Chapter

12: Gas Turbine Engines

Table of Contents
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Brayton Cycle ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Analyzing Brayton Cycles .............................................................................................................................. 3
Performance Parameters ............................................................................................................................. 4
Example ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
Example ........................................................................................................................................................ 6

Brayton Cycle Improvements ............................................................................................................. 7

Regeneration ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Analyzing Brayton Cycles with Regeneration ............................................................................................... 8
Performance Parameters ............................................................................................................................. 8
Example ........................................................................................................................................................ 9
Reheat and Intercooling ............................................................................................................................. 10
Example ...................................................................................................................................................... 12
Example ...................................................................................................................................................... 13

Turbojet Engines ............................................................................................................................... 14

Example ...................................................................................................................................................... 15
Example ...................................................................................................................................................... 16

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Introduction
The gas turbine is another type of IC engine. Gas turbines consist of a compressor, a combustion
chamber, and a turbine. According to Wikipedia, gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships,
electrical generators, and tanks.

Gas turbines are most often open to the atmosphere, but some applications utilize closed gas turbines.
In an open gas turbine, air is drawn continuously into the compressor. The compressed air continues to
the combustion chamber, where it is mixed with fuel and combustion occurs. The combustion products
enter the turbine at high temperature and pressure, are expanded through the turbine, and are
discharged to the surroundings. Part of the work developed by the turbine is used to drive the
compressor. The remaining work is available for propulsion, electricity generation, or other purposes.

Brayton Cycle
A Brayton cycle is an idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes a typical gas turbine IC engine.
Although gas turbines are most often open to the atmosphere, we will model gas turbines as being
closed cycles.

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We will also employ air standard analysis, assuming the working fluid is air, air behaves as an ideal gas,
combustion is replaced with heat transfer, and all processes are reversible. The four processes of a
Brayton cycle are:

Process
1à2 Isentropic compression through the compressor
2à3 Constant pressure heat addition
3à4 Isentropic expansion through the turbine
4à1 Constant pressure heat rejection

Analyzing Brayton Cycles

We will analyze the components of the Brayton cycle by applying the 1st Law to each device in the cycle
(compressor, turbine, and heat exchangers). For all devices we will assume steady state, steady flow
(SSSF), one-dimensional (1D) flow, uniform flow, and a quasiequilibrium process. We will also neglect
any changes in kinetic and potential energy.

The isentropic processes of the Brayton cycle (1à2 and 3à4) will be adiabatic by the entropy balance.

Neglecting heat transfer with the surroundings, the rate at which work is consumed per unit mass of
vapor passing through the compressor is:

𝑊"#$%&'((#&
𝑊"#$%&'((#& = = ℎ, − ℎ.
𝑚

The sign of 𝑊"#$%&'((#& will be negative, following our sign convention that work is negative when it is
done on the system by the surroundings.

The only work interaction for the heat exchanger is flow work. Therefore, the rate at which heat is
transferred per unit mass of vapor passing through the heat exchanger is:

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 𝑄01
𝑄01 = = ℎ2 − ℎ. = 𝑄0
𝑚

The sign of 𝑄01 will be positive, following our sign convention that heat transfer is positive when heat is
transferred to the system from the surroundings.

Neglecting heat transfer with the surroundings, the rate at which work is developed per unit mass of
vapor passing through the turbine is:

𝑊34&567'
𝑊34&567' = = ℎ2 − ℎ8
𝑚

The sign of 𝑊34&567' will be positive, following our sign convention that work is positive when it is done
by the system and on the surroundings.

Performance Parameters
The thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle is calculated by:

𝑊":";'
𝜂=
𝑄0

The back work ratio (bwr) compares the work required by the compressor to the work developed by the
turbine. The bwr for gas turbine IC engines is typically 40-80%.

𝑊"#$%&'((#&
𝑏𝑤𝑟 =
𝑊34&567'

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Example
Air enters the compressor of an ideal air-standard Brayton cycle at 100 kPa, 300 K, with a volumetric
flow rate of 5 m3/s. The compressor pressure ratio is 10. The turbine inlet temperature is 1400 K. Find
the thermal efficiency of the cycle, the back work ratio, and the net power developed (kW).

Answers: 45.7%, 39.6%, 2481 kW

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Example
For the previous example, assume the compressor and turbine both have isentropic efficiencies of 80%.
Find the thermal efficiency of the cycle, the back work ratio, and the net power developed (kW).

Answers: 24.9%, 61.8%, 1254 kW

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Brayton Cycle Improvements

Regeneration
The combustion products discharged by the turbine to the surroundings are typically at a much higher
temperature than the temperature of the surroundings. Regeneration is the process of using the
turbine exhaust to preheat the gas entering the combustor, thereby reducing the heat transfer required
by the cycle.

We assume there is no pressure drop for either stream passing through the regenerator. The
temperature at state x must be less than the temperature of state 4.

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Analyzing Brayton Cycles with Regeneration
The work developed by the turbine and the work required by the compressor are calculated as
described previously:

𝑊"#$%&'((#&
𝑊"#$%&'((#& = = ℎ, − ℎ.
𝑚

𝑊34&567'
𝑊34&567' = = ℎ2 − ℎ8
𝑚

The rate at which heat is transferred per unit mass of vapor passing through the combustor is:

𝑄01
𝑄01 = = ℎ2 − ℎ? = 𝑄0
𝑚

Performance Parameters
The regenerator effectiveness compares the enthalpy increase through the regenerator to the
maximum theoretical enthalpy increase. Regenerator effectiveness is typically 60-80%.

ℎ? − ℎ.
𝜂&'@ =
ℎ8 − ℎ.

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Example
Consider the Brayton cycle described in the examples on page 5 and 6. Now incorporate a regenerator
in the Brayton cycle and find the thermal efficiency of the cycle. The regenerator effectiveness is 80%.

Answer: 56.8%

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Reheat and Intercooling
The thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle can also be improved by incorporating reheat and intercooling.
A Brayton cycle with reheat includes a multistage turbine and a reheat combustor between the turbine
stages. Gas passes through the reheat combustor (aàb) at constant pressure.

The thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle with reheat is calculated by:

𝑊":";'
𝜂=
𝑄0

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A Brayton cycle with intercooling includes a multistage compressor and an intercooler between the
compressor stages. The intercooler cools the working fluid at constant pressure (càd).

The thermal efficiency of a Brayton cycle with intercooling is calculated by:

𝑊":";'
𝜂=
𝑄0

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Example
Air enters a turbine at 12 bar, 1200 K and expands to 1 bar in two stages. Between stages, air is
reheated to 1200 K at a constant pressure of 3.5 bar. Find the work developed by each turbine stage
and compare to the work developed by a single-stage turbine without reheat.

Answers: 365.7 kJ/kg, 370.9 kJ/kg, 683.6 kJ/kg

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Example
A two-stage compressor operates at steady-state, compressing 10 m3/min from 100 kPa, 300 K to 1200
kPa. The intercooler cools air to 300 K at constant pressure 350 kPa. Find the power to run the
compressor and compare to the power required to run a single-stage compressor.

Answers: 248.6 kJ/kg, 319.5 kJ/kg

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Turbojet Engines
Turbojet engines, used for aircraft propulsion, consist of a diffuser, a gas turbine engine (a compressor,
combustor, and turbine), and a nozzle. Combustion products expand through the turbine and leave the
nozzle at a high velocity. The change in gas velocity relative to the engine produces thrust.

The processes of an ideal turbojet engine cycle are:

Process
1à2 Isentropic pressure rise through the diffuser
2à3 Isentropic compression
3à4 Constant pressure heat addition through the combustor
4à5 Isentropic expansion through the turbine
5à6 Isentropic expansion through the nozzle, where gas
velocity is increased and pressure is decreased

For turbojet engines equipped with an afterburner, a reheat device is included between the turbine and
the nozzle. Higher temperature gas at the nozzle inlet leads to higher nozzle outlet velocity and greater
thrust.

We will make two key assumptions in order to analyze turbojet engines. The first is that kinetic energy
is negligible everywhere except at the diffuser inlet and at the nozzle outlet. The second is that the
turbine is just sufficient to drive the compressor (i.e., the bwr is 1).

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Example
Air at 26 kPa, 230 K, and 220 m/s enters an ideal turbojet engine in flight. The air mass flow rate is 25
kg/s. The compressor pressure ratio is 11, the turbine inlet temperature is 1400 K, and air exits the
nozzle at 26 kPa. There is no pressure drop for flow through the combustor. Kinetic energy is negligible
everywhere except at the diffuser inlet and at the nozzle outlet. Find the pressures and temperatures at
each state, the rate of heat addition to the air passing through the combustor in MW, and the velocity at
the nozzle exit in m/s.

Answers: 25.2 MW, 1048 m/s

State T (K) p (kPa)

1 230 26
2 254.2 37
3 502.4 406
4 1400 406
5 1187.9 205
6 700 26

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Example
Add an afterburner to the turbojet engine analyzed in the example on page 15. The afterburner raises
the temperature at the nozzle inlet to 1300 K. Find the velocity at the nozzle exit in m/s.

Answer: 1101 m/s

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