ADIGRAT UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

COURSE TITLE ENGINEERING MATERIAL

COUSRE CODE CHEg 4131

WORK TYPE -PROJECT ASSIGNMENT

TITLE OF PROJECT DESIGN OF FILTER FROM AGAVE PLANT FIBER

ACADAMIC YEAR 2011 E.C

NETWOR ONE

No. Name of group member Id

1 Gebrekiros Tewelay 01241/08

2 Gebremedhn Gebrewahd 01260/08

3 Hadush Teklay 01399/08

4 Hafte Hiluf 01404/08

5 Gebrehiwot W/kidan 01236/08

6 Michw Hiluf 01909/08

7 Trhas Gebremeskel 02381/08

8 Trhas Aregay 02366/08

9 Trhas kidu 02377/08

10 Makda G/tsadkan 01911/08

Submittion date 24/04/2011

Submitted to ins. Zinabu h.

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Acknowledgements
This project is the outcomes of so many efferts.so many peoples take part in completion of this project.
Then first and for most we would like to express our large gratitude to our god. Next we would like to
say thanks for our teacher BASHA M. who help us how to do the project. Finally we would like to express
our appreciation for all who helps us to complete our project starting to finish.

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Abstract
The residents in third world countries battle against waterborne diseases every day. It is a luxury to have
access to safe drinking water. However, it is extremely difficult to invest on a water filter with minimal
annual income. A low cost water filter can serve as a subsidy such that every family can take advantage
of this luxury. In this thesis, literature reviews on existing water filters have been completed and design
of a dual level water filter with agave plant fiber is developed. Water flow rate tests are carried out to
optimize water filter design. Further, the filter effectiveness in diminishing various contaminates is
analyzed by a licensed sampling laboratory. A manufacturing line to produce the dual water filters is
proposed and the cost of manufacturing a unit is calculated to be 100, which is an affordable price for
people in third world countries. With a low cost water filter available, residents in the third world
countries could enjoy having safe drinking water and improve quality of life.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................................ i
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................... ii
1.Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1
2. Background ............................................................................................................................................... 1
3) Problem statement .................................................................................................................................. 2
4) Objective of project .................................................................................................................................. 2
5) Literature review ...................................................................................................................................... 3
5.1 Ultraviolet (UV) Water Treatment ...................................................................................................... 3
5.2 Reverse Osmosis Filters ...................................................................................................................... 4
5.3 Slow Sand Filters ................................................................................................................................. 5
5.4 Activated carbon filter ........................................................................................................................ 6
5.5 Ceramic Filters .................................................................................................................................... 7
5.6 agave fiber filters ................................................................................................................................ 7
6) Materials and methods ........................................................................................................................... 7
6.1 Choice of Water Filtration Method ..................................................................................................... 7
6.2 Water Standards ................................................................................................................................. 8
6.3 Methodology....................................................................................................................................... 8
6.4 material used and method of production........................................................................................... 8
7. Method of Testing ................................................................................................................................... 18
7.1 Flow Rate Test ................................................................................................................................... 18
8. Design & Prototyping .............................................................................................................................. 22
8.1 Prototyping ....................................................................................................................................... 22
8.2 Final design ....................................................................................................................................... 22
9. Result and discussion .............................................................................................................................. 23
10. Economic Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 28
11. Difficulties ............................................................................................................................................. 28
12. conclusion and Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 29
13. Reference .............................................................................................................................................. 30

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1.Introduction
Drinking water conditions have great impacts on people’s everyday life, especially in third world
countries where access to safe drinking water is very limited. Surface water often is the only
source, thus water contaminations are hard to avoid. Unsafe drinking water causes diarrhea
diseases. Statistics shows that these diseases cause ninety percent of all deaths of children
under five years old in developing countries, where children’s resistance to infections is low.
Although municipal water in developed countries already fall into the World Health
Organization (WHO) safe drinking water standards, water filters are still commonly used to
improve taste or to eliminate any undesired matters. Various types of filters have been
designed to be more suitable in the third world countries, but the cost is still not satisfactory
and many products are imported which further add to the cost. The scope of this project is to
study the existing water filtration methods, and use the knowledge to design a water filtration
system. This water filtration system will focus on cutting down the cost while maintaining filter
effectiveness. It is preferred to have manufacturing plants set up on site and filters can be
distributed locally to reduce any unnecessary costs. By providing affordable water filters to
third world countries will greatly improve people’s quality of living, and reduce the risk of any
waterborne diseases therefore saving lost.

2. Background
Most of the people in third world countries do not have easy access to clean drinking water.
While safe drinking water is essential for living, lack of access has resulted in many water
related diseases. Water filters are already being used in some third world countries including
Since contaminated drinking water contributes to disease world-wide, the World Health
Organization (WHO) had created a set of guidelines for drinking water quality to set an
international standard. These guidelines are often used in water filter designs. Flow rate and
capacity of water filters are also need to be considered when designing water filters. In the US,
the Reference Daily Intake (RDI) of water from sources other than food intake is on an average
of 2L per capita per day. This amount may vary due to the different circumstances, such as
gender, age, and climate. For the purpose of this project, 2L per capita per day is used products
such as Life Straw. Life Straw is a portable water filter designed for personal use. One Life Straw
costs about $3 USD. It can filter at least 700 liters of water, and removes 99% of bacteria and
viruses. Life Straw Family filters has also been invented recently at a cost of $25 USD. Life Straw
Family is as effective as the Life Straw, and can be used by a family for up to 3 years assuming
20L/day water consumption. Compared to the under $1000 USD per capita income in many
third world countries, spending $25 USD on a filter is considered expensive. Agave fiber water
filters are also commonly used in some developing countries. These filters are inexpensive and
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easy to manufacture. They are effective at eliminating bacteria and sediments, but they do not
remove chemical contaminants. Since contaminated drinking water contributes to disease
world-wide, the World Health Organization (WHO) had created a set of guidelines for drinking
water quality to set an international standard. These guidelines are often used in water filter
designs. Flow rate and capacity of water filters are also need to be considered when designing
water filters. In the US, the Reference Daily Intake (RDI) of water from sources other than food
intake is on an average of 2L per capita per day. This amount may vary due to the different
circumstances, such as gender, age, and climate. For the purpose of this project, 2L per capita
per day is used. This filter media is initially stands for helping the poor society to reduce the bad
ingredient of water. Because dirt water have many health problem then this filter equipment is
used to reduce this problem is less cost and easy way. Then we have designed this filter media
to solve this problem.

3) Problem statement
The problem raised here how we can develop a filter media from local materials to reduce cost
and solve water quality parameter. The agave plant is found in our environment, so using this
plant for filtration reduce cost of importing filter media from other country. Using local
products reduce cost of designing and the external part of the filtration is made of polymer.
This can improve the term processing .reusing waste product can also maintain environmental
quality.

4) Objective of project
A.General objective
The objective to this project is to design a low-cost and easily manufactured water filtration
system for use in third world countries. This water filtration system will include a water filtering
component, a lidded container to hold clean water and a valve for easy access of water.
Manufacturing facility arrangement will also be examined and planned. The water filtration
system is designed to provide safe drinking water for households of four to eight people. Target
manufacturing cost is around 100 birr apiece. In order to achieve the low cost, use of simple
technology and readily available materials are the prime consideration needed to insure
production of the filters in the local area. Existing water filters have been analyzed and
compared to determine the best type on the basis of cost, material availability, and
effectiveness. Filter dimensions are calculated based on amount of water consumption per
household and flow rate of filter.

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 B. Specific objective
The specific objective of this project is to recover waste materials. Using waste material can
reduce cost of production and improve quality of environment. During designing of our project
we have used waste water container polymer, woods, waste metal rods and small waste pipes.
Then those are all waste for the environment so Appling those to any process reduce
environmental waste.

5) Literature review
To gain more insight knowledge on the existing water filtration systems, research was done on
6 most common types of home use water filters. These are UV water treatment, reverse
osmosis filters, slow sand filters, activated carbon, ceramic filter and agave fiber filtration.
Different filter types were studied and comparisons were made on factors including price,
functionality, manufacturing process, maintenance and effectiveness. Based on the
characteristics of these filtration methods and the objective of this project, ceramic and
activated carbon were chosen to the media to be considered. A well-known water filter brand
Brita as well as a candle ceramic filter were purchased and taken apart to be studied further on
their structure and functionalities.

5.1 Ultraviolet (UV) Water Treatment

UV treatment is a disinfection process that works by having water pass by a special light source.
The light source emits ultraviolet waves which inactivates harmful microorganisms. UV rays
alter the nucleic acid (DNA) of viruses, bacteria, molds, and parasites, so that they cannot
reproduce and are considered inactive. The process does not add chemicals to water, but the
inactivated microorganisms are also not removed from the water. UV treatment is not intended
to treat wastewater or water that is visually contaminated. Particles in water can block the UV
rays and allow harmful particles to survive. Therefore, UV water treatment is usually combined
with pre or post filtration device to produce safe, potable water. Also, to ensure the proper
usage of UV treatment, water should be tested beforehand, since hardness, alkalinity and such
properties of water can influence UV effectiveness. For household applications, point-of-use UV
system is used. The system is small, portable, and can be attached to a faucet or mounted
under the sink. UV system consists of a UV light source, protective transparent housing for the
bulb, power supply, water chamber, and filters for pre/post –treatment . Figure below shows
the basic components of a simple UV filter with a pre filter built onto it. A unit of UV system
costs from $300 (self-installed), to $1200 (with more features). Maintenance of the UV filter
involves UV bulb replacement to ensure proper emission of ultraviolet waves. Annual
replacement of filter/bulb costs up to $150.

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5.2 Reverse Osmosis Filters
Reverse Osmosis water filters are typically used to improve drinking and cooking water quality
in households. It is one of the finest water filtration methods and reduces almost all organic
and inorganic chemicals, bacteria, microorganisms, salt, metals and particulates that are found
in contaminated water. It also improves tastes, odor and appearance. Reverse osmosis water
filtration system includes a semi-permeable membrane and a booster pump.

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5.3 Slow Sand Filters
Unlike all the other water filtration methods, slow sand water filters utilize biological processes
in a non-pressurized system to purify water. Slow sand filtration systems have already been
used in many developing countries, and some developed countries such as UK also use slow
sand filters to treat the water supply. Slow sand filters are constructed with a bed of fine sand
as the filtration media, and gravel to support the sand as shown in Figure below. A complex
biological layer, Schmutzdecke, which consists of bacteria culture, is grown on the surface of
slow sand filter. As water passes through the Schmutzdecke layer, particles of foreign matter
and dissolved organic material are adsorbed and metabolized. Slow sand filters can only filter
water up to a certain turbidity level, since water with high turbidity clogs up the filter bed
quickly. Slow sand filters are very effective at removing heavy metals, and it is often combined

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with activated carbon to remove organic material as well as to improve odor and taste. Flow
rate of slow sand filters are directly proportional to the dimension. It has a steady slow flow at
an average of 250L/h/m2, and the height of sand can be no less than 75cm for the filtration
method to work properly. The cost of making the filter oneself does not cost a lot of money, but
for pre-made automated systems, it may cost $600 to $1000 depending on the size. Slow sand
filters can be easily maintained by backwashing the unit once every few weeks to wash way
contaminates clogging up the surface. This insures a consistent flow rate.

5.4 Activated carbon filter

Carbon is known as a popular absorbent of impurities. Activated carbon is processed carbon
with a slightly positive charge added to it and is more attractive to chemicals and impurities. It
is extremely-porous, thus provides high surface area to volume ratio which increases the rate of
absorption. Because of this property, activated carbon is commonly used in water treatment
systems. Activated carbon can be used alone to improve tastes and odors, and it is most
effective at removing organic compounds including VOCs, radon, and chlorine. It can also be
used as pre-treatment for other water purification systems such as reverse osmosis and
ultraviolet water filters. Carbon can be obtained from a variety of sources such as coconut shell,
wood or coal, and all of which are readily available practically everywhere in the world. The
activation process is also quite simple and can be done with an industrial oven. Although
carbon blocks have a higher contaminate removal ratio, granulated activated carbon are more

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commonly used in home filter systems. Activated carbon bits cannot be reused and need to be
replaced after filtering about 150L of water. Activated carbon has already been widely used,
such as in Brita filters. Brita filter units cost about $7 USD in North America .

5.5 Ceramic Filters

Ceramic filter is one of the most economical filtration methods and it is already being widely
used in some third world countries. Ceramic filter blocks anything larger than a water molecule,
allowing only water to pass through the pores. When ceramic water filters are treated with
colloidal silver, it can further prevent bacteria and the growth of mold and algae in the body of
the filter. Two styles of ceramic filters exist on the current market, pot and candle ceramic
filters. Figure shows a purchased candle ceramic filter. It consists of filter housing and a
threaded plastic connection to water source. The filter is later dissected and studied further.
Candle ceramic filters are sometimes filled with activated carbon to increase water purity. Flow
rate of ceramic water filters are controlled by surface area and the amount of additives. For a
pot filter with the ideal proportion mixture of filter material, flow rates of 1-3 L/hr can be
achieved. Ceramic filters are made with clay and combustible additives, all materials are
inexpensive and can be easily found. Ceramic filters are brittle and high maintenance in
comparison with other filters. Since sediments fill up the pores on the filter surface, they need
to be cleaned regularly. To clean ceramic filters, scrubbing the surface with a brush or
reverseflow would be effective.

5.6 agave fiber filters

Agave fiber is made from the extracted fiber of agave plant. The fiber of the plant can be
extracted by mechanical or chemical method. Then the fiber have great tendency of absorbing
dirt from water .so the fiber is easily found in the environment than the other filtration
equipments.then the fiber is arranged in appropriate way to made easy for filtration. When we
compare this method we the other methods it consume less economy and uses environmental
waste to design it.so it have dual advantage in environment .those are filtering dirt water and
cleaning dirt environment by Applying the waste material for design .

6) Materials and methods

6.1 Choice of Water Filtration Method
The main source of water in third world countries is surface water from rivers and ponds.
Surface water contaminants typically consist of sediments, bacteria, viruses, VOCs and heavy
metals. Bacteria and viruses are the main causes of waterborne diseases. Therefore, eliminating
bacteria and viruses would be the main task for the filter. Sediment and other solid particles
also need to be removed to make the water drinkable. Of the five filters studied, it is clear that

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all filters, except activated carbon, would eliminate bacteria and viruses. Ultraviolet treatment
is perhaps the best method to inactivate bacteria and viruses, but not very effective on other
contaminates. Ultraviolet treatment is also expensive. Reverse osmosis filters eliminate most
contaminates, but since the target consumers are in third world countries, having low-cost
manufacturing methods and readily available is critical. Reverse osmosis filters require
technology not yet available in third world countries, and manufacturing cost is relatively high.
Thus it is not suitable for this application. Slow sand filters are economical and material is also
easily obtained. However, it only operates properly in large size. This is not viable for a typical
home use water filter. Then ceramics is also costly than the fiber filter. So the fiber is selected
to design in this case.

6.2 Water Standards

The World Health Organization (WHO) published a guideline for safe drinking water standards.
There are other drinking water guidelines that exist. These include guidelines from Canada, and
the European Union. The standards from WHO were used because they represent the global
drinking water standard. The water filter to be designed should be safe for use in all countries
around the world. All water testing results.

6.3Methodology
Agave fiber filters are inexpensive to make, and a few Engineering without Borders
Organization is already producing ceramic filters for people in third world countries. To keep
the overall cost similar to that of the existing filters, methods described below are carried out in
the development of this low cost, dual water filtration .

6.4 material used and method of production

Material used Advantage
Agave fiber Used to filter the waste water to serve pure water to the sociaty
Wood It supprt or stand the filtration,backwashing and storage tank
Waste polymer(water container) They are used as the packet of the filtration.all the filtration is
made in side of this container
Waste metal wire This metal wire helps to maintaine the balance of the interior
seive of the filtration
Uhu This is the adhecive compenent that join the filtration seive with
the polymer container

Extraction of Agave American Fibers

Mature Agave Americana plant leaves are harvested from the field for fiber extraction. All
lower leaves, standing at an angle of more than 45° to the vertical are cut away from the plant
by means of a sharp cutting tool. After harvesting, the leaves are transported to a factory for

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fiber extraction. Before extraction, thorns on the leaf margins and the spine at the leaf tip are
removed. The methods used for extraction of Agave Americana fibers from plant leaves are
similar to the methods that are used for extraction of sisal fibers. There are three major fiber
extraction methods: mechanical extraction, chemical extraction and retting process. After
extraction of fibers by any of these methods, all extracted leaves are washed away before
drying. Proper drying is important as the moisture content in fiberaffects fiber quality. Artificial
drying results in higher grade fibers than sun drying . The fibers were dried under a shade to
avoid bleaching by direct sunlight. Dry fibers are then combed, sorted into different grades and
packed into bales.

A. Mechanical Method

Historically, hand decortication was done by rural folk whereby the leaves were pounded and
the pulp was scraped away with a knife. Hand decortication is time consuming and needs a lot
of manpower. Nowadays, decortication can be done efficiently by using mechanical
decorticator. In the mechanical decoration process, leaves are crushed and beaten by a rotating
wheel set with blunt knives, so that only fibers remain. Some decorticators are fed by hand and
the pulp is first scraped from half of a leaf, the leaf is withdrawn, and then the opposite half is
inserted for scraping. In some machines, the whole leaf is decorticated in single insert . gives a
sectional view of the most important parts of fiber stripper/decorticator. Agave Americana
plant leaf is fed through the mouthpiece, then it passes through the fluted feed rollers, which
hold the leaves as they are fed in against a stationary bar, while the stripping drum is beating
out the vegetable matter as the leaf passes between it and the beater bar. The stripping drum
diameter, width and speed vary according to different makes. The drum, scraping against the
leaf, held in position by the beating bar and feed rollers beats off the bulk of the vegetable

9
matter and leaves the fibers somewhat roughened and with a residue of vegetable matter
remaining upon it . After completion of decortication and washing, the fibers are dried either
with mechanical driers or in the sun. The operations of fiber removal, washing and drying must
be done promptly after the leaves are cut, otherwise the gums in the leaves harden, causing
the pulp to adhere with the fibers and making it difficult to clean the fibers properly .
Mechanical extraction methods are not efficient in the removal of cementing compounds
(mostly waxes, hemicelluloses, lignin and hydrocarbons) between fiber.

This is mechanical method of fiber extraction using shredding

B. Chemical Method

Chemical fiber extraction involves the use of acids, alkali and enzymes. The use of acids in
cellulosic fiber extraction hydrolyses lignin and hemicellulose into shorter chain pentose
molecules. Acid treatment results in the formation of reactive groups and causes fibers to
fibrillate, revealing a higher degree of crystallinity of fibrils. Alkali used in fiber extraction
dissolves the lignocellulose material between fibers and separates structural linkages between
lignin and cellulose, which leads to increased surface area as well as a degree of polymerization
and lowers the breaking strength of fibers. In enzymatic process of fiber extraction, there is
degradation of lignocellulose component in fibers by enzymes resulting increased fiber swelling
and lowers the degree of polymerization. Fibers extracted by using enzymes more pliable and
softer.

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 C. Retting Process

Retting is a well studies method of extraction of fibers by a natural microbial process. Retting
involves the degradation of non-fibrous matter which acts as glue between the fibers in woody
plant parts and fibers without damaging the fiber cellulose. This process allows easy separation
of individual fiber strands and the woody core. Since retting is a biological process, it requires
both moisture and a warm temperature for microbial action to occur.

Types of rating

1. Natural Retting

It is a preferential rotting process to separate the fiber from lignocellulose biomass without
damaging the fiber cellulose. Retting is the microbial freeing of plant fibers from their
surroundings. The process takes up to three weeks. Retting microbes consume the non-fibrous
cementing materials mainly pectin and hemicellulose. This gradually softens the leaves by the
destruction of the less resisting intercellular adhesive substances. When fermentation has
reached the appropriate stage, the fibers can be separated quite easily from the leaves. If
retting process is allowed beyond this point, fibers decline in quality. Under-retting causes
incomplete removal of gummy materials such as pectin substances, and extraction of fiber
becomes difficult. Hence, the progress of retting must be observed carefully at intervals to
avoid fiber damage. Though the natural retting takes more time, the process is economical.
There are two traditional types of retting include water retting and field or dew retting. In
water retting, plant leaves are immersed in water (river, pond or tanks). In field or dew retting,
the crop is spread in the field where rain or dew provides moisture for retting. Water retting
produces fibers of greater uniformity and higher quality than fibers extracted by field retting.

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 2. Enzymatic Retting

Enzymatic retting is the process in which the pectin materials surrounding the fiber bundles are
degraded by industrially produced enzymes. Enzymatic retting is faster than natural
fermentation retting and results into softer fibers. It has the potential to simplify and reduce
fiber extraction costs. Enzymatic retting is expected to offer greater process control, increased
fiber yield and shorter processing time. Enzyme solution used in retting can be recycled several
times, which makes the process eco-friendly and cost effective. Pectinases and xylenes are the
enzymes which can be used for retting plant portions for fiber release. The enzyme can be used
at higher concentrations to speed up the retting process. For example: 1.5 gpl (grams per liter)
of water or 3.0 gpl of water or 5.0 gpl of water can be used. The enzyme cellulose should be
avoided in any enzymatic retting process of cellulosic fibers, since this will reduce the strength
of the fibers.

D. Evaluation of Fibers

Agave is noted for its strong and coarse fibers, which are superior and more flexible than
Manila hemp [9]. These natural cellulosic fibers are characterized by high moisture absorbency
up to 9%, low-density of 1.36 gm/cm3 and high tenacity in the range of 16–41 cN/tex. The
fibers obtained are flexible, smooth and lustrous and had similar burning characteristics like
other known cellulosic fibers. The fibers contain about 73%–78% of lignified form of cellulose
[9]. Fiber surface is covered with lignin. After removal of lignin from fiber surface, fibers
become flexible, smooth and lustrous. The fibers are very long with a mean length of 652 mm
and coarser with an average linear density equal to 24 tex. Generally, natural fibers are
hydrophilic in nature and this was evident with Agave Americana fiber with a moisture regain
and moisture content up to 9%. Agave Americana fibers greatly vary in their properties with
grade as well as within the same leaf. These fibers disintegrate when exposed to strong acid
and alkalis, but were resistant to weak acids and alkalis. Each Agave Americana fiber consists of
a number of cells, generally referred as ultimate’s or ultimate cells. The overlapping ultimate’s
are held together with a waxy film to form the filament fibers. This implies that an individual
fiber is made up of a complete vascular bundle or group of vascular bundles. The vascular
bundle consists of transportation tissue vessels surrounded by a thick sheave of fibers cells.
Each ultimate is polygonal in shape and has a lumen. Agave Americana fibers in a leaf consist of
both xylem and phloem and various ensheafing cells, found scattered through a leaf pithy
matrix. The cells are lignified to a greater or lesser degree and are hard in comparison with soft
fibers. The entire fibro-vascular bundle serves as a unit fiber. The diameter of Agave Americana
fibers varies throughout the length and depends on how many ultimate’s are there in the cross
section.

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 1. Fiber Morphology

Figure 3 depicts the longitudinal (Figure 3a) and cross-section (Figure 3b) views of an agave
Americana fiber. By examining Agave Americana fibers with an SEM (Scanning Electron
Microscope), we can observe longitudinal streaks which are characteristics of long vegetable
fibers. The fiber has a composite structure. Ultimate fibers (Figure 3c) are held together by
sticky and waxy substances such as lignin, pectin and hemicelluloses. The fiber surface is also
covered with these substances. Due to this natural coating, Agave Americana fibers present a
high resistance when they are exposed to the influence of some external factors like weak
chemical agents such as acids and alkalis, as well as to UV (108 h). Agave Americana fibers occur
as a technical fiber, having oval and irregular sections with a large lumen and appears as a
helical structure of square shape spires. These fibers can be characterized by two parameters:
the average length of a spiral side which is about 10.1 μm and the average diameter which is
equal to 3.1 μm. The average diameter is very small compared to other natural fibers such as
flax, sisal and alfa. This particular structure will be used to explain the mechanical behavior of
the technical fibers.

2.Fiber Length

Agave Americana fibers are somehow longer than sisal fibers. The bundles have a long effective
length. If fiber is removed from the full length of leaf sheaths by hand stripping, the fiber
strands from the middle sheaths may run as long as 2.8 m.

3.Fiber Diameter

The Agave Americana fibers appear as in bundles, which contain many ultimate fibers
imperfectly held together by some sticky and waxy substances. The thickness of the fiber when
determined using projection microscope, it was in the range of 100–150 µm. Agave Americana
fibers are relative thick fiber as a result of the numerous cell ultimate’s that form the fiber
bundle.

4. Moisture Absorption Properties

The fiber shows hydrophilic properties. This fiber absorbs more water than its own weight.
Moisture content as well as moisture regain of Agave Americana fiber is found to be around
8%–9%, which is comparable to other cellulosic fibers.

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 5. Visual and Hand Evaluation

In visual and hand evaluation of Agave Americana fibers, the observation of fiber shape, color,
surface texture are visually evaluated.

A. Physical Shape

The fiber is long, round and generally taper to a point, having one side thicker. The fibers from
the lower side of the leaf are particularly finer.

B. Color

The color of the Agave Americana fiber ranges from off-white to yellowish, which is
depending upon the processing technique and the processing time used for fiber extraction.
The retted fiber was darkened, which can be discolored with a naturally looking light brown
color, which is due to bacterial action.

C. Luster

The fibers are semi dull in appearance and one has a reason to believe that this is due to the
fact that they have the uneven surface and cross-sectional shape. A fiber with an irregular
cross-section scatters light in all directions, resulting in a dull appearance with few high lights.
Whereas properly extracted fibers appear lustrous.

D. Texture

The fiber feels strong and durable. The dry Agave Americana fiber is stiff, harsh, coarse and
hard-surfaced, which is typical characteristic of all the leaf fibers. However when fibers are wet,
they become flexible, smooth and slippery.

6. Burning Test

When the fiber sample was brought near the flame, it burnt brightly. In the flame the fiber
continued burning readily with a yellow-bright flame and continued burning even after removal
of flame. The smell of burning Agave Americana fiber is like burning paper. Agave Americana
fiber becomes very fragile when exposed to high temperature of up to 108 C. The burning
behavior of Agave Americana fibers is similar to that of other natural cellulosic fibers.

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 7. Tensile Properties

7.1. Mechanical Behavior

Tenacity of Agave Americana fiber is in the range of 16–41 cN/tex. The elongation of fiber at
rupture is in the range of 2%–4%. This implies that Agave Americana fiber can perform well
where instantaneous forces act on the fibers during the use of end product. Higher values of
tensile properties of these fibers indicated that it is strong enough to be a textile fiber. It is thought that
its strength is due to high degree of cellulose polymerization and crystallization processes that may be
due to many years of growth. This tensile strength implies that Agave Americana fiber can function well
for furnishing fabrics, carpets, floor mats, rugs, upholstery fabrics as well as in nonwovens and fiber
reinforced compositesThe tensile properties of Agave Americana fiber are not uniform. This can be
explained by the fact that it is a natural fiber and natural fibers are subject to growth irregularities to the
extent that fibers from the same plant are not uniform in size and properties. The outer leaf sheaths
produce the strongest fibers while the inner sheaths produce the weakest fibers. The innermost fibers
have a high fracture strain while the peripheral fibers have lower tensile strength [14,26]. The
outermost fibers have more elongation before breaking than inner fibers. The fibers are difficult to
extend. This means Agave Americana fiber is rigid and has low elongation. The fiber is having lower
elongation at break values. Therefore the end product manufactured using this fiber will be rigid one.
The wet strength of fiber is lower than that of dry fiber. However, elongation of the break is higher
when the fiber is in wet conditions [14,16]. Table 1 exhibits the comparison of mechanical properties
between textile fibers.

7.2. Rupture Behavior

The fiber is more or less cracked depending on the elongation and this phenomena generates
the deformation of the elementary fibers in a bundle. Figure 4 shows different levels of
deformations of Agave Americana fibers. At small deformations (Figure 4a), corresponding to
elastic behavior, the lignin carries the applied load without passing it to the elementary fibers.
Hence we can say that at small deformations, physical and mechanical properties of technical

15
fiber are related to physical and mechanical properties of wax and gummy matter that link
elementary fibers. At medium deformations (Figure 4b), i.e., viscoelastic deformation, the
elementary fibers begin to switch on without being really deformed.

The spring form of the elementary fibers is responsible extension behavior of fiber at this stage.
At high deformation (Figure 4c) corresponding to plastic deformation, elementary fibers begin
to be deformed until the rupture. Mechanical behavior of technical fiber of Agave Americana
fiber is highly related to its fine structure. At high deformation, physical and mechanical
properties are related to the properties of elementary fibers. In the rupture zone, the
resistance of elementary fibers, their number, their dispersion and their adhesion to the natural
matrix (lignin) explain the behavior of technical fiber.

8. Chemical Properties

8.1. Chemical Composition

Agave Americana fibers can be considered as naturally occurring composites consisting mainly
of cellulose fibrils embedded in a lignin matrix. The main constituents of these fibers are
cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose. However constituents like pectin, waxes, water-soluble
substances, etc. are also present in small quantities. The chemical composition of natural fibers
like Agave Americana depends on various factors such as type of soil used, weather conditions,
age of the plants, etc. The property of each constituent contributes to the overall properties of
the fiber. Table 2 exhibits the chemical composition of Agave Americana fibers.

16
 8.2. Effect of Different Chemicals on Agave Americana Fibers

Agave an Americana fiber is stable in weak acids and weak alkalis, and has no effect on
structure and tenacity of Agave Americana fibers. Therefore these fibers can be safely treated
with bleaches, detergents and dyes which are weak basic or weak acidic in nature. However, in
strong acids and strong bases, fibers were dissolved or distorted. The bonds connecting the
subunits (i.e., ultimate fibers) are unstable to acid, which leads to loss in tensile strength of
fibers. Reaction with concentrated sodium hypochlorite results in the bleaching of fibers, but
after prolonged exposure, the fiber loses its strength and disintegrates. This indicates that
oxidizing solutions like sodium hypochlorite should only be used when cold, diluted and
according to instructions given by the manufacturer. Therefore, chlorine bleaches should be
used for a short period of time and must be rinsed out thoroughly to avoid further damage to
the fiber.

9. Collecting of the waste polymer

The waste polymers are collected and arranged in appropriate arrangement. Those are basically
used to hold the pure and dirt water. Then the polymer where the filtration takes place is
opened its top part to insert the sieve of the agave fiber. Then the inserted sieve facilitates the
rate of filtration.

The amounts used are for the filtration media.

1. Add 100g of AgNO3 (99.8% purity) to 500mL of de-ionized water and then mix well.

2. Add 1L of de-ionized water and mix for 1 minute. Silver solution is complete.

3. Dilution of Silver solution is done with a silver solution to distilled water ratio of 1:180. (i.e.
For every 100mL of silver solution used, it should be diluted with 18L distilled water)

4. Using a paint brush, silver solution is coated on the inside and outside of the filter.

5. Let dry

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7. Method of Testing
The objective of this low cost water filter design is to provide safe drinking water to a small
family in the third world places. Thus, the product’s effectiveness in filtering contaminants is
critical. At the same time, the filter flow rate must be optimized to provide clean water in a
reasonable amount of time. Two tests had been carried out to justify these factors. Water
samples were analyzed by Maxxam Analytics for filtering effectiveness. A series of water flow
rate tests were conducted to find the optimal value. The required materials and procedures
utilized in both tests are described in the following sections.

7.1 Flow Rate Test

The relationships between filter flow rate and ratio of fiber filter were established through the
flow rate test. Two types of additives were considered, sawdust and wheat flour. The goal was
to find the optimal mixture ratio that would maximize flow rate. In this experiment, ceramic
filter elements with sawdust-ceramic ratios of 10%, 20%, 30% and with wheat flour-ceramic
ratios of 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% were tested. In order to control the consistency of the
test, all testing water was from the same source. The following materials were required to
conduct the flow rate test for each filter prototype:

Fiber filter element built with mixture ingredients (1)

Measuring beaker (1)

Lake Ontario water (100mL)

Plastic container (1)

Cap (1)

Plastic food wrap (1 piece)

Stopwatch (1)

The following procedure was carried out to complete a flow rate test.

1. Obtain a built fiber filter element with a particular ingredient.

2. Use a measuring beaker to obtain 100mL of water from Lake Ontario.

3. Pour 100mL of water into ceramic filter element.

4. To ensure minimal evaporation, enclose the setup of the testing filter with a cap and seal off
the openings with plastic food wrap.

18
5. Start the stop watch to begin timing and stop when all the water has gone through the filter.

6. Repeat steps 1-5 for each ceramic filter element.

7. Record and graph result.

7.2Test for Filter Effectiveness

The effectiveness of filtering contaminants was tested by Maxxam Analytics, who is a

licensed laboratory for high quality water testing. Based on the standards of safe drinking
water,

200 mL of water sample was collected for the “Metals Test”, 200 mL for the “Nutrients Test”,

and 500 mL for the “General Test”. This requirement held true for all samples that were tested.

Water directly from Lake Ontario was tested to determine what was contained. The same water

that had gone through the activated carbon level was tested to see what elements were

eliminated or reduced in the carbon filtering level. The same water that had gone through the

dual filter – ceramic and carbon, was tested for the overall analysis. By completing the above

three analyses, elements that were filtered out in each level of the dual filter would be

identified. The fourth sample was filtered tap water with the Brita filter; this analysis serves as a

reference for other samples. The tests conducted on each type of water sample are

summarized.

The following materials were used to prepare the samples for Maxxam Analytics.

filter element (1)

Carbon filter element

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Lake Ontario water

Plastic container for storage of filtered water

Filter cap

Plastic food wrap

2x 200mL plastic bottles with screw-cap provided by Maxxam Analytics

1x 500mL plastic bottle with screw-cap provided by Maxxam Analytics

Ice pack

Cooler

The following procedure was carried out to complete the effectiveness test on the dual filter.

1. Place activated carbon elements into a fully built fiber filter element.

2. Fill up the dual filter with water from Lake Ontario. Ensure absolutely no spilling on the
apparatus for accurate analysis. Due to a relatively slow flow rate, it is recommended to setup a
number of dual filters and allow them to filter in parallel.

3. To ensure minimal evaporation, enclose the setup of the testing filter with a cap and seal off
the openings with plastic food wrap.

4. Fill the two 200mL plastic bottles with filtered water. One bottle is for metals test while the
other for nutrients test.

5. Fully close the bottles with the screw-cap and place in refrigerator at less than 10°C until
shipment as per Maxxam Analytics instructions.

6. Fill the 500mL plastic bottle with filtered water. This bottle is for the general test.

7. Fully close the bottle with the screw-cap and place in refrigerator at less than 10°C until
shipment as per Maxxam Analytics instructions.

8. Repeat steps 2-7, if necessary, until the bottles are filled up to the fill-line indicator on the
bottles.

9. Package the sample bottles in the provided cooler with an ice pack. This maintains the
required low temperature condition during the shipment of the samples to Maxxam Analytics.

20
10. Ship samples to Maxxam Analytics for analysis.

The following procedure was carried out to complete the effectiveness test on the carbon filter

with Lake Ontario water and tap water.

1. Pour unfiltered Lake Ontario water into a typical home-use carbon filter (eg. Brita carbon filter).

2. Allow it to complete the filtering and fill up to the fill-line indicator on the two 200mL plastic bottles
with filtered water. One bottle is for metals test while the other for nutrients test.

3. Fully close the bottles with the screw-cap and place in refrigerator at less than 10°C until shipment as
per Maxxam Analytics instructions.

4. Fill up to the fill-line indicator on the 500mL plastic bottle with filtered water. This bottle is for the
general test.

5. Fully close the bottle with the screw-cap and place in refrigerator at less than 10°C until shipment as
per Maxxam Analytics instructions.

6. Package the sample bottles in the provided cooler with an ice pack. This maintains the required low
temperature condition during the shipment of the samples to Maxxam Analytics.

7. Repeat steps 1-6 for unfiltered tap water.

8. Ship samples to Maxxam Analytics for analysis

The following procedure was carried out to complete the effectiveness test on the unfiltered

Lake Ontario water.

1. Fill up to the fill-line indicator on the two 200mL plastic bottles with unfiltered water. One bottle is for
metals test while the other for nutrients test.

2. Fully close the bottles with the screw-cap and place in refrigerator at less than 10°C until shipment as
per Maxxam Analytics instructions.

3. Fill up to the fill-line indicator on the 500mL plastic bottle with unfiltered water. This bottle is for the
general test.

4. Fully close the bottle with the screw-cap and place in refrigerator at less than 10°C until shipment as
per Maxxam Analytics instructions.

5. Package the sample bottles in the provided cooler with an ice pack. This maintains the required low
temperature condition during the shipment of the samples to Maxxam Analytics.

6. Ship samples to Maxxam Analytics for analysis

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8. Design & Prototyping

8.1 Prototyping
Before a final design of the water filter was created, it was necessary to ensure that the filter
works as described. Several filters were made to determine the filter effectiveness and flow
rate using different additives ratio. Table 6 lists the ratios of combustible material mixed for the
prototypes. Note that sawdust and wheat flour were used as substitutes for rice husks because
rice husks could not be sourced locally.

8.2 Final design

The final of the fiber filter is placed inside a polymer or plastic casing. Water is poured into the
fiber filter, where the fine mesh at the top separates large sediments such as pebbles. Fiber
elements are housed inside the filter, and locked in place by the mesh. Water is dually filtered,
come, and is collected inside the casing. A dispense nozzle at the bottom of the casing allows
easy access to the filtered water. This is important as the size of the bucket measures to be
0.001 to 1mm diameter by 20cm in height. Disregarding the volume taken up by the fiber filter,
this design holds roughly 9.8 litres of water, and will be too heavy to be lifted for the pouring of
water. Using the daily intake of 2L per person per day, a family of 8 will need to fill up the
container twice every day. A design with larger dimensions means that families will have to
refill the container less frequently. However, this is not recommended because water kept in
the tank for long periods of time may become stagnant and promote the growth of bacteria.
The fiber filter is designed to fit inside the casing. However, edges on the side of the filter
prevent it from falling through. A user can also easily remove the filter for replacement. The
amount of activated carbon to be added will be calculated so that the lifespan of these granules
and the fiber will be identical. This increases the ease of use for the users as there is no need to
keep track of two replacement schedules. The flow rate of this filter was calculated to be 0.003

22
m3 per hour, or 83 litres per day.

9. Result and discussion

After deliberate idea generation and a substantial concept selection process which consisted of
comparing the multiple designs discussed earlier, we selected the design that we believed
would best address the problem of purifying the water of poor society, Ethiopia. All
components are constructed with corrugated polymer, as that was the material that was
readily available. We were also able to work with it very quickly, as the material worked almost
as quickly as we thought, which gave us a speedy path to experience, thus following two of the
three rules for prototyping as discussed by Tom Chi in his TED Talk about Google Glass and
prototyping .Each component is held together with hot glue. However, the drawer and the
parent structure are independent of one another. Instead of being glued together, which would
prevent access to the contents inside the drawer; we utilized a sliding rail system. This

23
wasfashioned with the use of metal wire that are connected to the drawer. The metal wire
suspends the drawer within the main frame, and allows it to slide along the slits. The figure
below is the container or server of the dirt water. This container is installed down ward as a
reverse pyramid which speed up the rate of flow of water with out pumping through gravity.
The distance between the dirt water supplier and filtration unit operation is around 12cm. so
the supplier is installed small above the filtration unit. Because if the dirt is flowing down no
need of extra energy is lost for pumping.

The filtration unit process is installed small below thedirt water suppling unit. That way the
energy of pumping is low since gravitational force play grat role in flowing. The system have 5
tary in side aranged according to their size and diameter of sieve. The lower sieve have a
diameter of 0.001mm. at this stagealmost all of the particles are setlled. Which means the
cactus fiber have graet tendency to atract the fluid particles. The second stage have diameter of
0.05mm. at this stage the particles greater than 0.05mm diameter settle.which means small
particles of this diameter will path the sieve and retain in the last stage. The third stage have

24
diameter 0.1mm which is larger than that of the second stage.here in this stage medium
particles size are settled. Where as the particles small size this sieve pass to second stage. At
each stage purification happened do to size of particles.

The 4th stage from below have diameter of 1mm. during the purification the partcles large size
than this diameter settele at this stage. Which means some algea and suspended matter settele
here. Where as the small size coliodes settele in 3rd ,2nd and last trays.

The top sieve have large size than others. Which means they are aranged according to their
diameter of their sieve.and the top section have 3cm diameter. In this stage no more thin
particle settele. The only particle settele here are the course particles that can cause disruption
during the working in

Interior part of the system. Which means particle can be visible by nacked aye can be settled
here. At the bottom of the filtration unit operation serious of tanks are aranged to store the

25
filtered water.here those tanks needs more extra treatment before serving the water to the
society. Since the water have more ligands obtained from the cactus fiber and some biological
small organism needed to be treated.then more carbon and clorination is needed.

Figure of storage tank

Here the pure water comes from the sieve tray through the down valves. and then at this stage
it have few suspention and through gavity are setteled and pumped tostorage. In essence water
suplier are installed at high altitude to minimize power of pumping. Then some power is
cosumed here to pump the water to the strorage.

26
27
The above tanker is the storage of pure water. And is installed vertically to reduce cost of
pumping. But here it is pumped throgh gravity.

10. Economic Analysis

In designing of the project no much amount of cost were lost. Since the prime objective of this
project is to design a filter media from local apparatus and to recycle the waste matter. Then
almost all part of this project are reused than bought or newly purchased. Generally we have
lost only 100 birr for purchasing uhu or binder of all the components project. Which means the
interior sieves and the exterior pipes are are connected by the binder .

11. Difficulties
Various difficulties were encountered throughout the process of building and testing the
prototype filters. The relatively slow flow rate was the main concern in the design. This
significantly delayed the time for preparing enough water for sample testing. Multiple attempts
to improve the performance were carried out, but improvements are small on each try.
Moreover, some issued regarding the ceramic filters mixed with what flour occurred during the
firing process. The wheat flour ratio was increased for the second and third batch of the
ceramic prototype build. As soon as the mixture ratio reached 40%, the filter element was
burnt and cracked in the oven. Filters that were damaged inside the kiln in the firing process.
Cracks were introduced and parts of the filter were chipped off. According to the pottery
expert, the entire firing process was forced to halt due to a large amount of smoke coming out
of the kiln. Because this was not a normal ceramic material, it was challenging to convince the
owner of Little Big Arts School to continue with further firing. Sawdust was used for the
remaining batch of prototype filters made. There were also delays with the actual modeling of
the ceramic filters. Because the availability of machines and tools was limited, all of the ceramic
models are molded by hand. With lack of experience in this type of work, it was a challenge to
mold the desired shapes, especially with various mixture ratios. At 50% sawdust mixture, the
challenge intensified as the material becomes too loose to be molded properly. In the actual
manufacturing process, it would be much more efficient if a hydraulic press and a filter mould
are in use. The minimal machinery support was more or less a result of the lack of support
from industrial partners. It was promised at the initial stage of the project that full support from
the company will be available. If, for any reason, the company cannot provide the support,
there will be connections to other firms that can do the job. However, this was not the case
when the project commenced - contacting the partner was a frustrating challenge connected by
the binder.

28
12.conclusion and Recommendations
This project is stands to solve primarily shortage of pure water supply of society. then we can
design a simple filter media locally to solve such problem. This project is typical example of such
problem solver. During the design no more cost is lost. Then we can design such device at home
to solve such problem.

Testing for filter effectiveness should be conducted with the recommended additive, rice husks,
as well as with the surface water from different third world countries. Although tolerances
were considered in the project, flow rates may differ due difference in water quality. Flow rate
testing should be conducted where necessary to achieve maximum flow rate and highest
effectiveness. It is also recommended to apply a coat of silver nitrate solution onto the surface
of the fiber to further reduce bacteria. Since boiling water is the most effective method to
disinfect any harmful bacteria and viruses, it is also recommended to boil the water after
filtering to insure that the water is safe to drink.

29
13. Reference
[1] “Water for Life: Making it Happen,” July 5, 2005. [Online]. Available:
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/waterforlife.pdf [Accessed: November 2, 2008]

[2] Vestergaard Frandsen, “Life Straw Personal – Product Features,” vestergaard-frandsen.com,

2007.[Online]. Available: http://www.vestergaard-frandsen.com/lifestraw-claims.htm
[Accessed: October 9, 2008]

[3] Time, “Best Inventions 2005: Healthy Options,” time.com, 2005. [Online]. Available:
http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1129522-2,00.html [Accessed: March 18,
2009]

[4] Project H Design, “Lifestraw Family Water Filters for Mumbai,” projecthdesign.com, April
2008. [Online]. Available: http://projecthdesign.com/2008/04/15/fund-this-product-
lifestrawfamily-water-filters-for-mumbai/ [Accessed: March 18, 2009]

[5] Vestergaard Frandsen, “LifeStraw Family – Product Features,” vestergaard-frandsen.com,

2007.[Online]. Available: http://www.vestergaard-frandsen.com/lifestraw-f-claims.htm
[Accessed: October 9, 2008]

[6] Success and Culture, “Per Capita Income Around the World,” success-and-culture.net,
[Online]. Available: http://www.success-and-culture.net/articles/percapitaincome.shtml
[Accessed: November 12, 2008]

[7] “Use of Ceramic Water Filters in Cambodia,” August 2007. [Online]. Available:
http://www.wsp.org/UserFiles/file/926200724252_eap_cambodia_filter.pdf [Accessed:
November 2, 2008]

[8] “Dietary Reference Intakes,” 2004. [Online]. Available:

http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf [Accessed: March 18, 2009]

[9] Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation, “UV Water Treatment,” cmhc-schl.gc.ca,
2008. [Online]. Available: http://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/co/maho/wawa/wawa_002.cfm
[Accessed: October 14, 2008]

[10] Water Coolers Direct, “Mains UV Water Filter,” watercoolersdirect.com, 2006. [Online].
Available:
http://www.watercoolersdirect.com/specialist_water_systems/mains_uv_water_filter.html
[Accessed: October 14, 2008]

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[11] Home Water Purifiers and Filters, “Reverse Osmosis Water Filters and Water Purification,”
home-water-purifiers-and-filters.com, 2008. [Online]. Available: http://www.home-
waterpurifiers-and-filters.com/reverse-osmosis-filter.php [Accessed: October 14, 2008]

12. Coulson Richardson text book 6th edition

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