposes.
2.0.1 Acquisition of Existing Photography

Aerial photographs presently exist for most parts of Kenya and much of this is quite suitable
for various kinds of general geographic analysis. Obtaining copies of this photography is
much cheaper than contracting new photography because once the negatives are available,
making contact prints is relatively inexpensive.
The places to start looking for available photography for any particular area in Kenya is the
Department of Survey, in the Ministry of Lands, Housing and Physical Planning, Kenya
Rangeland and Ecological Monitoring Unit [KREMU] headquarters and the Regional Centre
for Services in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing [RCSSMRS] in Nairobi. However,
the users may not be provided with required photography by Survey of Kenya without prior
clearance by the Kenya's Department of Defence in the Office of the President. This is
particularly the case when photography covers areas that are considered strategic for military
reasons and are therefore classified as "protected areas" which may not be photographed.
Much of Kenya's first photography was, however, done by the British Royal Air Force
[RAF] and thus have access to the information of the protected areas. Furthermore, most of
the planet earth today is continuously monitored by satellite systems of industrialised
countries such as LANDSAT and SPOT. The resultant imageries are freely available to users
as long as they can meet the often exorbitant costs.
2.0.2 The Reasons for a Photo Mission

a) In some cases there is no suitable photography in existence.
18
b) In other cases, special photography may be required for detailed analysis when
existing photography for example is of too small a scale or resolution to permit
identification of small objects on the ground.
c) In other instances, coverage of an area may be required using special film and filter
combinations during specific seasons of the year or certain times of the day.
d) Occasionally, it may become necessary to obtain coverage and relay current
information that is only a few hours old, as would be the case in many strategic
situations and in vital water supply and control evaluations. In all the above cases,
special photography must be obtained.
As a first step of taking air photographs, all the existing aerial photography for the area in
question if available should be examined to see whether it can be used. It is desirable to
obtain such existing coverage even if the scale is too small or is not optimum for some other
reason because studying it preferably in stereo will familiarise one with the area. Such
previous photography may also be used as a plotting base on which one can annotate changes
that may have been observed through field study or after new photography has been obtained
and interpreted.
It is important to note that not everyone will plan a photo mission but it is highly desirable
that one knows something about the process in order to work with an aerial-photo-contractor
to get exactly what is required at reasonable cost. This is exactly what Survey of Kenya does
by sending one of their employees who is conversant with the technicalities involved to
accompany the photo-pilot.
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2.0.3 Flight Planning
There are two kinds of flight planning. Analytical flight planning is usually undertaken
first with an objective of defining photographic requirements. An analyst in this stage
ensures that important ground objects exist in the area of interest and the photography
obtained will reveal them. Photo-mission flight planning is then undertaken by the
photo-pilot to make sure that he arrives at a point in space above the start of the flight
line at the right time and the correct scale and altitude and that all of the equipment is
working properly.
Some Factors to be Considered in Flight Missions

While each mission is unique, some factors are common to virtually all missions. These
include:
The extent of the study area,
Scale of the image,
Individual photo coverage,
Altitutde of the aircraft,
Flight-line alignment,
Overlaps (forward and sidelaps), and
Total number of photos required.
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Study Area
Before flight plannining, the exact extent of the study area must be defined. The study area
should be plotted on a suitable, large-scale map to clearly delineate the boundaries.
Scale
The importance of scale relates to acquisition of imagery with sufficient resolution to
accomplish the task, but the resolution should not be higher than it is needed. Note that an
increase in resolution requires an increase in scale, thereby reducing the area covered by any
one photo. This in turn increases the total number of photos required to cover the study area,
and hence increases the overall cost of the project.
Photo Coverage
Once the scale has been determined, it is possible to calculate the actual linear ground
coverage of a single photograph.
Altitude
The altitude at which the aircraft must fly depends upon the desired linear ground coverage,
the final imagery format size, and the focal length of the camera.
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Flight-line Alignmenrt
Flight lines are arranged as a series of equally spaced parallel lines. They are usually flown
in a north-south or east-west direction. Flight-line direction is usually chosen to minimise the
number of turns the aircraft must make, since turns are ‘wasted time’ in the air. Therefore,
flightlines are flown in the direction of the lingest dimension of the study area, which
corresponds to either east-west or north-south alignment (Figure 2.0).
For complete coverage of an area to be photographed, the aircraft usually flies back and forth
successively along certain well defined paths which are usually straight lines parallel to each
other. Due to this, air photographs are usually arranged in long strips called "runs" [Figure
2.0]. In Kenya, unlike countries outside the tropics the flight lines are not normally oriented
in a north-south or east-west direction. This is because the sun is always overhead and its
influence is not as great as in the temperate and polar regions. In Kenya the main
consideration is topography so that the changes in scale of the photographs are minimised.
To ensure that no gaps are left unphotographed, there is always a slight overlap along and
between the flight paths [Figure 2.1]. These are commonly referred to as "vertical or
forward, and lateral overlap or sidelap", respectively. Overlapping images are obtained by
carefully setting exposure intervals in the camera(s). Normally, there is about 60 ± 5 and 25
± 5 of vertical and lateral overlap, respectively. The successively overlapping images are
very vital if stereoscopic viewing is desired, which overrides the cost aspect of these
procedures. As the aircraft flies along the flight path at every run, the camera is programmed
to take pictures, after specific intervals of time usually operated automatically by a computer
system. In order to avoid gaps in the stereoscopic cover, it is usually necessary to ensure that
the camera is oriented in the direction or track of the aircraft.
Number of Photos per Flight Line
To calculate the number of photos required to cover a flight line, the mission planner will
need to know: (a) length of the flightline, (b) amount of overlap between adjacent stereo
photos, and (c) linear ground coverage of the photos. If the shape of the study area is not too
irregular, then all flightlines can be considered to have the same length. Their length is
determined from the scale of the base map on which the study area is plotted.
Number of Flight Lines
Computing the number of flightlines is essential in dwetermining the number of photos

necessary to cover a study area. It is generally accepted that 30% overlap between flight lines
is adequate to assure complete coverage.
There are many other factors such as film types, filters, time-of-day, season, etc., that are also
importnta considerations. The time of the day, for instance, influences the colour or tone
balance in photographic output, especially when colour film is used. More important,
however, is the sun angle, which in turn, influences shadow lengths. For some missions,
22
long shadows may be a requirement, while for others short or no shadow at all maybe be
desirable.
Occasionally, several cameras are mounted on the aircraft. The aim of this is to reduce the
financial and time costs by increasing the amount of area photographed during each run.
When one vertical camera is flanked by two obliques to give a continuous cover from
horizon to horizon at each exposure, the resulting output is referred to as trimetrogon
photography. On certain occasions, images may be desired from different wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum. These provide what is commonly referred to as multispectral
photography. This kind of photography can be achieved either by mounting several identical
cameras with different film emulsions or by using a special multispectral camera with several
identical lenses each with separate image recording from different electromagnetic spectrum
portions on a common film.
Figure 2.0: Forth and back parallel paths (runs) a pilot follows when shooting
aerial photographs.
23
Figure 2.1: (a) and (b) are forward and side overlaps, respectively. The overlaps are
also 60+-5% and 25 +-5%, respectively.
A major problem encountered during the course of taking aerial photographs from an aircraft
is the resultant aircraft vibration and irregular movement which naturally affect the
photographic output. To reduce this, cameras are usually mounted on special vibration free
shock absorbers while the auto-pilot helps stabilise the aircraft. Among the factors which can
limit the resolution of the camera system are; the lens and film resolutions and the optical
quality of any filter or window placed in front of the camera lens. Apart from these, the
photographic camera normally presents several shortcomings.
Firstly, exposures may only be possible in day-time, when clouds may obscure information
and therefore limit ground detail. Secondly, photographic film once used cannot be easily re-
used and thirdly, on board image processing is usually curtailed by increased weight
problems. Thus, a direct transfer of information from a sensor platform to the ground though
very vital becomes a difficult task to achieve.
24
Despite the limitations, photographic cameras are an advantage in aerial photography
because they provide a large information storage capacity and have high ground resolution
and sensitivity. Photographic cameras if used properly also manifest a high level of
reliability.
Aircrafts and helicopters have been in use for about approximately one century now as
mobile sensor platforms from where aerial photography is undertaken. They can be used at
low and medium altitudes of between 1500 m and 3000 m. Photo missions at both low and
medium altitudes are appropriate for surveys of local and to a certain extent, regional
interest. Needless to say, aircraft platforms offer an economical way of testing new
photographic systems. Apart from aircrafts, aerial photography as we have already seen has
also been carried out from other sensor platforms in the past namely; balloons, rockets and
kites . The original tethered balloon has in the modern times been replaced with the free
flying type which can carry photographic equipment to altitudes of up to 30 km. Apart from
cameras, such balloons are usually stocked before flight with items such as multispectral
photometer, power supply units and remote control apparatus. The return to the ground is
normally achieved by parachute after a remotely controlled blow-up of the balloon. Apart
from balloons, aerial photography can also be obtained from rockets such as the Skyluck
Earth Resource Rocket. Such rockets are usually fired from a mobile launcher to altitudes of
between 90 km and 400 km from where crew members can scan a 360o field of view.
After the shooting of aerial photographs, the film has got to be processed into pictures.
Photographic processing is either black and white or colour processing technology.
Panchromatic films which are sensitive in wavelengths of 0.4 µm up to 0.7 µm must be
developed in complete darkness. The procedure entails the following steps (Lillesand and
Kiefer, 1992: 46-47):
1. Developing. The exposed film is first immersed in a developer solution. Developers
are selective, alkaline reducing agents. They are selective in the sense that they
reduce the silver of the exposed halide grains in an emulsion from a molecular ionic
state to a pure atomic state. Because silver in the atomic state is black, there is
proportionate correspondence of image darkness on the negative with object
brightness in the scene photographed. This correspondence manifests itself in form of
shades of gray comprising the developed image.
2. Stop bath. After images have been developed to the desired degree, the developing
action is stopped by immersing the film in an acidic solution called stop bath. The
stop bath neutralises the alkaline developer solution, thereby stopping the
development process.
3. Fixing. In the third step of the process , the film is placed in a fixer solution. The
function of the fixing bath is to remove the unexposed silver halide grains from the
emulsion, to harden the emulsion and render it chemically stable. Depending on the
film and process involved, steps 2 and 3 are often combined into one operation.
4. Washing. In this step, clean running water is used to wash the film to render it free of
any chemical residues that would degrade the image. Chemical agents are often added
to the wash to speed up the washing process.
25
5. Drying. The final step in the process is that of drying. Either through air drying in a
dust-free environment or through drying in a heated dryer, water is removed from the
process material.
During photo processing, control of film density is usually achieved by removing silver from the
negative through a"reduction" method whereby ammonium and potassium persulphates are
commonly used as reducers. Common phases in colour processing technology include dyeing,
colour balancing and photo reproduction.
2.1 TYPES OF AIR PHOTOGRAPHS
Several types of aerial photographs can be distinguished on the basis of a variety of

classificatory approaches out of which the geometric classification is by far the most
common. Classification can also be achieved genetically, spectrally or on the basis of scale
variations [Figure 2.3]. The geometric classification is simply based on the direction in
which the camera was pointed at the time a picture was taken. Under the geometric
classification, two major types of aerial photographs are usually distinguished depending on
the angle of camera inclination from the ground surface.
2.1.1 Vertical Aerial Photographs
Vertical air photographs are those which are taken with the camera mounted on the aircraft
such that the camera axis is pointing directly towards the centre of the earth. In other words,
the optical axis of the camera is perpendicular to the ground at 90o [Figure 2.4].
26
Figure 2.3: Types of aerial photographs according to genetic, geometric, spectral
and scale classificatory approaches.
27
True vertical photographs are produced when the axis of the camera at the moment of
exposure is exactly vertical at 90o to the centre of the earth. However, vertical photographs
are usually tilted slightly such that the axis of the camera is no more than 3o from the vertical.
The majority of aerial photographs fall into the latter category of slightly tilted vertical
photographs. Vertical photography is the most common type of aerial photographs and the
one frequently used in aerial photographic interpretation.
Figure 2.4: Vertical aerial photography: The photo plot is square when photography is
truly vertical
28
2.1.2 Oblique Aerial Photographs
Oblique aerial photography is achieved with the camera inclined at an angle from the ground.
In other words, the optical axis of the camera is pointed in another direction other than the
centre of the earth. Normally, the axis of the camera is deliberately tilted between 3 and 90o
from the vertical. Depending on the angle of camera inclination, two types of oblique
photographs can be realised; low and high angle oblique air photographs.
[a] Low-Angle Oblique Photographs

Low angle oblique photographs are taken with the optical axis of the camera inclined at a
small angle of approximately 30o from the centre of the earth [Figure 2.5]. Thus under
this kind of photography, the camera points steeply downwards and the resulting images
will not include features in the horizon of the earth.
[b] High-Angle Oblique Photographs

High-angle oblique photographs are taken with the camera's optical axis inclined at a
much larger angle of approximately 60o from the centre of the earth [Figure 2.6]. This
photography is taken to include the horizon regardless of the altitude from which it is
done. Incidentally, terrestrial photographs are usually obliques or horizontals where the
axis of the camera is tilted about 90o from the vertical axis.
The presentation format of most aerial photographs is square although some may be
rectangular depending on the camera used. However, the portion of the ground that is
covered by an aerial photograph is square or rectangular only if the photograph is
perfectly vertical and the ground is level.
[i] Advantages of Vertical Photographs

a) The scale of a vertical photograph compared to an oblique photograph is
relatively more constant.
29
Figure 2.5 (a) and (b) are low-angle and high-angle oblique aerial photography,
respectively. The ground plot pictured is irregular of a four-sided-polygon, trapezoid.
30
This makes it possible to provide more accurate measurements from the photograph because
objects such as buildings and hills will not mask other objects as much as they would on
oblique air photos.
b) It is easier and more accurate to measure direction on vertical than an oblique

photographs. Approximate direction determination can be performed on a vertical
photograph in much the same manner as on a map.
c) Within certain limitations, a vertical aerial photograph can be used as a map
substitute by simply adding a grid system and marginal data.
d) Stereoscopic study is also more effective.
e) Apart from providing a good view of any piece of country particularly in areas of
high relief, vertical air photography are very useful when a transfer of information
into a map is required. Contour lines in maps, for example, can be plotted from
vertical air photographs quite accurately.
[ii] Disadvantages of Vertical Air Photographs

a) Vertical air photographs present the land surface from a comparatively unfamiliar
angle, with an appearance similar to that of a pictorial map. Unless shadows are
present to accentuate relief features, the picture looks very flat.
b) Vertical photographs are more expensive to take than the oblique photos.Vertical
photographs usually cost about four times the cost of air oblique photographs.
[iii] Advantages of Oblique Photographs

a) An oblique photograph includes many times, the area covered by a vertical photograph
taken from the same altitude with the same focal length lens.
b) Where cloud layers frequently covers an area making vertical photography impossible,
there may be enough clearance for oblique coverage.
c) In oblique photographs, the view is more natural because the profile view is similar to
that of an observer located on a hill or high tower. This makes man-made objects such as
bridges, buildings, and towers more recognisable because the silhouettes they make are
very visible.
d) Some objects are not visible on vertical photographs because they are concealed from
above. This includes features such as caves or objects under the edge of a forest cover.
f) Oblique photography is well suited for periodic surveys and are easier to
interpret.
[iv] Disadvantages of Oblique Photographs
31
a) Oblique photographs present less background details. This is because of the declining
scale from the foreground to the background.
b) Some important details in the background maybe hidden by higher relief features in the
foreground so that they appear as "dead ground".
c) Oblique photographs are not widely used for mapping purposes because of difficulties
involved in rectifying the scale into a uniform one.
Under the genetic classification of aerial photographs, types of photographs are described on the
basis of the reasons for which they were taken. This classification aids users because aerial
photography that has been conducted for a specific purpose, usually has been flown to rather
strict standards so that there is less possibility of quality variation outside a limited range. Under
genetic classification, reconnaissance photography, for example, includes nearly all the
photography conducted for general research purposes. On the other hand, mapping photography
includes all aerial photography conducted specifically for mapping purposes.
In contrast to genetic classification, spectral classification is based on the region of the

electromagnetic spectrum in which the energy that was exposed to film existed at the time and
under conditions of the exposure. Under this classification several types of aerial photographs
can be identified including black and white colour and infra-red photography which has already
been discussed in Chapter One. Scale classification simply classifies aerial photography on the
basis of scale variations. Thus we can identify both small and large scale photography which is
considered in greater detail in the ensuing lesson.
Questions
(a) Why is it always good to take aerial photography of a large scale?
(b) Assume that you are a resource analyst with an environmental
consultant firm. You are required to undertake an aerial mapping
of the Mount Kenya ecosystem. Explain the major considerations
you have to make in preparation for the exercise.
(c) What are the advantages of vertical air photograph over oblique air
photography?
32
2.2 Further Reading
Carter, D.J. (1986): Remote Sensing Source Book: A Guide to Remote Sensing
Products, Services, Facilities, Publications and other Materials. Kogam
Page, Macanta Limited.
Lillesand, T.M. and R.W. Kiefer (1994): Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation.
Sabina, F.T. Jr. (1978): Remote Sensing Principles and Interpretation. W.H.
Freeman and Co., San Francisco.
33
LESSON III:
PROPERTIES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
Objectives

(a) Describe the marginal information on the photograph,
(b) Understand methods of calculating the photoscale
(c) Describethe distortions and displacements in photographs, and
(d) Uinderstand the forms in which photography is used.
3.0 Introduction
Air photographs represent an enormous concentration of information. The user must

however be conversant with a number of important properties to assist particularly in the
process of photo interpretation. During the processing of aerial film in the laboratory, certain
important information is printed on each photograph. In Kenya, the printed information is
usually on the edge, corresponding with flight lines which are dependent on the topography
of the area being photographed. It is important that the interpreter knows what system was
used for the photography.
On the first photograph of each run part or all of the following information is usually
provided: Date, flying height above mean sea level, focal length of the lens, time, project
symbol for identification purposes, flight strip number and strip exposure time. Many
projects use the film roll number instead of the flight strip number and may print the
approximate photo scale instead of the flying height above mean sea level. Printing the scale
of photographs of mountainous terrain can be very misleading to the untrained interpreter
because the photo scale changes significantly between and within photographs.
Many cameras are designed to provide similar or additional information as listed above in a
different way. Some cameras within the aircraft may photograph different parameter details
for each exposure and provide this information on one edge of the photograph in the form of
dials. These dials may consist of the following: a circular level bubble to indicate tilt, a
clock showing the exact time including a second hand, an altimeter reading and an exposure
counter. Plate 3.0 shows the position of these details which are described below:
34
3.0.1 Fiducial Marks
These are optically projected fine crosses, or dots, or half arrows, or other geometric marks
located either in the corner or on the sides of the air photograph. They are usually four on
each photo but sometimes there can be up to eight fiducial marks on the sides and corners of
a photograph depending on the type of aerial camera used. These fiducial marks are
reference marks which aid in the determination of the geometric centre of a single aerial
photograph. On the one hand, there is x axis which represents the line on the photograph that
falls between opposite side of fiducial marks. This line must nearly parallel the direction of
flight. On the other hand, there is y-axis which is the line on the photograph between
opposite side of fiducial marks which is perpendicular to the x-axis and most nearly
perpendicular to the line of flight [Plate 3.0 and Figure 3.1].
3.0.2 Principal Points
Each aerial photograph has got a point called principal point where images are most clear.
This point is defined as the point where a line drawn through the centre of the lens at 90o
meets the film. This line, the centre line of the camera and a principal point therefore
represents the centre of the photograph. The point provides the geometric centre of the
photograph and is assumed to coincide with the intersection of x and y axis. The principal
point can be located on a single photograph by joining lines drawn between opposite pairs of
fiducial marks [Figure 3.1]
As we have already seen, perfect vertical aerial photographs are rare to get. Due to this, two
other photo centres can usually be identified in addition to principal point on air photographs.
These points are nadir and isocentre which are of concern mainly to the photogrammetrist
because different types of distortion and displacement radiate from each of these centres.
35
Plate 3.0 Printed information on the aerial photograph: fiducial marks, principal
point, time, date, flight height above mean sea level, focal length, circular level
bubble, project symbol for identification purposes, and coordinates for a single
aerial photograph.
36
The nadir is the point vertically beneath the camera centre at the time of exposure where a
plumb-line extended from the camera lens to the ground intersects the photo image [Figure
3.1].
The point on the photograph that falls on a line halfway between the principal point and the
nadir is called the isocentre [Figure 3.1]. This represents the point from which tilt
displacement radiates. On a true vertical aerial photograph, the principal point, isocentre and
nadir all coincide at the geometric centre of the photograph as defined by the intersection of
lines drawn between opposite fiducial or collimating marks. These points control image
distortion and displacement on aerial photographs.
Figure 3.1: Relative location of principal point, isocentre, and nadir of a slightly tilted
aerial vertical photography. The three points meet at the geometric centre (principal point)
in a truly vertical photography.
37
38
3.0.3 Photo Scale
Photo scale refers to the size of an image on an air photograph as compared with the actual
size of the object on the ground. The amount of detail shown in an aerial photograph
depends among other things on its scale Scales in aerial photographs are varied but for East
African photography they mostly range between 1:10 000 and 1:50 000. The scales of
around 1:10 000 are classified as large while photography done with scales of around 1:50
000 are referred to as small scale photography.
There are two kinds of scale: relative scale and absolute scale. The former is estimated
through visual comparison of unknown objects with known features, whereas the latter is
either calculated or measured. Most measurement from aerial photographs require an
accurate absolute-scale measurement.
[i] Methods of Determining Photo Scale

If the scale of the photograph is not known, it may be determined using one of the following
three methods described below:
Using focal length and altitude,
Using known objects, or
Using maps.
39
(a) Computing PhotoScale Using Focal Length and Alttitude
There is a direct relationship between the camera’s focal length and the aircraft
altitude above the scene being photographed. Figure 3.2 illustrates this relationship.
The scale of the photograph is thus calculated using the equation:
Photo scale [Ps] = F
H-h
Where:
F= Focal length of camera lens

H= Altitude of aircraft or flight height above scene
h= mean approximate altitude above sea level for
the area. In this method, when h is zero or negligible, then the
formula only considers F and H.
Focal length and altituide must be expressed in the same unit of measurement, such
as millimetres.
film
Focal
Altitude above
the scene
ground coverage
40
Figure 3.2 Relationship of focal length to photoscale.
(b) Computing PhotoScale Using Known Objects

Photoscale can also be calculated from objects of known size that appear on the
photograph. A known object might be a standard quarter-mile track of a football
field. Each of these objects has precise, standard dimensions. Therefore, if any of
these features appears on a photograph, it can be accurately measured usually with
a linear micrometer), and the scale of the photograph determined. The scale using
representative fraction (RF) is thus computed:
RF = pd
gc
Where:
RF = Representative fraction
pd = photo distance of known object, and
gc = linear ground coverage of known object.
(c) Computing PhotoScale Using Maps

There are instances when no object of known size exists on the photograph. However
if a map of the same area shows identifiable featuresthat exist on the photo, for
exapmleroad intersections, ponds, bridges, etc., it is possibleto compute the scale of
the photo.
Begin by locating two features on the photograph that are as far apart as possible, and
which are identiable on the map. Measure the distance between the pointson the
photo. This value is the photo distance (Pd). Now, measure the map distance between
the two same points. Convert this distance to ground coverage (gc), using the map
scale. Remember pd and gc must be in the same unit of measurement. Calculate the
RF by comparing the measured distance between two points on the photograph with
the distance separating them as estimated from the ground or from a map of the same
area. From this information, the scale can be computed simply as a ratio of the photo
distance to the ground distance as follows:
Photo scale [Ps] = Map distance [Md] X Map Scale Factor[MSF]
Photo distance [Pd]
gc = Md x MSF.
41
From this method, different sets of points on the photograph, map and the ground will
normally yield different scales due to photographic distortions particularly in places
of high relief. In such areas, objects closer to the camera will appear larger than
distant ones.
Due to these problems of scale variations, we usually adopt a different method to
estimate photo scale. This method is dependent on the focal length of the camera lens
and the flight height at which the photography vessel was flying at the time of
exposure[Figure 3.2]. This method is particularly accurate when photography is
taken over a flat ground.
[ii] Scale Distortions

The shapes of objects in aerial photographs are usually distorted slightly particularly
for oblique photography due to the tilt of the camera. Naturally, the scale of a
photograph for any given point on the terrain is a factor of vertical distance between
the camera and different points in the terrain. If the terrain is flat, then the
photograph has a constant scale at all points. However, photographs taken over a
terrain of varying surface configuration will show a continuous range of scales
associated to variation in elevation. As a rule of thumb, all points on an aerial
photograph are usually displaced radially inwards and outwards from the isocentre.
Photo scale variation causes geometric distortion whereby points on a photograph

taken over varying terrain are displaced from their true map position. A photograph
can therefore be taken to represent a distorted perspective of the ground surface.
On a photograph, areas of varying terrain, high-lying areas in terms of altitude lie

closer to the camera at the time of exposure and will therefore appear larger than those
areas lying at lower elevations [Figure 3.3]. Further, the tops of objects will always be
displaced from their bases in a phenomenon which is commonly referred to as "relief
reversal". As a result of this phenomenon, any object standing above the terrain tends
to lean away radially from the centre or principal point of a photograph.
42
Figure 3.3: Scales of vertical photographs changing constantly with variations in
land elevation.
3.1 Photo Mosaics
A photo mosaic refers to an assembly of individual aerial photographs fitted together

systematically to form a composite view of an entire area covered by all the photographs
The mosaic therefore presents an appearance of a single large photograph which provides a
complete record of the area photographed. Photo mosaics are vital when we are dealing with
large areas that cannot be covered in a single photographic print. Three major types of photo
mosaics can be recognized namely: controlled, scale-ratio and uncontrolled photo mosaics.
Controlled photo mosaic is obtained when an assembly of aerial photographic prints is

rectified to facilitate continuous matching of detail along an established control grid system.
In controlled photo mosaics, all ground points are located at their true horizontal
measurements and are fairly accurate because they usually allow for distortions accruing
from variations in surface configuration.
The scale-ratio mosaic represents an assembly of photo prints which have been projected to
a common scale using map information. The representation of horizontal distances in such
mosaics is usually not very accurate. In the uncontrolled mosaic, we simply have a photo lay
down where all aerial photographs from an area are assembled to form a pictorial
representation of the ground by merely matching continuous photographs. Uncontrolled
43
photo mosaics usually represent horizontal measurements in a highly approximate manner
and they can only be used for very rough comparisons.
Photo mosaics are very useful as detailed base maps for research organization particularly at
the reconnaissance or preliminary phases. They provide a detailed two dimensional view of
large areas with some good degree of accuracy. When photo mosaics are used, we get a
more complete regional picture which is otherwise lacking in individual separate prints. The
one major drawback of photo mosaics is that they cannot be viewed stereoscopically because
two mosaics cannot be examined under a stereoscope to give the three dimensional
impression.
3.2 Forms in which Photography is Used
Aerial photographs are used as "contact prints" either on paper or on transparent bases. The
prints may also be in "ratioed" or "rectified" forms or simply enlarged or reduced.
3.2.1 Paper Prints
These are prints made directly from the negatives with the use of projector and which are at
the same scale as the negative except for paper shrinkage. Provided the photography is
adequate, such prints are well suited for most uses and are, of course, the least expensive
type of print available. They are of convenient size to handle in the field and to study under
pocket stereoscope.
3.2.2 Positive Transparencies
They are prints made on film, glass or on other transparent material which may be viewed
with transmitted rather than reflected light and usually depict finer detail and sharper
definition than paper prints. They are recommended for use whenever maximum amount of
data is required from the photographs. They are normally viewed conveniently over home
made light table fitted with a translucent surface.
3.2.3 Ratioed Prints
These are prints which have been photographically enlarged or reduced to a common scale.
This is done in order to eliminate variations in the flying height of the plane and in the
elevation of the ground which differ tremendously in even a single flight run.
44
3.2.4 Rectified Prints
These are photographs which have been corrected to a horizontal reference plane. Generally,
all photographs are taken with camera axis slightly tilted because a perfect vertical position
can hardly be obtained in a moving and vibrating aeroplane. The circular level bubbles
(gyroscopes) and the existing devices have not been developed to the point where truly
vertical photographs can be consistently taken.
When the amount of the tilt is known, rectified prints are made by recreating an appropriate
tilt between the negative and the printing paper. The amount of this tilt is determined by the
ground measurements and mathematical analysis and this makes preparation of rectified
prints a relatively expensive exercise.
Questions
1. An aerial camera with a focal length lens of 150mm was used to shoot photographs of
Kahawa Village at a height of 1000m above the ground. The altitude of Kahawa
village is 1400m above sea level. The same camera was employed to shoot
photographs of a Nairobi highway. One stereopair of the photographs covering two
major traffic circles, X and Y along the highway was 100mm. The distance between X
and Y on the topographic map is 50mm and the scale is 1cm represents 500m on the
ground:
a) Compute the photoscales of Kahawa village and the Nairobi highway stereopairs.
b) In which category of photoscale classification do the two photogrphies fall?
c) Examine the usefulness of the methods used to compute each of the two scales.
2. Two parallel lines A and B on a stereopair measure 100mm and 80mm, respectively.
On
the topographic map (1:20000) of the two lines measure 200mm and 180mm,
respectively:
a) Calculate the average scale of the photostereopair.
c) Describe the classification category in which the photoscale falls.
3. During photo-processing, the following information is usually printed on the
photograph:
(a) Circular Air Bubble (b) Fiducial Marks (c) Principal Point (d) Nadir, and (e) Isocentre.
Sketch a plan of an ‘air-photo’ and describe the significance of the above marginal
information.
45
3.7 Further Reading
Environment. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston.
Janza, J.F; H.M. Blue and J.E. Johnston (1974): Manual of Remote Sensing. Amer.
Soc. of Photogrammetry, Falls Church, Virginia.
46
LESSON IV:
STEREOSCOPY
Objectives

(a) Describe stereoscopy, and
(b) Understand procedures of viewing stereoscopy.
4.0 Introduction
Stereoscopy is the science that deals with three dimensional effects and the methods by
which these effects are produced. When we look at objects with our two eyes, we normally
perceive two slightly different views which when fused physiologically by the brain results in
a sensation of seeing a mode having three dimensions. This third dimension is only provided
when objects are viewed with both eyes through what is commonly referred to as binocular or
stereoscopic vision. Aerial photographs present a very low degree of 3-dimensional
impression as is possessed by almost all the features they represent. This 3-dimensional
impression can be achieved through stereoscopic viewing.
Stereoscopic vision is achieved when we offer each of our eyes a photograph of an object
taken from two different points. We therefore view two images of the same scene but from
different angles using instruments called stereoscopes. Stereoscopes are binocular optical
instruments which assist the observer to view an object simultaneously from two different
perspectives as in two photographs taken from two camera stations in two properly oriented
photographs or diagrams to obtain the mental impression of a three-dimensional model. In
stereoscopic vision, use is usually made of two adjacent and overlapping scenes of aerial
photographs which are otherwise known as stero-pairs.
There are two main types of stereoscopes: pocket lens and mirror stereoscopes. Lens
stereoscopes utilize a pair of simple magnifying glasses held together by a simple frame to
keep the eyes working independently and to keep their lines of sight approximately parallel.
Most lens stereoscopes have a magnifying power of two to three times. The primary
drawback of lens stereoscopes is that only one third to one half of standard print overlap can
be studied stereoscopically at one time [Figure 4.1].
47
The other type is the mirror stereoscope which provides a view of the entire overlap zone
through a system of prisms or first surface parallel mirrors. Most basic models afford a small
magnification although higher magnification of up to eight times can easily be achieved with
binocular attachments which are available as options. The greater the enlargements, however,
the smaller the field of view [Figure 4.2].
Theoretically speaking, stereoscopic vision operates much more like the human eye and
depends on the observer's ability to resolve parallax differences between near and far images
or parts of images. Parallax is the apparent displacement of the position of a body with
respect to a reference point or system, caused by a shift in the point of observation. In
stereoscopic vision, each eye presents to the brain a separate image. The brain then organizes
a 3-dimensional image from differences in the two images provided. Plate 4.0 demonstrates a
stereopair that has been arranged and a three dimension photo image can be seen by looking
through the binocular lenses of the mirror stereoscope.
True binocular stereoscopic vision is known as stereopsis and depends on the observer's
capacity to resolve varying amounts of parallax. The observer's eyes, both fixed on the same
point of an object provide two points of observation. These two views are fused together in
the brain such that they appear to form a single image in three-dimensions. The brain's ability
to convert parallax differences and provide proper perception of depth depends on the ability
of the right eye to see objects from the right side and of the left eye to observe the same
objects from the left side. If this order is reversed as it is when the relative positions of aerial
photographs are reversed the stereo depth that is seen is also reversed. When this is done,
close objects appear farther away and objects farther away appear closer.
48
Figure 4.1: Lens (pocket) stereoscope held together by a simple frame to keep the eyes
work independently.
49
Figure 4.2: Formation of a three- dimensional image in a mirror stereoscope.
This phenomenon is called pseudo-stereo. In pseudo-stereo, ups and downs are reversed such
that valleys appear as ridges while hills appear as depressions in a phenomenon referred to as
relief reversal. If an interpreter is looking for holes in the ground such as a military tactical
interpreter looking for foxholes by use of pseudo-stereo, he can make them stand up out of the
ground so that they appear like small hills.
When aerial photographs are being studied, greater appreciation of depth is usually achieved
when photographs are positioned so that image shadows fall towards the observer. This is
true in stereo study but is much more important when single photographs are being studied.
50
4.1 Procedures in Stereoscopic Viewing
4.2.1 Rapid Adjustment
1) Place the photographs approximately in position under the stereoscopes by estimation.

The overlapping parts of the photographs must be next to each other. The shadows
visible on the photographs must fall towards the observer.
2) Place right and left hand index fingers on corresponding points on right and left hand
photographs respectively.
3) While viewing through the stereoscope, slowly move the photographs with each hand
until the two fingers merge. Now the fingers can be removed from the points.
4) Adjust the photographs by slight rotation or linear motion so that stereoscopic imagery is
visible in the whole field of view.
5) Tape down the photos by using the sellotape to hold the stereopairs in a fixed position.
4.2.2 Careful Adjustments
1) Place the photographs under the stereoscope with the overlapping parts of the two photos
next to each other. The shadows visible on the photos must fall towards the observer
[Figure 4.3].
2) Locate and mark the principal points [N1 and N2] on the air photographs. This is done
by aligning opposite sets of fiducial marks with straight edge.
3) Transfer the principal points of the two overlapping photos and mark them [M1 and M2).
By connecting the principal points we have the flight line.
4) Lay a straight edge along both photos and arrange the stereo pair in such a way that the
points N1:N2; M1:M2 are lined up in one straight line. Now the flight line of the left
hand photo is in one line with the flight line of the right hand photos. The distance
between N1 and N2 or M1 and M2 must be about the same as the stereo base of the
stereoscope to be used. In a case of a top coir mirror stereoscope, this distance is about
26 cm. Tape down the left hand photo.
5) Now the mirror stereoscope is placed over the stereopair in such a way that the line
joining the centres at the stereoscopic lenses is parallel to the flight line.
6) Although the photos should be seen 3-dimensionally now, a little adjustment in distance
between the photos may still be necessary. The right-hand photo can therefore be moved
sideways [inwards or outwards] until the spacing between corresponding images
produces a comfortable stereoscopic viewing.
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7) Tape down the right hand photograph.
It must be noted here that accurate and comfortable stereoscopic viewing requires that the
eye base, the line between the eyes joining the centres of the stereoscopic lenses, the
instrument base and the photo base [flight line] be parallel. All parts of the stereo model can
be observed by moving the stereoscopes while maintaining this parallelism. Objects such as
automobiles, and boats that change positions between exposure, cannot be viewed
stereoscopically.
Figure 4.3: Careful adjustments of air photographs for stereoscopic viewing.
(a) marking the principal points M1 and M2.

(b) drawing the flightlineby connecting the principal points and the transferred principal
points.
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(c) aligning the flightline of the left hand photograph and the righthand photograph and
adjusting the distance between M1 and M1' or M2 and M2' according to the stereobase of
the used stereoscope.
Questions
1 (a) What is the significance of stereoscopy?
(b) Briefly describe two main types of stereoscopes.
4.2 Further Reading
Rabenhorst, T.D. and P.D. McDermott (1989): Applied Cartography: Introduction
to Remote Sensing. Merrill Publishing Company, Ohio.
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LESSON V:
AIR PHOTO INTERPRETATION AND PROCEDURES
Objectives
By the end of this lesson, students should be able:

(a) Understand principles of air-photo-interpretation, and
(b) Describe major procedures of air photo-interpretation.
5.1 Introduction
Air photo interpretation can be defined as the act of identifying objects, features and/or
conditions in aerial photographs and determining their significance. This is achieved by
skilled scientific or professional personnel by virtue of their individual experience using
various systems, techniques or processes to analyze photographs and produce significant,
reliable and detailed information concerning the natural or cultural features of the area
photographed.
Air photo interpretation can provide an excellent complementary source of information on

nature and characteristics of the earth's surface, particularly when air photographs are used
together with maps. Although the details provided in an aerial photography from the earth
surface are far more complete than what is presented even in the largest scale map, their
interpretation is not easy and it requires intelligence and experience.
5.2 Basic Principles of Air photo Interpretation
The identification and recognition of objects in air photographs is achieved by making use of
the characteristics of the photo image as recorded by the film. The exact characteristics
useful for any specific task, and the manner in which they are considered, depend on the field
of application. However, most applications consider a number of basic characteristics of
features, or their variations namely: shape, size, pattern, tone, texture, shadows, site and
association.
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5.2.1 Shape
This refers to the general form, configuration or outline of individual objects as can be
observed in the 2-dimensional photo-image. In the case of stereoscopic photographs, the
objects height also defines its shape. Shape is the most important single factor which is used
in the identification of objects on aerial photographs.
Examples:
[a] Houses and other buildings are normally recognized by their rectangular shape. Most
single family homes consist of rectangular forms, with the simplest rectangular shapes
normally associated with less expensive homes. Military barracks, commercial buildings,
supermarkets, warehouses, greenhouses, manufacturing buildings and so on can often be
recognised by their arrangements or rectangular shapes.
[b] Circular objects are usually identified easily because they are comparatively few in
number and they stand out in contrast to the much more common rectangular or irregular
shapes. Fuel and water storage tanks, silos, traffic circles, certain buildings, the end of
stadia and various sports tracks often strike the eye because of their circular or semi-
circular shape.
[c] On the basis of shape, roads can be identified by their width and curvature. Important
roads are wide with gentle curves. Height differences in the terrain must be smoothed out
by cuts and fills.
In almost all cases interpretation will be carried out by stereoscopic viewing of a pair of
photographs. This might require that the interpreter familiarises himself with the three
dimensional shape of features. With regard to stereoscopic viewing as an aid to
interpretation it should be noted that the shape of vertical object will vary according to its
position on the photography near or away from the principal point. Near the photo edges
displacements due to tilt, relief and lens distortions may even lead to a wrong interpretation
of shape.
Generally, shape can tell whether a feature is natural or cultural. Most human constructions
are regular or geometric in appearance, or are defined by straight lines, whereas natural
features are frequently irregular or non-geometric. More specifically, shape can distinguish
roads from railroads. Railroads usually have gentler curves and a more linear character.
Roads in the same vicinity often have more severe curvature, more circuitous routing, and
perpendicular intersecting sections.
5.2.2 Size
Size is the volume dimension of an object as can be observed in 3-dimensional stereo-photo

model. The sizes of objects on photographs must be considered in the context of the photo
scale. A small storage shade, for example, might be misinterpreted as a barn if size were not
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considered. Relative sizes among objects on photographs of the same scale must also be
considered. Knowing the width of an object alone is not always enough for classification.
Usually, the best approach is to compare an object of unknown size to some common objects
of standard dimensions on the photographs such as a football field, length of a car or truck,
distances between telephone poles, spacing of parking slots at a shopping centre, and so
forth if such features are available. If a map of the area is also available, one can obtain the
scale of the photo by finding similar features displayed on both the map and photo, and
comparing distances between them.
Example:
The presence of a large ocean vessel, for example, makes it possible to distinguish an
important sea way from main drainage canals and drainage ditches. Similarly, if a building
measuring 5 mm square on the photograph is known to be a dwelling house, then a building
measuring 30 mm square is unlikely to be a normal house, and is more likely to have some
other function such as a factory or school.
5.2.3 Pattern
Pattern refers to the spatial arrangement of objects in a repeated sequence or in a

characteristic order. Patterns can be regular or irregular and may vary between both natural
and artificial or man-made features. In either case, it is useful in the interpretation process.
In general, man-made patterns can be distinguished from natural ones because humankind
usually create well defined geometric patterns made up of smooth curves and straight lines.
Simple examples of these include cities, highways, power lines, clearcuts and agricultural
fields. Natural patterns are not uniform- that's, their patterns are irregular.
Examples:
a) Trees in a cultural landscape may have a pattern whereby the spatial arrangement of
trees in an orchard plantation for example, is in distinct contrast to that of natural
forest tree stands.
b) Patterns created by streams yield much information about landforms and

rockformations underlying a region. A dendritic or tree-like pattern is found in
regions of horizontally lying, homogeneous rock types, often sedimentary rock. In
copntrast, a radial pattern develops on the slopes of a volcano. Angular stream
patterns may indicate the presence of igneous or metamorphic rock. A trellised
pattern indicates folded sedimentary rock [Figure 5.1].
c) Cultural features often have a characteristic pattern as is often observed in towns

dating from medieval times which may have a star shaped wall or canal pattern. In
agricultural areas we often see different types of field patterns depending on crop
type and mode of cultivation [Figure 5.2].
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d) Pure geomorphological forms can be associated with a characteristic pattern as in the
case of different dunes in a sand desert [Figure 5.3].
5.2.4 Tone [or hue]
This refers to the relative brightness or colour of objects or to the shade (light or dark) of a
feature on photographs. In other words, tone is a way of referring top the color of an object
or its spectral signature. The grey tone of a particular feature for instance, will depend on
how much light it reflects back into the camera and thus onto the film. The more the light
reflectance, the lighter the tone on the photograph. For interpretation purposes some general
rules can be given:
(a) Water depth and quality are frequently revealed by changes of tone: Shallow water is
lighter in tone than deeper bopdies, and water with a high sediment content is lighter
than water with low sediment content. Water surfaces usually have a fairly dark tone.
(b) Unvegetated dry sand usually present light tone.
(c) Surfaced roads are generally light. However, a concrete road has a lighter tone
compared with a bituminous (asphalt or blacktop) road has darker tone.
(d) Railways are normally dark.
(e) Roofs of buildings facing the sun are light
(f) Bare earth, rock surfaces, young grass and cornfields are generally light.
(g) Evergreen or narrow leaved trees are usually dark while deciduous or broad leaved
trees are light.
(h) Rock formations are easily categorized by tone contrasts. Basalt has a dark tone
relative to granite, which has a lighter tone due to different mineral content.
It should be noted here that different prints of one photograph are not always identical to
another in final density due to difference in film processing and printing. On the other hand,
many features undergo seasonal changes in colour, hue and tone and these are recorded as
tonal differences well visible on sequential aerial photographs. As an example, bare earth
will usually be light in tone. However, during a wet season the same type of earth will
appear dark.
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58
Figure 5.1: The natural drainage patterns.
59
Figure 5.2: Field patterns and cultural features.
Figure 5.3: Sand-dunes which in the true sense are restricted to (a) Barchan, and
(b) Seif-dunes that are common features of desert landforms.
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The position of the sun in relation to the camera position is also an important aspect of
interpretation. A water surface appears to have a fairly dark tone on one photograph but on the
next photograph it can appear white if sun rays are all reflected to the camera film.
Within one photograph, tonal differences may occur due to random loss of light and hot spot
effects where over-exposed areas on the photographs develop when the earth's rotation reaches
a position where the sun's rays are reflected back into the lens of the camera. Without tonal
differences, the shapes, patterns and textures of objects could not be discerned. Thus the tone
of an object as imaged on the photograph is influenced by many factors and one need to
exercise great care in evaluating it.
5.2.5 Texture
Texture signifies the degree of roughness of features on an image. It represents the frequency
of tonal changes on the photo image, which is produced by an aggregation of unit features that
may be too small to be discerned individually on the photograph such as tree leaves and leaf
shadows. Textural characteristics determine the overall visual "smoothness" or "coarseness" of
image features. As the scale of the photograph is reduced the texture of any given object or
area becomes progressively finer and ultimately disappears. An interpreter can often
distinguish between features with similar light reflectance based on their textual differences.
An example would be the smooth texture of green grass as contrasted. with the rough texture
of green tree crowns on medium scale photographs.
5.2.6 Shadows
Shadows refer to obscurities within an area of direct rays from a source of light such as the
sun are excluded by an interposed opaque body. If the sun is not directly overhead at the time
photography is taken and if clouds or haze does not cut off the sunlight, all features higher
than their surroundings will cast a shadow. Shadows are important to interpreters in two
opposing respects.
(a) The shape or outline of shadow affords an impression of the profile view of objects
which aids interpretation:
(b) Objects within shadows reflect little light and may be difficult to discern on
photographs which thus hindering interpretation. For example, shadows cast by
various tree stands or by cultural features such as bridges, smoke stacks, silos, power-
transmission towers and broadcasting towers can definitely aid in their identification
on air photographs. Shadows resulting from even subtle variations in terrain
elevations, especially in the case of low sun angle photographs can aid in assessing
natural photographic variations that may be diagnostic of various geologic landform.
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5.2.7 Association or Convegence of Evidence
Association and convergence of evidence comprise a skill developed by the interpreter which
involves a reasoning process that uses all principles of interpretation to relate an object to its
surrounding. For example, the identity of objects often is discovered through their association
with other known objects, and sometimes the reverse is true, because some objects are rarely
if ever associated with others, they can be eliminated from consideration. A temporal
association is an extremely useful clue for traffic study using aerial imagery needs to relate
the traffic observed to the time of day, week, month and year when the image was taken. For
example, the volume of traffic varies considerably between rush hours and other times.
Similarly, variability in traffic can be seen in parking areas at shopping centers, stadia, and
factories, among others.
Another example is of certain tree species, which can only occur on well drained upland sites,
whereas others can only occur on poorly drained lowland sites. Similarly, some plant
communities can only exist within certain geographic regions. Mangrove plant communities
for instance, will only grow in flat, low lying areas which are periodically flooded by saline
sea water.
In addition to the above principles, the interpreter should be aware that aerial photographs
contain raw photographic data. These data, when processed by a human interpreter's brain
becomes usable information. Generally, the most outstanding photo interpreters have keen
powers of observation coupled with imagination and a great deal of patience. The theoretical
aspects of air photo interpretation alone are not enough to enable one identify objects in the
photographs. This is because, photo interpretation is best learned through the experience of
viewing hundreds of air photo stereopairs according to the requirements of specific fields of
application.
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5.2.8 Summary
The signature clues are guides to identifying objects and activities on all types of sensing
images. The importance of each clue will vary according to the type opf feature or activity
one is studying. Ultimately, it is the skill and background knowledge that will enable the
interpreter to use these clues successfully in identifying objects.
5.3 Procedure in Photo Interpretation
The successful interpretation of aerial photographs will mainly depend on three major factors:
1) The reference level of the interpreter,
2) Interpreter's ability to appreciate the aids of image characteristics to interpretation in
general and identification in particular, and
3) Interpreter's understanding of purpose and content of the resulting map.
5.3.1 Reference Level
Anyone looking at a photograph, even a family snapshot, is doing interpretation. But it is

obvious that a photograph of one's own family is more meaningful than a photograph of a
group of strangers, because a person's knowledge of two such groups is bound to be different.
The differences in capacity for interpretation are the result of the differences in knowledge
possessed by different interpreters. Interpreters are said to have different reference levels,
where a reference level may be defined as the amount of knowledge stored in the mind of any
person interpreting photographs. For photo interpretation as a phase in the production of a
topographic map, the reference level required by the interpreter is a thorough understanding of
physical and cultural features, this knowledge being particularly intensive in relation to the
type of terrain being interpreted. A logical conclusion from this is that an interpreter must be
well acquainted with the area he is interpreting. This additional background knowledge, or
extension of his reference level, can be obtained by studying existing maps of the area, by
reading reports of previous surveys and by doing a field reconnaissance, where this is not ruled
out by financial or other factors.
5.2.2 Steps in Photo Interpretation
The interpretation of aerial photographs can be seen as a process that can be divided into a
number of phases. For our purpose we can say that it is a three-phase operation. First there is
the examination of the photographs, secondly the identification of objects or features and
thirdly the classification of the objects identified [Figure 5.4].
Phase I: General Examination
In this first phase, a very general examination of the photographs is made to establish the
general characteristics of the area. The general patterns of relief, vegetation and cultural
63
development are established and the most significant features of areas are noted. Usually it is
very profitable to start with examination of a whole strip or block of photographs and continue
with the scanning of stereo-pairs. The scanning should be done in a systematic way. The areas
of the image in which relevant features are most likely to occur are singled out and examined
first. From this framework, the remainder of the image is systematically scanned.
1 2 3
GENERAL EXAMINATION IDENTIFICATIO CLASSIFICATION
(a) of the block N Of particular features.
(b) of individual pairs: Detailed May involve decisions
To establish general examination aimed on generalisation.
characteristics of the whole area at the detection and
and detect parts having special positive
significance. identification of
particular features.
Figure 5.4 Steps in photo-interpretation.
Phase II: Identification

In this second phase the photographs must be examined in detail so that features may be
detected and identified, and this in itself could be described as a two-stage procedure. First, an
object or feature must be detected. Once detected, the object must be identified since
detection of an object is possible without possible identification. This is where the image
characteristics and the reference level of the interpreter play their role; the size, shape, tone
and so on must be considered in order to obtain clues for identification.
For example, during the general examination phase a built up area is revealed. In the
identification phase this built up area is systematically studied to identify street patterns,
distribution and type of buildings, special features such as churches, cemeteries or public
parks. Having completed this, the interpreter moves to another significant area such as an
agricultural area and performs a similar identification of details. Finally the less significant
areas are examined to establish if they contain any important details. A uniform area of forest
for example may be studied for any evidence of tracks or buildings.
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Phase III: Classification
This phase can never be entirely separate from phase II, since classification is essentially an
extension of identification. For instance, we may identify a road and at the same time be
aware through the characteristics by which we made the identification that it is a dual carriage
way or a principal road.
Classification may be thought of as a more precise identification: we identify roads and

classify them as principal, secondary or tracks; we identify buildings and classify them as
dwelling houses, factories, churches stations and so on. Classification thus can be carried out
at the same time as the identification phase.
It must be emphasized here that because the interpreter is forced to think in terms of symbols
on the final map, it is obvious that he must perform some generalisation work during the
interpretation. Irregular forest boundaries, braided rivers, isolated groups of trees, boundaries
of urban areas and others should be generalised using the standard cartographic symbols.
Questions
1. Explain the importance of the following features in air-photo-interpretation:
(a) Shape (b) Pattern (c) Tone (d) Shadow (e) Texture.
2. What do you understand by the term reference level in air-photo-
interpretation?
3. With illustrations, explain how one can employ principles of air photo-
interpretation to depict:
(a) A physiographic region, and
(b) Major urban land uses.
4. Examine Plates 5a, 5b and 1c of Kisii District, Naivasha area
(Silibwet/Ngorika complex) and Mathare Valley and its Environs, respectively
and identify the major land uses in the aerial photographs.
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5.4 Further Reading
Avery, T.E. and Graydon, L.B. (1985): Interpretation of Aerial Photographs. 4th ed.
Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing Co.
B.N.S.C. (1989): The Earth Below: A Look at Remote Sensing. Department of
Trade and Industry, Printed by Moore and Mathers.
Carter, D.J. (1986): Remote Sensing Source Book: A Guide to Remote Sensing
Products, Services, Facilities, Publications and other Materials. Kogam Page, Macanta
Limited.
Cracknell, A. and L. Hayes (1993): Introduction to Remote Sensing. Taylor and
Francis, London.
Fabbari, G.A. (1984): Image Processing of Geological Data, Van-Nostrand, New
York.
Fabio, V.E. (1999): “Remote Sensing in the 21st Century: More Precision, More
Choice, More Applications.” In GeoEurope Magazine, Issue. No. 8.
Environment. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston.
Kidder, S. Q. and T.H.V. Haar (1995): Satellite Meteorology. Academic Press,
London.
Paine, P.D. (1981): Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation for Resource
Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Strandsberg, G.H. (1967): Aerial Discovery Manual. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Watson, R.M. (1986): “Air Photography in East African Game Management and
Research.” In Use of Aerial Photography by J.K. St. Joseph (ed) John Baker Publishers,
PP.102-111.
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PART TWO
LESSON VI:
FIELD-COURSE IDENTIFICATION OF STUDY PROBLEMS, SITES, OBJECTIVES
AND HYPOTHESES
6.0 Introduction
This lesson explains how field course researches are conducted so that the chaotic aspects are
minimized, and orderly inputs and outcomes are maximized. It specifically describes how
research problems and sites are identified. It also discusses the formulation and
characteristic of good research problems, objectives and hypotheses of the research study.
6.1 Objectives

(a) State the aims, outcomes and content of fieldcourse.
(b) Describe how field-course study or research problems and sites
are identified.
(c) Discuss the process of formulating the research problems,
objectives, and hypotheses.
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6.2 Aims of Fieldcourse
There are two aims of field-course, namely:

To appreciate the field environment as a laboratory in which classroom work is applied in
the field.
To practice field techniques and prepare students for dissertation research.
6.3 Intended Learning Outcomes

After the field course students will have:
Investigated different temporal and spatial scales in various environments and
cultures.
Reflected critically on the main theme of the field course.
Before, during, and after the fieldcourse the students will have had the chance to
develop the following skills:
Selection of appropriate field techniques and methodologies e.g. Survey techniques
(GPS, Levelling, mapping), field observation, and recording, in-depth interviews,
participant observation, reconstruction of dynamic events.
Practice in research skills -formulation of research strategies and topics.
o Teamworking skills.
o Oral and written presentation skills e.g., successful completion and
communication of analytical group projects.
6.4 Field course content
Field course content in Geography focuses on a mixture of human and physical themes. All
students are introduced to the diversity of environments, and culture in contemporary
research problem-based issues. In addition, the students are able to choose from a number of
field research problems. Amongst the key themes that can be investigated in geography are:
semi-arid landforms and their links to event magnitude and timescale,
links between slope process and land form,
nationalism and the commemoration of the past events,
contemporary Kenyan village life,
contrasting social geographies of tourist development in Kenya,
sustainable development of the Coastal Kenya economy,
the historical geography of Kenyan Coastal landscape, etc.
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6.5 Identification of field-course Study or Research Problem
The first consideration in any field research is the choice of focus for the research. Given the
broad scope of geography and given that everything has a geographic context, one can draw
focus from practically any facet of human and physical geography. One of the keystones to
conducting successful field work research is to examine a topic in which you are interested.
Careful selection and identification of the study or research problem is the first step in any
research. A beginner in research may ask: Where are field-course problems found? Problems
are found everywhere. Maybe one of your lecturers has inspired you with their analysis of a
research problem. Maybe you see something everyday on the way to university that annoys
or frustrates you. Perhaps a certain situation is receiving much media coverage which you
think will be interesting to probe further or just read a particular paper or book which raised a
number of questions that you feel need answers. However, your research does not have to be
socially relevant or focus on a number of contemporary problem. For example, it could be an
historical study. If at first, your subject area does not seem geographical in nature do not
worry. Think about how geography might matter in the chosen context. Many lines of
geographical enquiry can be suggested by applying key geographical concepts such as space,
time or pattern, to issue, phenomenon or situation at hand. For example:
• To what extent is the issue, phenomenon or situation differentiated across space,
place and time?
• Are spatial processes important to any distribution, pattern and activities arising?
• How does the issue, phenomenon or situation relate to the surrounding area?
Thus, whatever arouses interest/curiosity, and raises questions for which there are no
answers, or where answers exist but some disputes arise as to their validity, form a fertile
ground for the discovery of a researchable problem.
Many a times such problems are defined by scholars in books, dissertations, theses, or in
professional papers. That is why it is a standard practice to conclude a study with suggestions
for further future research to enable future researchers to pick from where you stopped. The
serious student will inspect these materials under the general headings of your interest, as
well as materials developed in related disciplines. From the subject matter or the principles
presented in the literature, one may identify gaps, which appear to justify additional research.
It is important to emphasize that there is no better way to formulate a problem than for the
researchers themselves to sense their need and state them in their own words.
In doing this, the first step is to select specific phenomena whose locational presence in an
area is of concern. Then proceed to explain their presence. The geographical phenomena to
be studied may be physical or cultural, concrete or abstract, objects or ideas or concepts. Any
material or non-material things, which can be identified, classified and located can be a
proper subject matter for geographic study.
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Note that the mere existence of unanswered question in geographic studies does not
necessarily assure the basis of a suitable field problem. There may be inherent difficulties
concerning the research problem:
(a) The first example is that the researcher may not have interest to commit his/her
considerable time, effort and resources required. One possibility, which could detract the
interest, is its lack of value for a given individual. The main objective of any apprentice
(trainee) research worker is to do research and demonstrate this acquired skill. For this
reason, the result of the research need not be practical, nor make a significant
contribution to the discipline. It must, however, be of some importance to the student
himself, even if only to satisfy his intellectual curiosity.
Many students do research for term projects, simply out of convenience and with no
enthusiasm for the topic. According to Russell (1994) researchers do their best work
when they are genuinely having fun. If the research question is not of interest, and no
matter how important it might be to other people, one should not bother. The first thing to
ask about any potential research question is whether or not the research is of interest. The
same goes for research populations.
As a matter of caution, it doesn’t mean that the researcher and the informants, or target
populations have to like each other, but both are well served if they find each other
interesting. The researcher needs to sustain his or her interest in order to go out every day
and collect data. When you are about to go to the field, ask yourself: Will my interest be
sustained? If the answer is no, then reconsider. Accessibility is not a sufficient condition
to make good research happen.
(b) The second example relates to very interesting research problems whose solutions are
unlikely to be gotten or the qualifications of the researcher may not be adequate to solve
the problems. Does the research problem require one to speak a certain language or
acquire certain skills? Can the research be done effectively with interpreters? If so, then
you should be prepared to put in the time and effort to learn the new language and skills.
You must also ensure that the people and skills are within the range you can handle.
In many of these cases, the lack of qualifications may be corrected by the acquisition of
new skills or by a mastery of additional research tools. It is important to note that even
experienced researchers find it beneficial at times to return to the classroom in order to
learn skills necessary for the solving of new research problems.
(b) The third set of difficulty relates to lack of sufficient existing data, or new data cannot be
obtained for a successful solution. While it may be possible to obtain the needed data by
extensive field survey, the beginning student should be aware of the magnitude of the
task. He/she should carefully inventory his resources- time, money and knowledge, and if
70
the problem cannot be solved within his limits, it is advisable to either redefine and
reduce the scope of the research problem or improve the resources.
It should be noted that many things come under the umbrella of money. No matter how
interesting it is to you, and no matter how important it may seem theoretically, if the
resources are not adequate, the project should be abandoned for now. Naturally, most
people do not have money it takes to mount a major research effort.
Completely original research is difficult and rare. You are probably setting your sights far
too high if you aim to undertake ground-breaking study. If you are still having difficulty
finding a specific focus, ask yourself the following questions:
• What is the specific objective of my research project?
• Why am I doing a project on this subject?
• What are the important issues?
• Who will potentially be affected by the research project?
• What things might change as a result?
If at this point, you cannot clearly and unambiguously state the research objective using just
a single sentence, you should probably be asking yourself whether the project is attempting
to achieve too much or whether it is too complicated. If this is the case then you need to go
through the process of narrowing your focus again. In general, you are seeking to concentrate
on one or two specific questions which your research will address. Asking relevant
questions is what ‘good’ research is all about. An important point to remember is to keep
your questions clear and simple. Students often feel that they have to dress up their
questions to make them sound more scientific or academic. For example, we might dress up a
question to read:
‘In studying the socio-spatial processes that underlie access provision for disabled
people are we always entrenched in multiple interpretations, the politics of
representation and what Giddens calls the “double hermeneutic”?’
Without prior knowledge concerning the politics of representation or what the ‘double
hermeneutic’ is , a lay person will have no idea what the question means. There is a good
chance that the writer also doesn’t fully understand the question, especially when they have
only used these terms because their lecturer uses them a lot. In this example, the question is
probably best written as:
71
‘When studying access provision for disabled people is the researcher fairly and
correctly representing the views of disabled people?’
Writing in a complex style or dressing up the questions does not make the research more
valid. Writing in a clear, eloquent style and demonstrating a well though-out and executed
study is more important. To achieve this, it is best to keep the question clear and easily
understandable so that a lay person will know intuitively exactly what you are trying to
understand or explain.
Once you have decided upon a topic and your specific question(s), the difficulty is then to
turn your research idea into a coherent, consistent and valid piece of research. The first task
is to place your idea into a theoretical context.
6.6 Linking Theory and Practice
Here, theory is taken to be a set of explanatory concepts that are useful for explaining a
particular phenomenon, situation or activity. These concepts offer certain ways of looking at
the world and are essential in defining a research problem. As Siverman (1994:1) notes,
‘without theory, there is nothing to research’. Whenever research takes place we are either
assessing the validity of a theory (using deductive approach) or trying to construct a theory
(using an inductive approach). Your reading of literature should have provided you with a
firm set of ideas about your specific topic. These ideas now need to be formulated into a
theory that your research will then test or provide the context for the research that will
underpin the construction of your theory. A theory generally extends beyond the answer(s) to
your specific question(s) and places them into a wider context. We suggest that a useful way
to construct your theory, either prior to the research (deduction) or after the research
(induction) is to build a conceptual model.
A conceptual model is a diagrammatic version of a theory which demonstrates processes,

concepts and relationships. This helps to place ideas in context and give expression to
abstract and complex thoughts.
6.7 Stating the Research Problem
There is no one way in, which a research problem must be presented, but its statement must
always be clear and concise(see section 6.3). An inexperienced researcher often makes the
mistake of assuming that problems imply more than they do. They think that because they
have an assumption in mind, but did not state it in their articulation all the world will know
what they have in mind. It should be emphasized that the problem is stated in a complete
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grammatical sentence. It should be stated so well that anyone, anywhere and whoever
understands English can read it and react to it without the benefit of your presence. Finally,
the interpretation of the data in the stated research problem should be plainly evident, or that
it is so strongly implied in the wording of the research problem.
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6.8 Identification of Research Matrix (Site)
The matrix is the framework within which the research is conducted. The size of the matrix is
directly related with the types of phenomena that can be studied as well as on the scale, detail
and classification of the data to be collected. Usually, the smaller the matrix, the more
specific will be the data, and the larger the matrix, the more general will be data and the
likelihood that sampling procedure will be employed.
For example, a student researcher might become interested in “Residents Perceptions and
the Role of Government in Tourism,” and pose the question: “What is the link between
residents’ perceived impacts of tourism on their community and their attitudes toward local
government’s role in tourism development in Kenya?” In answering such a question, it is in
order to illustrate the spatial distributions of local authorities and the population in Kenya.
Such illustrations for the entire country will be done using very general categories of local
governments. However, at this scale the results will be highly generalized that no definite
conclusions can be drawn for specific areas. If the same problem is considered but the study
site reduced to a district in size, it is possible to classify the data in more explicit terms. In
the same manner, the categories of local authorities may be more detailed. This information
will be more refined and accurate than are those for the country as a whole, and the
relationships become clearer.
In determining the site, the delimitation criteria used and the rationale for selecting a
particular research site over all others should be stated clearly. For example, if the field-
course/research problem is concerned with some aspects of “Tourism Studies in Coast
Province,” the first questions that will be asked are:
Where is the Coast Province and what delimits it?
Why not study the entire country or one of the districts in the Coast Province?
Often, the study site may be justified on the basis that superficial evidence indicates that a
given phenomenon or activity appears to be concentrated in the proposed site more so than in
others, or that there exists a widespread feeling of concern about a particular situation in the
proposed study site, or perhaps that there is a need for new information about the proposed
site. Further, the definition of the matrix may be influenced because of essential existing
data, which may be available in one area but not in the other. For example, one division,
district or province may have accumulated information, which is highly significant to the
research problem, but the same information is lacking in adjoining sites. The research site,
quite often coincide with a political division or cultural boundary. The site need not always
be contiguous area as comparing two or more sites is not uncommon.
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Questions
If your research requires comparison of two tourism sites over a period of 12
months and you only have money for 6 months of research, can you accomplish
you research goals by studying one site?
Can you accomplishing it by studying the two sites for three months? Is it
worthwhile pursuing the research if it has to be scaled down to fit the available
resources?
6.9 The Significance of the Study
The researcher should always indicate the reason(s) for undertaking the study. However,
some studies by virtue of their titles alone seem to take them far out into the rarified
atmosphere beyond the dense smog of practical value. In recent years, a rich tourist by the
name Tito and another one from South Africa paid millions of dollars to American and
Russian space exploration flights to be taken aboard. The most frequently questions that are
asked by the average citizens are:
Of what good is it to him?
What is the use of it all?
How will all this expenditure of million dollars in space flights benefit him?
Of what importance is it for researchers to spend lots of money to go to outer
space/moon?
In research, such similar questions must be answered to provide reasons for your decision to
carry out such a project.
6.10 The Objectives
Within a well-expressed main research problem, there are logical sub-components. These are
called objectives (sub-research problems). By looking at the main problem through its
objectives, the researcher frequently gets a more global view of the research problem.
Researchers are therefore advised rather than making a frontal attack on the entire research
problem, they should divide and conquer it in smaller segments.
Characteristics of Research Objectives
(a) Each objective should be a completely researchable lesson. The solutions of the
objectives, taken together, combine to resolve the main problem of the research. It is
necessary, therefore, that each objective be stated clearly and succinctly.
(b) All problems are not necessarily objectives. It is important for every researcher to
distinguish clearly between:
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(i) The true objectives whose solution will further the resolution of some part of the
problem;
(ii) The pseudo-objectives, which are, in fact, nothing more than situations arising from
the research procedure and demanding arbitrary decisions which the researcher must
make. Here are some examples of pseudo-objectives:
What is the best way to choose a sample?
What instruments should be used to gather the data?
How can the association between tourism and environmental conservation be
measured?
How large should a representative sample be?
These are problems and they must be resolved before the research project can proceed:
but they are problems that have to do more the procedure that will be followed than
with the main problem of the research. They demand for the resolution knowledge on
the part of and a decision from the researcher as to the course of action. They are not
researchable in the sense in which research has been defined- the application of the
scientific method to the discovery of truth.
(c) Within the objectives, interpretation of data must be apparent or evident.

(d) The objective must add up to the totality of the problem. The objectives must be checked
against the statement of the main research problem to see:
That nothing excess of the coverage of the main problem is included, and
That the researcher has no omissions, so that all significant areas of the main problem
are covered by the several objectives taken collectively.
(e) Proliferation of objectives is circumspect. That is, if the main problem is carefully
stated and properly limited to a feasible researchable effort, the researcher will find that it
usually contains in the vicinity of two to six objectives. Sometimes, however, an
inexperienced researcher will come up with as many as 10, 15, or 20 objectives. When this
happens, it generally means that a careful review of the research problem and its attendant
objectives should be undertaken. The researcher should study each objective to determine
whether it is a truly researchable objective of the main problem, or whether it falls into one
or more of the following categories:
The researcher has confused his personal problems with problems for research,
The researcher has fragmented the true objectives,
There may be a mixture of preceding errors. If this is true, there should be a careful study
of each objective to separate procedural questions from purely researchable goals.
(f) Beware of unrealistic goals. Be cautious of committing yourself beyond what is possible
to accomplish.
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6.11 Hypotheses
These are tentative intelligent guesses posited for the purpose of assisting the researcher in
directing one’s thinking towards the solution of the research problem. They are also defined
as “tentative propositions set forth as a possible explanation for an occurrence,’’ or as “a
provisional conjecture to assist in guiding the investigation of a research problem” (Lousbury
and Barry 1984). The hypotheses originate from the objectives, and thus they should be as
many as we have the objectives.
The hypotheses are nothing to do with proof of tentative propositions. Rather, they are
dependent in their acceptance or rejection on what the facts, and the facts alone can reveal.
To set out to deliberately prove a hypothesis will defeat impartiality in research. The
researcher will bias his procedure by looking only for those facts, which will support the
hypothetical position.
Stating of the Hypotheses
The classic procedure is to set up a null hypothesis (H0), which assumes that there is no real
difference between your data sets. Formally, the null hypothesis is usually expressed H0: µ1=
µ2 where µn is the mean for each group (or often the median if a non-parametric test is being
used), and the subscript n denotes the group. The alternative to this is called the research
hypothesis(also referred to as the alternative hypothesis), denoted by H1 and expressed by
H1:µ1≠µ2. It is important that you express both H0 and H1 in the context of your own research
problem before collecting your data and before starting your analysis.
In an enumeration of district income profiles, for example, we may formulate the following
hypotheses:
H0: :µA = µB. There is no significant difference between the mean income of households in
enumeration district A as compared with mean income of households in enumeration district
B.
H1: :µA≠µB There is a significant difference in the mean household income for households in
enumeration district A as compared with enumeration district B.
Stating of the null hypothesis is meant to choose the “best-out” of the alternative. The overall
aim, however, is to construct a language in which these intuitive steps are formalized into
rules. The rules ensure that anyone starting with the same set of alternative hypotheses and
the same evidence will reach the same conclusion. Note that a hypothesis is considered to be
an empirical proposition in the sense that it is testable by experience. Experience is relevant
to the question whether or not the hypothesis is true, i.e., as to whether or not is a scientific
law (Harvey 1973). The testability of hypothesis is crucial but there are many hypotheses
within a theoretical framework, which cannot be directly tested against data from social
sciences (sense-perception data). Thus, the qualification laid upon a scientific hypothesis by
its “text” includes the definition of its terms and accurate measurements of the limits within
which it is supposed to hold.
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There are a number of useful guidelines to keep in mind for developing hypotheses:
(i) It is a deductive process in which testable statements are derived from abstract theories.
Although it is possible to generate hypotheses without deducting them from theories,
hypotheses are always linked to theories because the theories explain why things happen.
(ii) The independent variable is stated first in the hypothesis, followed by the dependent
variable. The dependent variable is the presumed active or casual variable. It is one believed
to be producing changes in the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the passive
variable or the ones that is affected.
(iii) The independent and dependent variables need to be clearly specified. Remember,
great confusion can arise if the precise variables that a hypothesis contains are not
made clear.
(iv) Hypotheses should be stated so that they can be verified or refuted. Otherwise, they are
not hypotheses. Hypotheses, after all, are statements about which we can gather empirical
evidence to determine whether they are correct or false. One common pitfall in this
regard is to make statements that involve judgments or values rather than issues of
empirical observation (Monette, et.al 1990).
(v) Developing hypotheses from theories is a creative process that depends in part on the
insight of the investigator. Because hypotheses link theories to particular concrete
settings, it often takes insight on the part of the researcher to make such connections. In
addition, researchers at times combine two or more theories to develop hypotheses that
neither theory alone is capable of generating.
6.12 Revision questions
(a) Distinguish between “Objectives and Hypotheses.”

(b) The following is a title of a tourism development project: “Perception and
Community-Based Management Initiatives of Wildlife Experience in
Kenya.”
Derive three objectives and Hypotheses/assumptions from the above title.
(c) The propositions given below came from a student who wanted to formulate
hypotheses on a research project:
The conflict between wildlife and farming community is a serious
problem.
Loss of crops, personal property and life results from poor management of
wildlife.
Control and management of wildlife results in long term sustainability of
development.
The wildlife conflicts are greater among the agriculturist communities
than pastoralist communities.
Comment on the clarity and suitability of the above hypotheses.
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6.13 Further Reading
Baring, L. and J. Lounburg (1983): Introduction to Scientific Geographic

Research. Web, Third Edition.
Prewitt, K. (1975): Introduction to Research Methodology: East Africa
Applications. Occasional Paper No.10:IDS, University of Nairobi, Kenya.
Przeworki, A. (1997): The Art of Writing Proposal. Social Science Research
Council-Website, New York.
Russell, H.B. (1994): Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and
Quantitative Approaches. Altamira Press.
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LESSON VII:
NATURE OF DATA AND METHODS OF DATA
ACQUISTION
7.0 Introduction
This lesson brings to our understanding the term data. We learn the qualities of a data set
and types of data to be collected. In addition, census and sampling as procedures of data
collection are extensively covered.
7.1 Objectives

a) To explain the term data and important aspects related to
data.
b) To discuss the basic techniques employed in data
collection.
7.2 Introduction and Sources of Data
Data is a plural for the noun datum, meaning a fact (numerical or otherwise) from which a
conclusion may be drawn. A datum contains information, whereas a number, an adjective
or other form of description may not. The information in a set of data may be
contaminated. For example, mixing or confounding with other kinds of information, and
thus ceasing to be data.
There are three sources of data, namely; primary, secondary and tertiary. Often a
particular work does not automatically fall into one category or the other, but varies in
relation to the nature of study. For example, a textbook is a tertiary source since it is
compiled mostly from secondary sources, but it may be a primary source in the study in
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which the major objective is to determine how textbooks treat the subject of model
building.
Statistical data are the raw material of any statistical investigation, and they arise
whenever measurements are made or observations are classified (Refund 1979). They may
be sizes in acreages of individual game-farms, or personal characteristics such as age,
weight, and family size, or they may be simple answers such as “Yes or No”, or
descriptions of person’s marital status as single, married, widowed or divorced.
7.3 Aspects of Data Collection
Whenever data are collected, the following aspects require answers:

a) Why should data be collected and what uses will these data serve? If there is no
purpose or no use for these data, why collect them?
b) What data will be collected? All pertinent data for studying a phenomenon should be
collected. Thus it is essential to determine what data to collect in light of why the data
are collected.
c) How and where are data to be collected? The statistician may be helpful in designing
and planning the investigation and in determining how and where the data are to be
collected. Also involved are how to measure and quantify information on the various
phenomena in an investigation. This is especially true of social phenomena (Chapter
two, Section 2.7).
d) Who is to collect the data and where are they to be obtained?
7.4 Types of Data Collection Methods
The success of any research depends on the methods used to collect, analyze and present
the data. Usually, these are the areas the examiners will thorough examine. If this section
is well dealt with, then it is easier to do the word and come up with successful conclusions
and prediction. A researcher selects the procedure, which is best suited for solving a
research problem with which she is concerned. In general there are three main methods of
data acquisition:
(i) Normative Method (Observational investigations or studies),
ii) Experimental investigations, and
iii) Historical Method.
7.4.1 The Normative Method
This method is applied in areas of research where variable control is not possible. The
essence of this method is to observe events and evaluate the observed processes with a
view of establishing constant relationships or norms. In this method, the description and
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analysis are as important as they are in the experimental method. Where relationships are
discovered, prediction becomes possible.
Since it is difficult and often impossible to control the independent variables affecting the
behavior of people, the normative method is usually the most applicable to research
problems in tourism studies. Thus, for example, the effect of language, religion, or income
on voting patterns may be determined by observing past elections and measuring the
variations in the number of votes as it varied in relation to varying amounts of the
influencing (independent) factors.
7.4.2 The Experimental Method
This is mainly used in the physical/biological sciences but it may also be used in social
sciences. In an experiment, it is essential that the researcher is able to control the
variables, which affect the dependent variable, thereby determining the result. By
rigorously controlling the variables employed in an experiment, the researcher is able to
describe, analyze and predict with a high degree of precision.
7.4.3 The Historical Method
The major objective of this method is to record observations accurately. The method relies
heavily on source detection, evaluation and analysis of findings in determining solutions
or conclusions of the research problem. While widely used by historians, this method is
often combined with the normative method in historical tourism studies. By these means,
the researcher may describe historical events and establish relationships.
7.5 Sample Surveys
7.5.1 Introduction
Scientific samples are needed only in research where studying variables in a population are
of diverse elements. As Russell (1994) rightly points out: “a vial of blood from your arm is
as good a sample as a vial from your leg if you want to measure your cholesterol level.”
There is thus no need for scientific sampling in such phenomenological researches, where the
subject is to understand the meaning of expressive behavior or to understand how things
work.
It saves lots of money and time to study a sample than it does for a population. Sampling is
generally an economic necessity for scientific research, especially one conducted by
individual researchers on a tight budget for MA students in tourism studies. However, it is
next to impossible to interview more than a few hundred people in any field study if you are
trying to do all the work yourself. This requires the engagement of research assistants to
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reach the required number of respondents. The assistants normally create problems of
consistency by not using the same wording of questions, not probing equally well on subjects
that require sensitive interviewing, not careful in recording data on field instruments and data
for analysis. Thus, the more personnel there are in the project, the greater the instrumentation
threat and the more risk to the validity of data. But there is the danger of intervening events
that make it impossible to interpret the data if the research process takes a long time without
engaging enough research assistants. This requires striking a balance between the dual
problems.
7.5.2 Sample Size
The proper size of a sample depends on many things such as:

The heterogeneity of the population or chunks of population (strata or clusters) from
which the elements are chosen;
How many population sub-groups one wants to deal with simultaneously in the
analysis;
How accurate you want your sample statistics (or parameter estimators) to be; and
How much money and time are at the disposal for the project.
7.6.3 Sampling Frames
The first thing needed for a good sample is a sampling frame. This can be a list of all
households in a division or National Parks and Reserves in Kenya. In Kenya, researchers can
buy sampling frames from Kenya Bureau of Statistics (KBS) that, keep up-to-date databases
just for this purpose.
However, in most field situations, sampling frames are not so easy to come by. One of the
first things any field worker should do in studying any small community is to take a census,
even if a recent one exists. A census gives one an opportlessony to walk around a community
and talk with most of the members at least once. It lets one to be seen by others and gives her
an opportlessony to answer questions as well as to ask them. Most importantly, it gives her a
sampling frame from which to take samples throughout the research in the field and provides
the baseline data for comparison incase one goes back to the same community years late.
7.5.4 Types of Samples
There are seven major kinds of samples. Three of them are: Simple random, stratified
random, and cluster samples, all based on the principles of probability theory. The other
four are quota, purposive, snowball, and haphazard samples are not. The probability
samples are representative of larger populations, and they increase external validity in any
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study. The general rule is: Use representative, probability sampling whenever you can
and use non-probability sampling methods as a last resort.
7.6 Probability Samples
Probability samples are based on taking a given number of lessons of analysis from a
list, or sampling frame, which represents some population under study. In a probability
or representative sample, each individual must have exactly the same chance as every
other individual of being selected. There are two ways to make a sample more
representative of a population:
Make sure that every element has an equal chance of winding up in the sample,
and
Increase the sample size.
7.6.1 Simple Random Sampling
This is the most straightforward sort of sample, where elements from a list or other
sampling frame are chosen randomly, usually by using random numbers. Each element
in the sampling frame is allocated a unique identifying number. Numbers are then read
from say a random number table, and elements in the frame with those numbers are
included in the sample.
Sampling theory assumes that if the same element is picked twice, it will be included
twice in the sample. In practice, this will not generally be done since it would reduce the
variability in the sample because the two elements included would be identical. The
technical term for not allowing the same item to occur twice in the sample is sampling
without replacement, once an element has been chosen, it ceases to have another
chance of being drawn, and those remaining have a slightly increased chance.
One major demerit of this procedure is periodicity, since each number has an equal
chance of occurrence and therefore all combinations of elements in the frame could
theoretically be encountered, then the chosen sample may be concentrated in one part
of the population.
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Box 7.1 Generating a Table of Random Numbers
Using a microcomputer, one can generate random numbers in the

field, using programs like MYSTAT OR KWIKSTAT. This program
is available for the MS-DOS, Windows and Macintosh computing
environments. It is inexpensive and also handles most of the
everyday statistical analysis you may want to do while in the field.
7.7 Systematic Sampling
This procedure ensures even coverage throughout a sampling frame. Instead of using
random numbers, a regular spacing is employed, taking every kth individual, or the
intersection of a regular grid lain over a map. The sampling individual, k is the reciprocal
of the desired sampling fraction, i.e. k is N/n. For example, if the sample is to contain 50
elements and the sampling frame lists 5000, one element in 100 would be chosen by
setting k at 100. The sample is chosen systematically from a random starting point and
this is the only random number, which needs to be drawn. Thereafter, the choice of the
components of the sample proceeds simply with every kth one chosen.
Notes
This procedure is not considered strictly random sampling for two major reasons:
(a)The method does not enable all possible different samples of a given size to be
selected. The selection of members of the sample is not independent because once the
first individual has been chosen, the rest are fixed. This violates one of the
assumptions on which sampling theory is based;
(b) There may be periodicity within the sampling frame. Sampling frames with
periodicity problems may be rare, but how do you know yours is not one of them?
This hidden problem can be uncovered by doing simple random sampling. Another
solution is to make two systematic passes through the population using different
intervals, and then compare the two samples.
7.6.3 Stratified Sampling
This is a refined procedure in which the population is divided into sub-sets, and separate
samples are drawn from each. This is important if the population is made up of distinct
sub-populations of different size or character. For example, if one wants a sample to
contain both men and women, it would be sensible to sub-divide the frame on the basis
of sex before sampling, rather than run the risk of obtaining a sample, which may be
unrepresentative of the population. Also if one expects different areas to have different
characteristics, it will be as good to consider them as separate strata, and choose within
each stratum.
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This technique has several advantages, among them; (a) It tends to improve population
estimates, provided that the variable used for classification is related to the subject of
the study, and (b) it ensures that each part of the population is represented with a sample
of sufficient size for the comparison to be made.
Box 7.2 A Note on the Number of Strata
There is no need for the strata to be of identical size and there is no rule about the
appropriate number of strata, although Kish (1965: 102) suggests that between 2 and
10 will normally be the best. The researcher should also know his/her study area
quite well before commencing the formal data collection stage.
7.6.4 Cluster Sampling
The procedure is normally useful when the population is widely dispersed, and
therefore reducing a great of travel. It saves a lot of time to sample from carefully
chosen clusters. This will be particularly applicable for opinion polls in order to
represent different tribes in Kenya, which also include major urban areas, suburban
areas and rural areas of varying location, social structure, etc. A multi-stage sampling
procedure is thus used involving (a) first choosing representative clusters, which
sometimes may be subjectively selected, and (b) selecting a random, systematic or
stratified sample within each cluster.
7.6.5 Summary of Probability Sampling
There are certain ‘ground rules’ to be observed when sampling; the most important being:
Sampling frame should be available which in some way lists all the entities (e.g.persons, places,
and regions) from which the sample is to be drawn,
Measurements should be obtained with respect to entities, which have been selected by the
procedure of probability random sampling, or by some satisfactory approximation to it.
(a) Although sampling procedures are designed to minimize subjective choices, the selection
of sampling frame and sampling method does require common sense. There is no set of
rules that will cover every sampling problem, and an investigator must be prepared to use
his ingenuity in devising procedures that will provide reasonably unbiased data from a
reasonable expenditure of money, time and other resources.
(b) Maximize heterogeneity of the sample by taking as many of the biggest clusters in your
sample as you can, as many of the next biggest, and so on.
7.8 Non-Probability Sampling
7.8.1 Introduction
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Despite best efforts, it is often impossible to do strictly probability sampling in the field. For
that reason there are a number of alternatives that are appropriate under different
circumstances. These include quota, purposive, haphazard, and snowball sampling methods.
The disadvantage of these techniques is that studies based on them have very low external
validity, and thus one cannot generalize about his/her sample.
7.8.2 Quota Sampling
Quota sampling involves dividing a population into various categories and setting quotas on
the number of elements to be selected from each category. Once the quota is reached, no
more elements from the category are put in the sample. For example, the researcher may
want to interview a sample of 400 adults in the city of Nairobi. Since gender may be of
interest as an independent variable, and since women make up about half the population, then
half of the sample should be women and half should be men. When one is through designing
the quota sample, she goes out to fill those quotas.
Quota sampling resembles stratified probability sampling with an important difference being
the interviewers choosing the sample on the spot. If you decide to do quota sampling, be
careful that you do not select only people whom you are enjoying to interview, and do not
avoid people whom you will find obnoxious or hostile. Do not avoid interviewing people
who are hard to contact. Be careful not to select only those who are eager to be interviewed.
Use of quota sampling is best restricted to those situations in, which its advantages clearly
outweighs its considerable disadvantages. For example, quota sampling might be used in the
study of crowd behavior, where it is not possible to establish a sampling given the unstable
nature of the phenomenon. Quota sampling might be justified for a researcher who is
studying reaction to disasters such as a flood or mass accidents, where the need for
immediate reaction is critical and takes precedence over sample representativeness.
7.8.3 Purposive or Judgment Sampling
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In this kind of sampling, the researcher uses his judgment and prior knowledge to choose
subject for the sample who would best serve the purpose of the study (Bailey 1987) and
decides the purpose he/she wants to serve and go out to find one. It involves choosing a
sample that specifically excludes certain types of people because their presence might
confuse the research findings.
It is like quota sampling, except that there is no overall sampling design that tells the
researcher how many of each type of respondents the researcher wants for the study.
Moreover, in judgment sampling it is not even necessary to decide up from what kinds of
lessons of analysis to study. Judgment sampling, however, is often used in pilot studies
before collecting data to test hypotheses with a representative sample. It is useful in the
selection of few cases for intensive study. In addition, it can be used to study critical
cases. Choosing key informants in a fieldwork is a kind of critical-case-sampling.
7.8.4 Haphazard or Convenience Sampling
It involves taking whichever elements are readily available to the researcher. It is appropriate
for research in which it is very difficult or impossible to develop a complete sampling frame.
It is also useful for exploratory research to get a feel for what is going on out there and for
pre-testing questionnaires to make sure that the items (questions) are unambiguous and not
too threatening. It involves nothing more than interviewing whoever is willing to stand still
long enough to answer the researcher’s questions.
7.8.5 Snowball Sampling
When a snowball is rolled along in wet and sticky snow, it picks up more snow, becoming
larger and larger. This is analogous to what happens with snowball sampling (Monette et.al
1990). In snowball sampling a researcher locates one or more key informant(s) and ask
them to name others who would be likely candidates for the research. In a relatively small
population, snowballing is an effective way to build an exhaustive sampling frame. But in a
large population, people who are better known have a better chance of being named in a
snowball procedure than those who are less known.
Snowball sampling is very useful, however, in studies of social networks where the object
is to find out who people know and how they know each other. It is also useful in studies of
small, bounded or difficult populations like members of elite groups.
7.9 Summary
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If the population of measurement is infinite, we have no other choice, and therefore
a considerable amount of time, money and other resources will be saved.
The time, money and other resources spared will be devoted to ensuring the quality
of data, perhaps by training interviewers and fieldworkers properly, or employing
professional agencies, and instituting careful checks to reduce the number of errors
liable to occur at various stages in the process from initial collection to final
tabulation or statistical analysis.
Results will also be readily available more rapidly from a survey of modest size, an
important consideration to planning departments.
Sampling is desirable if the very act of obtaining measurement is reactive or
destructive.
If all surveys are based on the entire populations, individuals will become
uncooperative because of being constantly being pestered.
Some measurements of variable characteristics require restricted sample sites.
However, unless precautions are taken, sample estimates may be biased. Sampling
error normally crop up, representing the difference between a sample estimate and a
population parameter. To ensure minimum bias and maximum precision given the
resources at the disposal, one must use a procedure based on independent random
sampling or probability sampling. If such procedures are used, the probable size of
sampling error associated with an estimate can be determined.
Questions
(a) Using examples show why scientists make use of samples.

(b) Define the following terms as concisely as possible: (i) Stratified
sampling,
(ii) Cluster sampling, (iii) Periodicity in a Sampling frame.
(c) What features make Census operation different from other techniques of
data collection?
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Przeworki, A. (1997): The Art of Writing Proposal. Social Science Research
Council-Website, New York.
Sonquist, J.A. and C.M. Dunkelberg (1977): Survey and Opinion Research:
Procedures for Processing and Analysis. Prentice-Hall, Englewood , Cliffs, N.J.
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LESSON VIII:
TOOLS OF DATA COLLECTION
8.0 Introduction
The purpose of this lesson is to outline some of the basic instruments and techniques used in
research. These instruments of collecting data of social phenomena can be grouped into
either (a) those directly eliciting responses from subjects by questioning such as
questionnaires, schedules and interview guides; or (b) those utilizing either human observers
such as participant observation or judges, or (c) mechanical observers such as cameras, type
recorders, etc. They do not only provide a wealth of data in the social sciences, but they also
provide validity checks on one another.
8.1 Objective
To describe the major instruments of data collection and techniques of social

phenomena.
8.2 Introduction
The techniques of data collection range from library documents in the university libraries and
other documents, observations, interviews, questionnaires, dairies, letters, etc. the sources are
many, but the nature of data required for any study determines the technique to be used in
data collection.
8.3 Questionnaire
A questionnaire is an instrument comprising a series of questions that are filled in by the

respondent him/herself. It may be handed out to the respondent or mailed to the respondent.
A mailed questionnaire is a useful technique if respondents are spread out over a fairy large
geographical area and the researcher has limited resources, in terms of money and assistance.
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Having the respondent fill out the questionnaire usually saves time and money, but this
method has several disadvantages compared with the schedule or interview guide. The major
disadvantages are:
1. The population of study is restricted, because respondents must be able at least to
read and write.
2. There is a high degree of self-selection, leading to a comparatively low response or
return rate, that is, those most interested or highly educated are the only most likely to
respond.
3. The questionnaire must be restricted in length and scope, because respondents lose
interest or become fatigued.
4. There is a lack of depth interviewing, or proving for the meaning of statements.
The disadvantages of the mailed questionnaire are usually more extreme than are those of
direct contact with respondents.
The questionnaire, schedule and interview guide ideally are constructed around a set of
related items. That is, they usually comprise a set of questions closely related to and
reflecting upon the actual problem(s) under study. These questions are either structured, the
respondent is allowed a limited number of responses, or unstructured, open-ended questions
are presented to which the respondent gives his/her own answer. An example of a structured
question is: “Indicate the sex of the respondent by checking the following categories, male or
female? The unstructured question can be: “What is your opinion on the travel advisory notes
given to American and British citizens?” The structured items are more comparable from one
person to the next and are generally easier to analyze. However, they limit respondents to
pre-conceived categories that may not exhaust all possibilities or be meaningful or
interpretable. Unstructured items allow for proving into meaning, but they usually have a low
degree of reliability; that is, repeated questioning of the same respondents may yield different
results.
Self-administered questionnaires also have some clear advantages and disadvantages. Post
office directory can be used to find respondents for the researcher. In the absence of a mail
service, cluster and sampling are used to combine with drop- and-collect technique. This
involves a questionnaire with an informant and going back later to pick it. The technique has
some advantages such as:
1. They allow a single researcher to collect data from a large, representative

sample of respondents at a relatively low cost per datum.
2. All respondents get the same questions. There is no worry about interviewer bias.
3. One can ask more complex questions with a self-administered questionnaire than you
can in a personal interview.
4. Respondents report socially undesirable behaviors and traits more willingly.
Anonymity gives people a sense of security (Bradburn 1983).
5. Long batteries of boring questions, which one cannot get away with in a personal
interview can be asked.
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Despite these advantages, there are some hefty disadvantages of self-administered
questionnaires:
The researcher has no control over how people interpret questions on self-
administered questionnaire.
8.4 The Schedule and Interview Guide
Both the schedule and interview guide comprise a set of items or questions (structured or
unstructured) that are asked and filled in by an interviewer in a face-to-face situation with the
respondent. Essentially, a schedule is a questionnaire that is read to the respondents. The
interview guide is actually a loosely structured schedule. It merely lists the topics an
interviewer has been instructed to cover. Face-to-face administration of a questionnaire
offers some important advantages:
They are useful to get information from respondents who are illiterate, blind,
bedridden, or very old.
The respondents who don’t understand the questions are assisted in a personal
interview.
Several different data collection techniques can be used with the same respondent in a
face-to-face survey interview.
Easier for the informants to accept to take long hours as compared to mailed
questionnaires or telephone interviews.
Face-to-face respondents get one question at a time and can’t flip through the
questionnaire to see what is coming.
With face-to-face interviews you know who answers the questions.
But personal interviews have their disadvantages, as well

They are intrusive and reactive in ways that we are only beginning to understand. It
requires a lot of skills to administer a questionnaire without subtly telling the
respondents how you hope they will answer the questions.
They are costly in both time and money. In addition, locating respondents in a
representative sample may require going back several times. Survey researchers
sometimes use the “sampling-by-convenient-replacement” technique, meaning going
next door, or down the block and picking up a replacement for an interviewee who
happens not to be at home when you show up. This keeps the sample size honest, but
it can produce a deadly bias. This is because, as you replace non-respondents with
conveniently available respondents, you tend to homogenize the sample and make it
less and less representative of all the variations in the population one is studying
(Smith 1989).
The number of people who can be contacted by face-to-face interviews is far less than
those when using mails and telephone.
The personal interviews conducted by the researcher alone over a long period run the
risk of being overtaken by events. It is normally recommended that if you conduct a
questionnaire survey over a long period of time in the field, it is a good idea to re-
interview your first few respondents and check the stability (reliability) of the reports.
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8.5 Human Observers
8.5.1 Judge
Observers usually come under the labels judges or participants. A judge is an observer who
is detached (non-participant) from the situation and uses a fairy rigid set of predetermined
categories to code events. Judges are confined to contests, direct observation of groups and
individuals, and coding of either verbal responses or actual behavior. The judge’s task is to
rank or classify contestants with regard to some criteria, such as beauty or public speaking,
or to classify attitudes or behavior into separate categories. The resulting rank orders or
classification schemes are subsequently used for both descriptive and inferential purposes.
8.5.2 Participant-observers
Participant-observers are involved in the social setting while recording events and the
process is commonly described as participant observation. Not only does the researcher
participate to some extent in his own study, but he also gathers data about the individuals in
his sample or universe. There is a wide variation in the degree of participation of the
observer. Minimum participation leads the researcher to take a distant-observer role, trying
not to get too close to the respondents or to influence them in any way. At the other extreme,
the researcher may take one of the group’s roles as a vantage point for observation. For
example, the researcher may take an active part in the carnival festivals as if she is one of the
people he may be investigating.
The major purpose of participant observation is exploratory. In areas/societies where

relatively little is known, the method is useful for exploring the structural and psychological
make-up of groups and individuals, and for forming tentative hypotheses that may be
formally tested with another technique.
There are at least five major problems associated with participant observation:
The lack of reliability resulting from random observations by the researcher. It is
unlikely that two separate observers will perceive and record the same events in the same
way.
The participant-observer may sensitize the subjects by his/her presence, thus altering
their behavior, and consequently not getting the true picture.
The actual role taken by the observer narrows his/her range of experience. For
example, a teller in the bank can hardly go to the bank president for personal
information.
The observer may become so involved in the group that he/she loses objectivity.
Most observers must wait passively for occurrences. It is possible that particular
events they are most interested may not occur in the time span during which they are
observing.
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These factors are counteracted by five advantages of participant observations:
1. Observations take place in a natural setting, so that only contrived aspect is the
observer himself.
2. The observer is able to perceive the emotional reactions of his subjects, which may
lead to fruitful hypotheses.
3. By observing over an extended period of time, a great deal of information can be
obtained.
4. The observer is able to record the context, which gives meaning to the respondent’s
expressions of opinion and values.
5. The observer can establish solid relations (rapport), he may be able to ask sensitive
questions that would otherwise not be permissible.
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8.6 Mechanical Devices
Because people are selective and imprecise in the recording of events, mechanical recording
devices are important for certain types of recreational, tourism and other social researches.
The mechanical devices augment the human observations or do the observation for him.
The most commonly used mechanical devices are audio and visual tape recordings, moving
picture and still cameras, the interaction chronograph (which measures direction and frequency
of interaction), and Robert F. Bales’ interaction machine. The data provided by these devices
can be analyzed long after the events have occurred. Some of these techniques have led to
important studies of group formation and structure, personality types and operational measures
of cliques, leaders, followers and isolate.
8.7 Content Analysis
Content analysis is a term covering a variety of techniques for making inferences from “texts.”
The text can be any chunk of qualitative data such as fiction, non-fiction, recorded folktales,
newspaper editorials, advertisements, films, videos, photographs, and songs, among others.
The idea is to reduce the information in a text to a series of variables that can then be examined
for correlations.
8.8 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
A focus group comprises individuals with certain characteristics who focus discussions on a
given issue or topic. It affords the researcher an opportunity for certain questions to be
clarified or expand her own perceptions by sharing and comparing them to those of others,
which is not possible in questionnaires or interviews. Further, the focus group attempts to
provide a situation where the synergy of the group adds to the depth and insight. Thus, the
group strives to provide in-depth qualitative data, which could not be obtained efficiently in
any other way. In a sense, focus groups have something in common with brainstorming
techniques. It has many uses, most of which relate to program planning, program
improvement and program evaluation.
Question
Compare and contrast a Questionnaire and an Interview Guide
Schedule.
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8.9 Definition of Key Concepts
Sampling Frame is a list of all entities from which a sample is selected.
Sampling Method is a method of selection of entities from a sampling

frame.
Anderson, G. (1990): Fundamentals of Educational Research. The Falmer Press,

London.
Kothari, G. (1990): Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques.
Wiley Eastern, New Delhi.
Miller, C.D. (1991): Handbook of Research Design and Social
Measurement: Fifth Edition, Sage Publications-London.
Sonquist, J.A. and C.M. Dunkelberg (1977): Survey and Opinion Research:
Procedures for Processing and Analysis. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs- New
Jersey.
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LESSON IX:
MANAGEMENT OF FIELD NOTES
9.0 Introduction
Field-couirse in Geography, collect many kinds of qualitative and quantitative data. These
involve taking notes from formal interviews, observations, and measurements, among others.
In this lesson we focus on how to write field notes, how to code them and how to use them.
The methods help the researchers to work systematically at taking field notes and allow for
search through them quickly and easily to look for relationships in the data. There are four
types of field notes: jottings, diary, log and notes. These methods for making and coding
field notes have been borrowed freely from the experience of many researchers.
9.1 Objective
To describe types and significance of management of field notes.
9.2 Field Jottings
Field jottings or what Sanjek (1990) calls scratch notes are what the researcher collects
through the day. Human memory is a very poor recording device, especially for the kind of
details that make the difference between good and others in tourism research. The researcher
keeps a notepad at all times and make field jottings on the spot. This applies to both formal
and informal interviews made in the field. It also applies to things that just strike the eye as
one walk along. Jottings provide the trigger to recall the details the researcher may not have
time to write down while observing events or listening to informants. Even a few key words
jog the memory later because if they are not recorded, they will not be remembered.
It is advised that the researcher takes her role immediately on the arrival of the study site.
She should let the informants (respondents) know that she is at the site for study. Be honest
with people and ask the informants for the permission to take notes while you are talking
with them. If the respondents do not want you take the notes, they will tell you or they may
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ask you to see the notes. But remember, many respondents when they tell you about things,
they want to tell everyone because they know you are going to broadcast whatever they say.
9.3 The Diary
On the one hand, notes are based on observations that will form the basis of publications. A
diary, on the other hand, is personal. A diary chronicles how the researchers feel and
perceive relations with others around them. It is in the diary where emotional highs and lows
are jotted down, and they are supposed to be written at the end of each day’s fieldwork. It is
recommended that one take an average of half an hour each day pouring out the soul to a
diary. The diary is an important personal document because it gives information that helps
the researcher to interpret the field notes, and make her aware of personal biases. The
important thing about the diary is just to have one and should be kept separate from other
field notes.
Note that fieldwork is an intense experience that tests the researcher’s ability to function as a
scientist sometimes under stressful conditions. The diary gives an outlet for writing things
that one may not want to become part of a public record.
9.4 The Log
A log is a running account of how the researcher plans to use her time, how she actually
spends her time, and how much money she spends. A good log is the key to conducting
systematic fieldwork and to collection of both qualitative and quantitative data on a
systematic basis.
A field log should be kept in bound books of blank, lined pages. The log keeps track on the
places visited, the time, what the informants met and what was spent. As one goes through
any given day, she might think of many things that are to be known but cannot be resolved
on the spot. Such things must be written in the jot or log book.
The process of log-building enables one to think hard about the questions the researcher
wants answered in the research and the data needed. It is important to note that the researcher
begins project knowing some of the questions she is interested in. But quite often the
questions change, leading to adding or dropping others, or the entire emphasis shifting. Field
notes do not depend on the punctuality of informants or the ability of the researcher to do all
things she wants to do. They depend on systematic work over a period of time. For example,
if the informants do not show up for appointment (and often they won’t) the researcher is
supposed to evaluate whether or not she really needs the data that she thought would be
collected from such respondents. The log informs the researcher how much time has been
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spent in chasing a particular piece of information and enables to make decision easier.
Remember there is plenty of time for everything when the researcher has many months
stretching ahead. But is only a finite amount of time in fieldwork to get useful data, and the
goes very quickly.
9.5 Field Notes
There are three kinds of notes: notes on method and techniques, descriptive notes, and notes
that discuss issues or provide an analysis of the research theme:
(a) Methodological Notes deal with techniques of collecting data. Methodological notes can
also be about the researcher’s growth as an instrument of data collection. This is because,
collecting data is always awkward when the researcher begins the field project, but gets
easier as one becomes more comfortable in the field. During this critical period of
adjustment, the researcher is supposed to intellectualize the learning process about the
fieldwork by taking methodological notes. The methodological notes are thus to do with
conducting of field inquiry itself.
(b) Descriptive Notes are the meat and potatoes of fieldwork (Russell 1994). Most notes are
descriptive and are from two sources: watching and listening. Interviews with informants
produce acres of notes, especially tape recorders are used, and later writing down what
the informants have said. Observations and measurement of processes also produce a lot
of notes. Descriptive field notes may contain summary descriptions of an urban shopping
mall, environmental characteristics affecting the marine parks, and siting of historical
sites and museums. The best way to learn to write descriptive field notes is to practice
doing it with others who are trying to learn. Get together with one or more partners and
observe a process that is unfamiliar to all of you. What you observe capture it in the field
notes, for example, the details of behavior and the environment. Later, get together with
your research mates and discuss about the notes. Quite often two or more people see
much more just one sees. It may also happen that the researcher and the partners saw the
same things but wrote down different subsets of the same information, Table 8.0.
Students in a fieldwork course in Mombassa studied the environmental and cultural

impact on tourism. They were divided into groups and the following (Table 9.1) are the
descriptive notes for some two groups picked randomly from a sample of twelve.
(c) Analytical Notes involve laying out ideas about how one thinks the theme studied is
organized. Analytical notes can be about relatively minor things. For example, there could
be things the researcher observes and wants to provide answers. They are the product of a
lot of time and effort and may go on for several pages. They are often the basis for
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originality that form good chapters in dissertations and books, or published papers. They
are the product of understanding and they come about through organizing and working
with descriptive and methodological notes over a period of time.
Box 9.1(a) Descriptive Notes by Students in a Fieldwork Exercise in April 2003
Sample One:
We visited Bamburi Nature Trail, Haller Park on the 5th day of our filed-course. Mr.
Tarar, the ward-in-charge received us. He asked us to divide ourselves into groups and
conducted around the Park by a tour specialist. Mr. Tarer who led our group seems to
have knowledge about the park. We learnt that the park has been developed on a 75000
ha. Of land that had been left bare and desolate after the mining of limestone activities
stopped in 1963. The brain behind the rehabilitation work was a Swiss national, Dr.
Rein Harry who designed and put the park in 1971.
We saw the crocodile farm and we were told that they are 11 thousand of them in the
farm. We were also taken to the snake park and we saw various types of snakes such as
python, puff udder, green mamba, house snake, etc. Fish is reared together with
crocodiles, and hippos in a pool. We came to another pool where we saw alone very
huge baby hippo nicknamed Cleoptra is kept. We saw many birds perching up the
trees, some of which predate on fish. We came to the giraffe feeding point and fun to
feed them on some food pellets.
The vegetation in the park includes Casuarina, i.e., whispering pine trees,
mangrove trees and ferns, and papyrus reeds, among many others. We saw some
animals that are used to provide game meat such as the eland, oryx, waterbuck,
bushbuck and other types of antelopes. We also visited an area where nocturnal
animals like porcupines are kept but we could not see any because they are holed
up in their dens right then.
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Sample Two:
We left for Bamburi Nature Trail. The area was once full of limestone which was
excavated to provide raw material for Bamburi cement factory. The left behind was
barren and a health hazard due to accumulation of water, which bled mosquitoes. It was
also a dumping ground for Mombassa’s trash.
A Swiss ecologist called Rein Haller was hired by the company and mandated to
rehabilitate the site. He planted Casuarina trees, which did very well when the program
begun in 1971. The area now is a tourist attraction, with fifteen other income-
generating projects. Aquatic plants such as reeds, mangrove ferns and papyrus are used
as filters of polluted waters from crocodile farms. They are biologically used to control
pollution. Fish tilapia eats mosquito larvae, hence important in controlling the breeding
of mosquitoes. Mangrove forests have funny roots: pencil like roots used for breathing
purposes.
The mangrove is a hard wood tree that grows in salty water. There are 9 different spp.
Of the tree in the park. Fish farming is intensive and tilapia is the most favored spp.
Because it is hardy and can survive in different waters and lay a lot of eggs. Income
from the farm is used to finance a lot of activities. Other animals in the park include
hippos, monitor lizards, antelopes, turtle, oryx, snakes and rhinos.
Sample Three:
We arrived at Haller Park at 9.30 am. And observed coral sedimentary rocks where
Indian Ocean used to cover. Haller park rehabilitated the wasteland by growing various
trees from all over the world. The park was once a quarry for cement mining. It was left
as a useless rocky place almost like a desert.
In 1971, Haller Park brought 26 species of trees from all over the world, but only four
species survived, among them being whistling pine, mesquite tree, pulp tree. The
reclaimed land is 75 ha. The park has 11000 crocodiles, mainly used for meat and skin.
The meat is sold to tourist
9.5.1 Writing Field Notes
The difference between fieldwork and field experience is field notes. It is advisable for the
researcher to spend at least two hours every working day to write field jottings into field
notes, working on the diary, and coding interviews and notes. If the notes are not written up
every day while they are fresh, they are likely to be forgotten. This means that the
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researcher should not be involved in a lot of activities that will prevent her from spending
time writing up the day’s jottings.
Create many small notes rather than one long, running commentary. If the write up notes
are in the computer, make many separate files, one for each day. The advantage is that each
day’s notes are named by the day’s creation. That way, the computer will present the notes
in a chronological order so a particular day’s work is easily located. Many small files are
also easier to handle when text management and retrieval programs are handled.
9.6.2 Coding Field Notes
Use codes for places and the informants’ names, if any, and keep the codebook physically
separate from other field notes. It is a good idea to use a code for informant names on the
data, because the information collected, sometimes may embarrass or hurt someone if the
data falls into the wrong hands.
Questions:
Distinguish between:
Field Jottings and Field Notes,
The Log and The Diary, and
Descriptive Notes and Analytical Notes.
9.7 Further reading

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LESSON X:
WRITING OF FIELD-COURSE REPORTS
Objectives

Write a field-course report.
10.0 Introduction
The field report has to be written on the theme of the field-course, normally chosen by the
coordinators. The structure of the report is expected to be a synthesis of the entire field
experience. The students are normally expected to freely choose the format of their reports.
The critical issues in the evaluation of the reports will be on how clearly and logically the
report is written and how are the various aspects of the field-course exercise are substantiated.
Assessment will be made on one’s ability to develop and interpret the project’s topic. Other
aspects to be assessed will be originality of observations and conclusions, strength of
organization of the report, elegance of writing style, neatness, and relevance of supporting
materials such as maps, diagrams, and plates (photographs). However, each report must have
the following:
10.0.1 A title page
This page should be short and simple. It should provide the examiner with an indication of the
major variables of the field-course, the target population and geographical location.
10.0.2 Dedication
This is optional. However, this section should be dedicated to a person or people whom
authors consider to be special in their lives. A dedication is a statement such as “to my
parents.” Sometimes the author may give the reason for the dedication, e.g., “to my children
and wife, for standing by me throughout …”
10.0.3 Abstract
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This is a summary of the field-course report. It provides the examiner with a concise and
accurate picture of the entire report. For this reason, an abstract must provide pertinent points
from all the major sections of the field-course report. That’s, a good abstract presents the
examiner with the purpose of the study, the salient materials and methods used, the major
results (findings) and conclusion of the study. An abstract should not be more than one page,
and should be placed preferably immediately after the dedication.
10.0.4 Acknowledgement(s)
This is a list of individuals, a group of individuals and/or institutions/organizations who

during the field-course process gave some assistance in terms of money, time, energy and any
other resources. It is thus a matter of courtesy for the writer to acknowledge the help received
from these institutions and individuals. Given that the people and institutions that may assist
in one way or another are quite a number, it is important to acknowledge only a few to keep
the list as short as possible.
10.0.5 Table of Contents
This section guides the examiner to easily and quickly situate the various desired parts of the
project. It should contain the chapter headings and sub-headings, and the respective
corresponding pages.
10.0.6 List of Tables and Figures
As writers, you will be required to use tables and figures to summarize and present the
information in pictures and logical formats. All tables and figures must have titles,
summarizing the condensed data. This list follows the same format as the table of contents and
it helps the examiner to locate a particular table/figure in a faster way.
10.0.7 List of Abbreviations/Acronyms
The writer must give a list of all abbreviations and acronyms used in the report and explain in
full what each stands for. An abbreviation is a short form of a word, and for example, the short
form of the word kilogram is kg. An acronym on other hand is a contraction formed by taking
the first letter of several words to form another word, and for instance WHO is an acronym for
World Health Organization.
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10.0.8 Introduction
This section should have several components that include the background of the study, the
objectives, and/or hypothesizes of the study. It also has an adequate cover of geographical
setting, describing the area matrix, and commenting or justifying its choice and choice of the
topic.
10.0.9 Methodology (or Materials and Methods in the Natural Sciences)
Research methodology describes the procedures that were followed in conducting the field
course. The pertinent issues to discussed in this section are population, sample and sampling
techniques. The description of techniques/instruments of the measurement of variables, data
gathering and data analysis should be clearly and explicitly presented. That is to say, the steps
involved in conducting the field-course study should be described in detail. If the hypotheses
are to be tested, ensure that the level of significance is stated. Bear in mind that the details
given with respect to the procedures used in conducting the study are precise enough and can
be replicated by other researchers.
10.0.10 Results and Discussion (The Main Body)
This section requires a systematic presentation of the field-course results of data analysis. Use
statistics to summarize your results in tables in order to make some generalizations on the
population. It must develop the main theme of the project, based on the objectives
(hypotheses) of the study; using supporting evidence (examples) collected from within the
study area matrix. The information should be sufficiently, clearly and factually presented,
with the author supporting the facts with what other scholars have published and related to the
theme of the project. This is where the author demonstrates the points of departure or
agreement with other scholars related research work. The writer needs to be original and show
his/her own input in terms of interpreting or commenting on the observations, measurements
and opinions.
10.0.11 Summary of Findings, Conclusion and Recommendations
There must be an adequate summary and conclusion with sensible general comments on the
current and future state of the field-course findings. The summary reminds and informs the
examiner about the purpose of the study, the process used to collect and analyze data and the
major findings of the study. A summary must reflect as accurately as possible the body of
one’s report. The conclusion is important to the examiner because it is supposed to answer the
questions that aroused the curiosity to collect and analyze the data in the first place. At this
stage the writers should discuss the practical applications and implications of their findings in
the real world. Although they are supposed to have interpreted evidence at every step of their
conclusions put the pieces together in a broader perspective and indicate possible action,
where appropriate. The summary and conclusions should lead logically to the
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recommendations. Recommendations must be consistent with the purpose of the study, its
objectives, the evidence presented by the data and the interpretation given. Recommendations
should be practical and achievable.
10.0.12 References
Have a list of cited references, which is clearly and correctly written according to the
designated style. All published relevant references must be listed in the reference section. All
references in the text must be in this section, and any reference in the text must be called. This
listing of references is meant to acknowledge and give credit to authors of any work or
materials quoted from or referred to.
10.0.13 Appendices
The appendix section of the report contains information that the researcher does not consider
necessary to include in the body of the report. Such information if not moved to the appendix
section, congests the report without necessary adding value to the content of the document.
However, the material information in the appendix is used to clarify some statement appearing
in the body of the report. Instruments used in data collection such as questionnaires and
interview schedules, statistical tables, correspondences related to the study such as letters of
approval to conduct the research, and a copy of research permit are examples of the type of
information that may be included in the appendices.
10.0.14Others
This section include neatness and overall presentation of the field-course report such as
Use of clear sub-headings, and numbered pages.
Use of and refered maps, diagrams (figures) and tables of statistics where appropriate.
The figures should be neatly and clearly drawn and lettered using cartographic skills.
Language skills must be sharp and to the point. Spelling, grammar and expression
must be correct and explicit.
Question:
Choose any field-course report and evaluate its various components using the
checklist provided in this lesson.
10.1 References
Hagedorn, R. and S. Laboritz (1976): Introduction to Social Research. Second 107
Edition.
Nyasani, J.M. (1987): NB Examination Techniques Guide. Nairobi Bookmen.
108
PART THREE
LESSON XI:
PARTICIPATION IN A ONE-WEEK
FIELD-COURSE
11.0 Introduction
The field-course is is not another occasion, when instructors lecture students while on
location in the field. Rather, it is for students themselves to have observations, listen to
informed people (resource persons), record carefully, and attempt to make sense of it. The
Kenyatta University academic staff in the exercise will thus, only play a passive role. This
means that the students must be alert all the time and keep accurate records as already
described in Lesson 9.0. Documentary sources are also important and should be used to
augment this field-course.
11.1 Participation
The Age 300 field-course is a compulsory exercise for all students in undergraduate
programme in the Department of Geography. Should any student plan to be away during the
exercise, prior permission should be sought from coordinators of the field-course. Reasons
for absence will not be entertained, except valid medical reports sanctioned by the University
Medical Officer of Health, enable the coordinators to recommend the student(s) for a retake
in the following semester.
11.2 Accommodation and Catering
The entire student party will be accommodated and catered for at a far away place from
Kenyatta University. The students must carry with them bed sheets, pillowcases, soap and
toilet paper. Meanwhile, it is advisable for every student to carry personal effects such as
clothes, walking shoes, a clipboard and writing materials. Carrying a torch is very necessary,
and those with cameras are encouraged to bring them along.
Any problems that may arise should be channeled to the staff participants coordinating the
exercise. But always remember that flexibility is the key to success in any field-course
circumstance.
11.3 Safety
Coordinating staff normally appeals to students' sense of responsibility with strict rules such
as not going out at night, and no mixing of sexes per room, not even couples. Safety is not
only about the pragmatics of risk management and physical safety, it is also about ensuring
the emotional safety of fieldtrip participants. Fieldtrip leaders need to pay attention to group
109
dynamics, to students who might feel excluded by their peer group and/or alone in spite of
the group-based nature of fieldtrips. One female student made the following comment after 3
days fieldtrip:
"I had no friends on [the fieldtrip], it sort of made me feel quite stink... I ended up
quite depressed and I wanted to go home."
Issues of emotional and physical safety are accentuated when students participate in
residential fieldtrips away from their usual boarding residence. It is therefore important for
the coordinating staff to give attention to group process and to student involvement in
fieldtrip planning.
11.4 Student Involvement in Fieldtrips
Preparation, for example, pre-fieldtrip discussions with students about what it means to go
away and live as well as work together in a ‘foreign’ context; a pre-fieldtrip information
sheet for students to convey information about their expectations of a fieldtrip, their physical
abilities, medical conditions, food and sleeping preferences, etc., is relevant. Involvement of
students in decision-making, will make them appreciate these fieldtrips more because they
will experience the difficulties of organisation (budget, collaboration, content, etc.).
Critical reflexivity, e.g., completion of a report is one fieldwork task in which students write
critically and reflexively about fieldwork/fieldtrip practices; post-fieldtrip evaluations and/or
debriefing allow student feedback about their fieldwork/fieldtrip experiences. This will
normally be in the form marked reports of the fieldwork.
11.5 A Proposed Action Plan for Taking the Ideas Forward

• Mechanisms to help information exchange – lectures for pre-field trip initiative
explaining the essence of the field-course is very necessary.
• Mechanisms to improve flow and exchange of students between fieldwork opportunities.
• Field reconnaissance for institutions regarding fieldwork expenses, safety regulations,

students' perceptions/evaluations.
11.6 Problems Associated with Field Trips
110
• Students may not be comfortable with several branches of geography to be broached
tpgether during the same field trip and they may complain about overlap when the same
issues could be dealt with on several fieldtrips.
• a direct and concrete approach to problems with student involvement.
• few speakers (since speakers often offer their presentation in a kind of classroom
situation and/or do not tell students what they want to know).
However, it should be acknowledges that it is very difficult to fulfill these expectations all at
the same time. Moreover, some of the students' preferences are contradictory and/or opposite
to educational objectives such as recognising outcomes of the same spatial process in
different contexts.
The unintended consequences of a fieldtrip about cultural difference is the potential problem
of 'privileged' university students going to view 'unprivileged' groups. One student observed:
"I felt sort of uncomfortable about, because, you know people were out on
their lawns [in a lower socio-economic suburb. I felt sorry for them, us
driving past looking at them, thinking oh we must be studying them, we must
be poor or we must be rich or classifying them you know I wasn't worried
about us, I was sort of, I felt quite stink for them, sort of driving through
looking at them, looking at these people but there's no other way you can do it
really."
Are there other ways of conducting fieldwork? How might we conduct fieldwork that is not
invasive? How might we formulate culturally sensitive fieldwork practices?
11.8 Course Organisation
Study Location: to be identified by the coordinating staff during a fieldwork reconnaissance.

Travel: the same staff make travel arrangements.
Cost : the coordinating staff to prepare a justified budget for the field-course: the budget
consitutes catering and accommodation expenses for students and accompanying staff, transport,
resource persons, and other expenses.
Learning style: The field course involves preparation lecture sessions throughout the Semester.
You will be expected to prepare for your field experience anywhere in Kenya.
Daily Schedule and Leaders responsibilities: Before the project day, the students should meet
their staff to organize the days fieldwork. The group leaders for the days project have the
following responsibilities in relation to this meeting:
They must ensure that the whole group is out of bed and present at the meeting,
At the meeting they should familiarize members of the group with the risk assessment
they have completed for the project,
They should explain the days work plan to the group,
111
Before the meeting group leaders should sign out the equipment necessary from the
project from a member of staff.
After each days fieldwork there will be a de-briefing with a member of staff. At this meeting
the group will report on the days progress. At this meeting the leader must:
Sign in any equipment with a member of staff.
Check that the group are all present.
Collate all the data collected during the day.
Organise the presentation of the data either orally or in written form.
On the following day, the group leaders are responsible for ensuring that all students are
involved in the preparation and collation of daily activities.
11.9 References
Clark, D. (1996): The changing national context of fieldwork in Geography. Journal of
Geography in Higher Education, 20, 385-391.

Gray, M. (1993): A survey of Geography fieldwork funding in the 'old' U.K. Universities.
Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 17, 33-34.
Higgitt, M. (1996): Addressing the new agenda for fieldwork in Higher Education. Journal of
Geography in Higher Education, 20, 391-398.
Livingstone, I., Matthews, H. and Castley, A. (1998) Fieldwork and dissertations in

Geography: Geography Discipline Network, Cheltenham.
112

AGE 300 Air Photo Interpretation and Field Course

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AGE 300 Air Photo Interpretation and Field Course

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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

Institute Of Open Learning

Table Of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 2

LESSON VI: ...............................................................................................................................67

LESSON XI: .............................................................................................................................109

INTRODUCTION, HISTORY, SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF AERIAL

By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

remote sensing operations

Development of Aerial Surveys in Kenya

Scope and Significance of Aerial Photography

Photogrammetry as a science is concerned with procurement of accurate and reliable

1.1.1 Increased Spatial Resolution and Geometric Fidelity

1.1.2 Broadened Spectral Sensitivity

1.1.3 Permanent Recording

Capability of ‘Stop Action’

1.2.1 Communication and Illustration

Photogrammetry is a science, which deals with procurement of accurate and reliable

Carter, D.J. (1986): Remote Sensing Source Book: A Guide to Remote

ACQUISITION AND TYPES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

2.0.1 Acquisition of Existing Photography

2.0.2 The Reasons for a Photo Mission

Some Factors to be Considered in Flight Missions

Number of Photos per Flight Line

Number of Flight Lines

Computing the number of flightlines is essential in dwetermining the number of photos

also 60+-5% and 25 +-5%, respectively.

2.1 TYPES OF AIR PHOTOGRAPHS

Several types of aerial photographs can be distinguished on the basis of a variety of

2.1.1 Vertical Aerial Photographs

and scale classificatory approaches.

[a] Low-Angle Oblique Photographs

[b] High-Angle Oblique Photographs

[i] Advantages of Vertical Photographs

respectively. The ground plot pictured is irregular of a four-sided-polygon, trapezoid.

b) It is easier and more accurate to measure direction on vertical than an oblique

[ii] Disadvantages of Vertical Air Photographs

[iii] Advantages of Oblique Photographs

[iv] Disadvantages of Oblique Photographs

In contrast to genetic classification, spectral classification is based on the region of the

PROPERTIES OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

Air photographs represent an enormous concentration of information. The user must

3.0.2 Principal Points

in a truly vertical photography.

[i] Methods of Determining Photo Scale

Photo scale [Ps] = F

F= Focal length of camera lens

(b) Computing PhotoScale Using Known Objects

(c) Computing PhotoScale Using Maps

Photo scale [Ps] = Map distance [Md] X Map Scale Factor[MSF]

Photo distance [Pd]

[ii] Scale Distortions

Photo scale variation causes geometric distortion whereby points on a photograph

On a photograph, areas of varying terrain, high-lying areas in terms of altitude lie

3.1 Photo Mosaics

A photo mosaic refers to an assembly of individual aerial photographs fitted together

Controlled photo mosaic is obtained when an assembly of aerial photographic prints is

3.2 Forms in which Photography is Used

3.2.1 Paper Prints

3.2.2 Positive Transparencies

3.2.3 Ratioed Prints

By the end of this lesson, students should be able to:

4.2.1 Rapid Adjustment

1) Place the photographs approximately in position under the stereoscopes by estimation.

4.2.2 Careful Adjustments

Figure 4.3: Careful adjustments of air photographs for stereoscopic viewing.