Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 18, pp. 183 to 197, 1981 0148-9062/81/030183-15502.

00/0
Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Press Ltd

Estimation of Discontinuity Spacing

and Trace Length Using Scanline
Surveys
S. D. PRIEST*
J. A. HUDSON,"

Knowledge of the spacing and size of discontinuities in a rock mass is of

considerable importance for the prediction of rock behaviour. The character-
istics of discontinuities can be estimated using scanline surveys but the pre-
cision of the estimates must be obtained and the bias caused by linear sam-
pling must be eliminated before they can validly be used. Initially, an ex-
pression is presented which gives the degree of confidence that can be
assigned to the measured mean discontinuity spacing. A reduced form of this
expression is obtained for cases where the discontinuity spacings follow the
negative exponential distribution. The precision of discontinuity frequency
and RQD estimates is also explained. The distribution of trace lengths pro-
duced by the intersection of planar discontinuities with a planar rock face is
used to determine the distribution of trace lengths, the distribution of semi-
trace lengths and the distribution of censored semi-trace lengths intersected
by a randomly located scanline. Comparison of the actual and sampled distri-
butions demonstrates the bias introduced by scanline sampling of trace
lengths. Relations between the distributions can be used to produce analytical
or graphical methods of estimating mean trace length from censored measure-
ments at exposures of limited extent.

INTRODUCTION (b) to demonstrate why scanlines provide a biased

In order to characterize rock mass geometry for engin-
eering purposes, discontinuity surveys usually include
measurements of discontinuity spacing and trace
length. It is critically important to estimate these par-
ameters with the necessary accuracy and precision by
obtaining a representative and sufficient sample of
spacings and trace lengths from the rock mass domain
in question. Also the sample values should either be
unbiased or the bias should be understood and elimin-
ated. The scanline survey, which involves sampling and
measuring only those discontinuities that intersect a
line set on the surface of the rock mass, provides a very
convenient means of obtaining such a sample but, in
the case of trace lengths, the raw data will be biased.
The purpose of this paper is
(a) to show how the reliability of mean discontinuity
spacing values obtained from scanline surveys can be
assessed and
* Department of Mineral Resources Engineering, Imperial College
of Science and Technology, South Kensington, London SW7 2BP,
U.K.
t Geotechnics Division, Building Research Station, Garston, Wat-
ford, Hefts WD2 7JR, U.K.
183
sample of discontinuity trace lengths and to explain
how this bias can be overcome.
The terms used in this paper are defined as follows
and summarized in Table 1:
Discontinuity: A general term for any mechanical
break that has zero or relatively low tensile strength in
a rock mass. The term includes such features as joints,
fractures, fissures, weak bedding planes and faults [1].
Discontinuity spacing, x: The distance between an
adjacent pair of discontinuities measured along a
straight line of a given orientation within, or on the
surface of, a rock mass. In general, the value varies with
both scanline orientation and location but, if the dis-
continuities were parallel, the value would only depend
on scanline orientation. These and other aspects of dis-
continuity spacing measurements have been discussed
by Hudson & Priest [2-1.
Mean discontinuity spacing, Y: The mean value of
spacings computed as
= ~ xdn
i=1
where xi is the ith discontinuity spacing measurement
184 S . D . Priest and J. A. Hudson
along a scanline of length X yielding n values:~.
For practical and theoretical reasons it is desirable to
take the distance from the start of the scanline to the
first discontinuity and add it to the distance between
the nth discontinuity and the end of the scanline, in
order to generate the nth spacing value.
Mean discontinuity frequency: The mean number
of discontinuities encountered per unit length along a
scanline and hence the reciprocal of mean discontinuity
spacing. The mean discontinuity frequency is a measure
of the 'degree of brokenness' along a line in a given
direction through a rock mass and applies for any dis-
continuity geometry. For a large sample, 1/Y = n/X
-~ 2 = mean discontinuity frequency for the popula-
tion.
Discontinuity trace length, l: The measurable
length of the linear trace produced by the intersection
of a planar discontinuity with a planar rock face. The
end of a trace will occur either at another discontinuity
or within the rock material [1]. The end of a trace may
not, however, be visible at a given face due to excava-
tion, erosion or the presence of vegetation or scree
covering.
Mean discontinuity trace length, 7: The mean value
of trace lengths computed as
-l = ~.. lJn
i=1
where li is the ith discontinuity trace length sampled
in some specified way at a given rock face that yields a
total of n such trace lengths.
Mean trace termination frequency: This is defined
as the reciprocal of mean discontinuity trace length and
is therefore analogous to mean discontinuity frequency.
For a large sample, 1/7 ~ # = mean trace termination
frequency for the population.
Semi-trace length, l: That portion of the trace length
between the scanline intersection point and the end of
the trace. The sum of the two semi-trace lengths, one in
either direction from the scanline, for a particular dis-
continuity, is the total trace length.
Censored semi-trace length, l: The length of the
trace from the scanline to one end of the trace or a
fixed distance, c, whichever is least. The letter I has been
used to denote the trace length, the semi-trace length
and the censored semi-trace length. The functional let-
ter corresponding to the probability density distribu-
tion, e.g. g(l) for the intersected complete trace lengths,
distinguishes the type of trace length in question. A list
of these distributions is given in the introduction to the
section on estimating discontinuity trace length.
Rock mass domain: This is a portion of a given
rock mass in which discontinuity characteristics, in par-
ticular mean spacing and mean trace length, are con-
Lower case italic letters have been used throughout for theoreti-
cal and sampled values of spacing and trace length.
TABLE 1. SUMMARYOF TERMS USED
Spacing Trace length
General value x /
ith value xl /~
Total number in a sample n n
Summed length of values X = ~ xi L = ~ l,
i :l i 1
Mean value x = X/n I = L/n
Mean population frequency
estimate* ,;~ = 1/~ p = Ill
* The population frequencyparameters ). and p are adopted in this
paper to facilitate the theoretical analysis and permit comparisons
with previous work.
stant; in other words, a part of a rock mass that is
statistically homogeneous. Variation of the measured
values of mean spacing and trace length across a rock
mass domain is, therefore, only a function of the sam-
pling method since, by definition, there is no change in
the discontinuity characteristics. The calculations in
this paper are for rock mass domains but extension of
the ideas to inhomogeneous rock masses is possible by
using the geostatistical method [3].
The first part of this paper concerns the precision of
mean discontinuity spacing, discontinuity frequency
and Rock Quality Designation estimates from measure-
ments taken along a scanline set up on a planar rock
face. Some explanation of sampling theory is included
at the outset to provide the necessary framework for
subsequent analysis. The second part of the paper,
which covers discontinuity trace length, relates to ideas
originally presented by Cruden [4] and extends these to
account for the fact that a scanline will tend to inter-
sect, and therefore sample, the longer trace lengths in
preference to shorter ones on a given rock face. The
resulting sampling bias depends upon the distribution
of trace lengths in the rock mass and can, in certain
circumstances, be quite significant. This, and other
theoretical and practical aspects of trace length
measurements are discussed.
PRECISION OF THE MEAN
DISCONTINUITY SPACING, DISCONTINUITY
FREQUENCY AND RQD ESTIMATES
The mean discontinuity spacing estimate
During a scanline survey, one survey group might
measure, say, 100 discontinuities to compute mean dis-
continuity spacing. A second survey group might spend
more time and measure 300 discontinuities. The value
of mean discontinuity spacing estimated by the second
group will certainly be more reliable than that esti-
mated by the first. Lacking further information, it is
difficult to decide whether the increased effort of the
second group can be justified by the increased re-
liability of their result.
Obtaining a balance between the effort expended in
obtaining a sample and the reliability of the result
 Estimation of Discontinuity Spacing
requires some method of calculating the precision. This
can be achieved using a standard statistical method
[5, 6] based on the central limit theorem which states
that the means of random samples of size n taken from
a population that follows any distribution, with a mean
1/2, and standard deviation a, will tend to be normally
distributed with a mean 1/2 and standard deviation
tr/x/n. The term tr/x/n is called the standard error of the
mean. The distribution of means is only approximately
normal for values of n < 30, but becomes closely nor-
mal for larger values of n.
In the context of discontinuity measurements, the
population can be regarded as consisting of all possible
measurements of discontinuity spacing in a given direc-
tion throughout the rock mass domain. If scanline sam-
pling of n discontinuities were carried out in the same
direction at several different locations within the
domain it would, in theory, be possible to plot the fre-
quency distribution of the various resulting mean
values, £. According to the central limit theorem, such a
distribution will, for large values of n, tend to have the
characteristic bell shape of the normal distribution,
irrespective of the distribution of discontinuity spacings
in the population (Fig. la).
Given the well-defined properties of the normal dis-
tribution, it is known that a proportion ~(z) of the
many different scanlines in the same direction will yield
a mean value within ++_za/x/n of the population mean
(Fig. lb) where z is the standard normal variable associ-
ated with a certain confidence level. Selected values of z
and q~(z) are given in Table 2. More comprehensive
tabulations can be found in most statistical textbooks.
For discontinuity spacing values measured along a
scanline, therefore, the mean value has a ~(z) prob-
ability (i.e. 100 ~(z) Vo confidence) of lying within the
!
I f(x) = ).e -~x
ca)
Sample mean, x
Population meon,~.~_ zo
(b) ....
~
qb ( z ) - shoded anm / to~l oreo
the curve
Frequency
I
Fig. 1. Frequency distribution of the sample mean.
185
TABLE 2. VALUES OF (ib(2) FOR
THE NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
z ~(z)
0.675 0.50
0.842 0.60
1.036 0.70
1.282 0.80
1.645 0.90
1.960 0.95
2.576 0.99
range ++_za/x/n of the population mean. This gives a
direct measure of the reliability of the result obtained
using this scanline. Although a is unknown because it is
the population rather than sample standard deviation,
for most practical purposes a may be taken as equal to
the standard deviation of the sample. As an example,
assume that the standard deviation of 80 discontinuity
spacing values measured along a 14m scanline is
0.160m. The mean discontinuity spacing is 0.175m
with a/x/n = 0.160/x/80 = 0.018m. Selecting a 953/0
confidence band, q~(z) = 0.95 giving z = 1.960, it can be
concluded that there is 95Yo confidence that the mean
value 0.175 m lies within _+0.035 m of the population
mean. In other words there is 95~ confidence that the
population mean lies somewhere in the range
0.140q).210m, regardless of the discontinuity spacing
distribution.
An interesting and useful reduction of the formula
occurs if the discontinuity spacing values follow a nega-
tive exponential distribution; there is considerable justi-
fication for assuming that many rock masses exhibit
this form of spacing distribution [7, 8, 9]. The fre-
quency,f (x), of a given discontinuity spacing value x is
then given by the following probability density distribu-
tion:
(1)
The significance of this distribution in the present
context is that the mean and standard deviation of the
population are equal or, for a large sample from the
population, have the same expected value.
For a sample of size n, the bandwidth of 100 q)(z)~
confidence is now obtained by substituting ~ for tr in
the previous expressions giving £ _+ (z:i)/x/n. Alterna-
tively, this bandwidth can be written as
where • is the allowable proportionate error.
Hence
= z/,/,,
or
n = (z/E) 2 (2)
Equation (2) can be used to compute the sample size
required to achieve a given error bandwidth simply by
substituting the appropriate values of z and E corre-
sponding to the required confidence level and the
186 S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

desired error bandwidth. Conversely, the expression
can be used to establish the error limits given by a
certain sample size.
For example, if the mean spacing is required within
an error bandwidth of + 20% at the 80% confidence
level, c = 0.2, z = 1.282 and
The discontinuity frequency estimate
If the reliability of the discontinuity frequency is
required rather than the mean spacing value for a given
sample size, the reciprocal of the values defining the
spacing bandwidth are taken. In the last example

n />
(,28:y
0.2 / = 41.
above, the 95% confidence frequency bandwidth is
7.32-4.69 per m, a result that is not symmetrical about
the mean of 5.71 per m.

If the mean spacing is required within + 10% at the
90% confidence level, E = 0.1, z -- 1.645 and
(1.645~:
n~> 0_1 # = 2 7 1 .
These results show that sample sizes of several hundreds
are required to give reasonably reliable estimates.
A graph illustrating the number of spacing values
required versus the error band for various confidence
levels is shown in Fig. 2. The previous examples and
this graph demonstrate that the required sample size
increases very rapidly as the allowable error is reduced.
Computation of the error band defined by a given
sample size can be illustrated using the previous example
where 80 discontinuities measured along a 14 m scanline
gave ~ = 0.175m. This time, ignoring the computed
value of a, and taking the 95,°<, confidence level
z = 1.960, gives
1.960
e - - 0.219
\80
which defines a 95% confidence bandwidth of 0.137-
0.213m.
The RQD estimate
The values of mean discontinuity spacing and fre-
quency can be measured by scanline surveys and their
reliability can be estimated by the technique described
above. The values provide an indication of rock quality
themselves but, through the distribution of spacing
values, a relation can be established with the Rock
Quality Designation. Thus the precision of the 2 esti-
mate has direct implications for the precision of the
theoretical R Q D which is briefly explained below.
The theoretical RQD, being analogous to R Q D
measured in the usual way from borehole core, is found
by integrating all spacing values above 0.1 m and
expressing the resultant value as a proportion of the
summed length of all spacing values [7]. Whilst the
theoretical RQD can be found from any distribution ot
spacing values, it is assumed here that the discontinuity
spacings along the scanline or borehole follow the
negative exponential distribution (equation 1).
The percentage length of the scanline or borehole
consisting of spacing values greater than a given value,
t, gives the theoretical RQD, RQD*, as
RQD* = 100 e -'~ (t2 + 1) (3)

35°I
300 1 50607080 90 95 99 % confidence

: 250

t~ 200
.c

"~ 150

i I00

~ 50
m --

I [ I I
0.05 OJO 0.15 020 0.25 0.50
Proportionate error in mean discontinuity spacing, E

Fig. 2. Sample number vs precision of the mean discontinuity spacing estimate for a negative exponential distribution of
spacings.
 Estimation of Discontinuity Spacing
Since this formula is derived simply by integrating all
spacing values above the threshold value t in the spac-
ing distribution, expressions for theoretical RQD can
be found in a similar manner for other forms of the
spacing distribution f(x). If t is set equal to 0.1 m, then
the value of RQD* is directly equivalent to the conven-
tional RQD. Wallis & King [9-] have found that RQD
values computed using equation (3) agree well with
measured values for a Pre-Cambrian granite in Mani-
toba.
Priest & Hudson [7-] have shown that a good linear
approximation to equation (3) for t = 0.1 m is given by
the tangent at the inflection point. This tangent is given
as
RQD* = 110.4 - 3.68). (4)
and provides a reasonable approximation in the range
6 < 2 < 16 per m. It is interesting to note that the
International Society for Rock Mechanics [1] has pro-
posed the following approximate empirical relation
between RQD and the volumetric joint count Jv
RQD = 115 - 3.3 Jv for Jv >/4.5
RQD = 100 for J~ < 4.5
where Jo is defined as the sum of the number of joints
per m for each joint set present.
The precision of the theoretical RQD estimate can be
determined in either case by calculating the upper and
lower brackets for 2 from equation (2) and substituting
the values in either of the RQD formulae to give the
lower and upper brackets of RQD. The value of RQD*
and/or the original value of 2 as estimated by 1/~ can
be used as an input to rock classification schemes
[10, 11] which, by combining these and other par-
ameters relating to the rock mass and rock material
properties, will give some indication of the likely engin-
eering performance of the rock mass. Whether the value
of mean discontinuity spacing or frequency is used di-
rectly or processed in some way, it is clearly desirable
that the precision of the value should be known.
ESTIMATING DISCONTINUITY
TRACE LENGTH
The extent of a given discontinuity, or set of discon-
tinuities, can play a major role in controlling the behav-
iour of a rock mass. It may be desirable, therefore,
during a scanline survey to record information concern-
ing the extent of discontinuities intersected. At a planar,
or nearly planar, face the simplest measure of discon-
tinuity extent is the length of the trace produced by the
intersection of a given discontinuity with the rock face.
Theoretical studies of the distribution of trace lengths
generated by the intersection of randomly located pla-
nar discontinuities with a planar rock face have been
discussed elsewhere [12, 13] and Cruden [4] has
explained in detail the techniques and problems associ-
ated with trace length measurements. The analysis in
this paper is concerned with estimation of trace length
187
distributions rather than the reason why a particular
distribution might exist.
The estimation problem discussed in the previous
section was one of precision; it was assumed that the
spacing values had been obtained without introducing
any bias so that the mean of the scanline measurements
would tend to the population mean. However, values of
trace length obtained using the same scanline survey
technique contain an inherent and significant bias
which must be accounted for during the data reduction
stage. The problem of estimating trace length, therefore,
is one of both accuracy and precision.
Figure 3a is a diagrammatic representation of a scan-
line set up on an extensive planar rock face intersected
by a set of discontinuities that, being of various limited
extents, produce traces of various lengths. If the aim is
to determine mean discontinuity trace length at this
face, it would, at first glance, seem sensible to measure
the trace length of each of the n discontinuities inter-
sected by the scanline and then compute the mean
value. This approach is, however, subject to two major
drawbacks. The first, and more serious, is that the scan-
line will tend to intersect preferentially those discon-
tinuities with a longer trace length. In other words, the
sample of trace lengths will be biased. The second
drawback, previously noted by Cruden [4], is that par-
ticularly large discontinuities may extend beyond the
visible exposure, thereby producing a known number of
trace length measurements that are censored at some
value dependent upon the size of the exposure.
Io)
7
Y
/ / Scanline 1~ o
// f
I'/I "
~/"# X I
i
I
I
I
",'?//"> S
/ I
// I
I
(hi /I
I
~/ Sconllne o IJ
Concealed of exposure
, ( / I
I
Fig. 3. Diagrammatic representation of discontinuity traces intersect-
ing a scanline set up on a planar rock face.
188 S. D. Priest and J. A. Hudson

TABLE3. TRACELENGTHDISTRIBUTIONS
Probability density Population Estimated
distribution mean mean

Trace length f (t) 1/~ -1

Intersected trace length
Semi-trace length h(I) 1/~ h lh
Censored semi-trace length i(I) 1/12i -1i

Cruden [4] also drew attention to the problem of therefore

particularly small discontinuities, so small in fact that k = l~
they are difficult, if not impossible, to measure. This
produces an unknown number of trace length measure- and
ments that are truncated at some small value dependent
g(l) = Mlf(l). (6)
upon the measurement procedure. In the authors' ex-
perience, it is certainly feasible to observe and measure
Equation (6) gives the density of the biased distribu-
trace lengths as low as 10mm both in the field and
tion of trace lengths sampled by the scanline for any
from photographs. Truncation at this level will there-
actual distribution of trace lengths. Expressions for g(l)
fore have only a small effect on the data, particularly if
when f(/) is of negative exponential, uniform or normal
the mean trace length is in the order of metres.
form are listed in Table 4. The shapes off(I) and g(l) for
The following discussion deals with the problem of
these three densities are shown in Fig. 4. It is interesting
preferential intersection of the longer trace lengths,
to note that when f(1) is negative exponentially d~stri-
measuring trace lengths on one side of the scanline only
buted, g(l) is of general log-normal form, a result con-
and the problems of trace length censoring at limited
firming the findings of Baecher & Lanney [12] but via
exposure areas. The distributions discussed are listed in
a simplified derivation.
Table 3.
It is clear that the additional term I in 9(l) produces a
higher frequency of the larger values of l in the sample.
Trace length sampling bias This implies that the value of mean trace length, 1/#g,
The probability density distribution of trace lengths for only those traces intersected by the scanline, will
over the entire rock face is denoted by f ( l ) and the exceed 1/p for the rock face.
cumulative probability distribution by F(l). At this
stage no assumptions are made concerning the nature
off(I).
-
Pg
If)
= lg(l) dl = u ;) 12f(l) dt

If the scanline is located randomly with respect to a

set of parallel discontinuity traces then the probability But
of the scanline intersecting a given trace is directly pro-
portional to the length of that trace. Therefore the ~o~ 12f(l)dl = ao2 ~--- ~] + a 2
probability, p(1), that the scanline intersects a trace with
where a o2 is the second moment of f ( l ) about the
a length in the range 1 to l + d l is given by
origin and a 2 (the variance) is the second moment of
p(l) = k l f (l)dl (5) f(I) about the mean.
where k is a constant. Therefore
The probability density distribution, g(l), of trace
1 1
lengths intersected by the scanline is therefore given by - + (a2M) (7)

g(l) = k l f (l) (1 > O)

For the negative exponential and uniform distribu-
given that g(l) is a probability density distribution, then
tions off(l) in Table 4, the values of a 2 are respectively
1/p 2 and 1/3p 2. The resulting values of 1/#g for these
ff ' g(l) dl = 1 and the normal distribution, listed in Table 4, show
that scanline sampling of trace lengths can lead to an
or overestimate of 1/p by as much as 100~.

k If(l) dl = 1 Semi-trace length sampling bias

In most scanline surveys, practical considerations
but make it necessary to set the scanline at the base of a
given rock face. This situation, illustrated in Fig. 3b,
f f If(l) dl = -1 effectively restricts trace length measurements to that
It portion of each trace extending above the scanline.
 Estimation of Discontinuity Spacing 189

~
1.0 • Negative exponential p. • I

Pmlxlbllity
density t trace k ~

0.5 glLlintersected trace lengths

o
o 1.0 2.0 3.0
Truce length

i.or Uniform p. ,I
1"1
/
f
Probability l .I
clonsily ] f(I,) i ~ ~"
,'/ ,.,r. I

o
0 l.O 2.0
Trace length

1.5 Normal # , I a-I/3

obob,,; o 0'L'

o ,
0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Trace length

Fig. 4. Probability density distributions of actual trace lengths, f(/), and intersected trace lengths, g(l), where f(/) is of negative
exponential, uniform and normal form.

In Fig. 3b, the full length of a randomly intersected
discontinuity trace, ab has a probability density g(l) and
a cumulative probability distribution G(/). Because the
scanline is located near to the edge of the exposure, it
will usually only be possible to measure the semi-trace
length, ib, of a given trace whose end b is visible. It is
therefore necessary to consider the probability density
distribution h(l) and cumulative probability distribution
H(l) of the semi-trace lengths intersected by the scan-
line.
The distribution h(l) is derived as follows using a
substitute variable m representing complete trace
length.
1. The intersected complete trace length, a b = m, has
a probability density distribution g(m) as obtained in
the previous section. The probability that the complete
trace length lies in the range m to m + dm is therefore
g(m)dm.
2. Since the intersection point i is randomly located
along ab (Fig. 3b), the semi-trace length measured from
i to b, is uniformly distributed in the range 0 to m with
a probability density distribution of 1/m. Hence the
probability that the semi-trace length lies in the range l
to l + dl is (1/m)dl.
3. The probability, p(m, l), that the complete trace
length lies in the range m to m + d m and that the semi-
trace length lies in the range l to l + dl is given by
p(m, l) = g(m)dm (l/m) dl (8)
4. To obtain the probability, p(l), that the semi-trace
length lies in the range l to l + dl for any total trace
length, it is necessary to sum all p(m, l) for all possible
values of m. Since p(m, l) is zero for any values of m that
are less than l, it is necessary to integrate equation (8)
with respect to m between I and infinity.
p(l) = (l/m) dl o(m) am = h(l) dl
or
h(l) = ~l°° (1/m)g(m) dm
190 S . D . Priest and J. A. H u d s o n

io . Negative exponential F = I

~lity
density j f(I,)Actual trace lengths

o5
~ """~e -- h(b)semJ-trace lengths

I
0 I0 2.0 3.0
Trace length or semi-trace length

~0 ~ Uniform /~ - I

Probability " - ........_ h ( I, )

der--ity "~,, f(I,)
05

0
0
I/Fh ]
l" I0
I/F

Trace length or semi- ~roce length

~ .~

20
I
Normol / z , l cr,ll3
15

h(I,)

I0
Probability
densay

0.5
N\\

I
0 I0 20 30
Troce length or semi-trace length

Fig. 5. Probability density distributions of actual trace lengths, f(l), and semi-trace lengths, h(l), where f ( l ) is of negative
exponential, uniform and normal form.

But Equation (9) gives the density of the semi-trace

lengths sampled by the scanline. Expressions for h(l)
g(m) = #mf(m)
when f(l) is of negative exponential, uniform and nor-
Hence mal density are listed in Table 4. The shapes of h(l) for
these three densities are shown in Fig. 5.
h(l) = la ~ ot~

f(m) dm It is interesting that when f(/) is of negative exponen-

tial form, f(l) and h(I) are identical; in other words, the
or distribution of actual trace lengths is exactly the same
as the distribution of sampled semi-trace lengths. This
h(1) = #(1 - F(l)) (9) is because the bias towards longer lengths caused by

TABLE 4, THEORETICAL DENSITIES AND ASSOCIATED MEANS FOR VARIOUS TRACE LENGTH DISTRIBUTIONS

Distribution of actual Distribution of Distribution of

trace lengths, I > 0 intersected trace lengths semi-trace lengths
Cumulative
Probability probability, Probability Mean l Probability Mean 1
density f(/) F(I) Mean density g(l) #o density h(l) I~h

Negative #e ,,i 1 - e -m --l #21e-'a 2/# #e-J d

exponential #
2 I
Uniform #/2, I <~ - #1/2 - #2 I/2 4/3# #(1 - ( ~ U 2 ) ) 2/3#
# #
1
Normal - 1- F(l) _1 _ _#1 - I- | _ + (a~#) #(1 - F(h)
a\ from tables # a \ 2n ~ '/ #
 Estimation of Discontinuity Spacing
V--
- oT/
I
L .J
Fig. 6. Diagrammatic representation of discontinuity traces intersect-
ing a scanline set up on a planar face of limited extent.
scanline sampling has cancelled the bias caused by only
measuring the semi-trace length.
1
The mean value, --, of h(l) is given by
Ph
--
Ph
=
ff #1(1 - Fq)) dt
which, through integration by parts, reduces to
--1 =
#, fo~ ½#12f (l) dl
and, from the earlier expression for 1/#g,
#h = 2#g.
This confirms the intuitive idea that the mean semi-
trace length should be half the mean complete trace
length sampled using a scanline.
Censored semi-trace length sampling bias
Figure 6 illustrates the case where the size of the rock
face and orientation of discontinuities limit the maxi-
mum observable semi-trace length to some value c~.
Since the magnitude of cm is unlikely to be a whole
number, and could vary from one end of the face to the
other, it is usually desirable to censor semi-trace lengths
at one or more arbitrary levels, c, that are less than cm.
To estimate the mean trace termination frequency p
from measurements of censored traces, it is necessary to
consider the relation between the probability density
distribution i(l) of the censored semi-trace lengths and
the distributions discussed earlier.
The distribution i(l) must be directly proportional to
the distribution h(l) of semi-trace lengths because the
same traces are involved except that i(l) = 0 for l > c.
In order that the area beneath the scaled probability
density distribution curve is unity
i(I) = h(l) /fo c h(l)dl
or
i(I) = h(l)/H(c)
191
The mean value 1/#, is given by
--1 = f f lh(l) dl/H(c)
#i
where
h(l) = #(1 - F(I)) from equation (9)
If, for example, f(l) is negative exponential
1 (ce -uc)
- - = (1/#) (10)
Pi (1 -- e -~c)
Naturally, as c approaches infinity, #~ approaches
#h = 2#g ----#. Alternatively, if f(/) is uniform
1 2c(3 - pc)
- (11)
#~ 3(4 - pc)
or
6(2 - cpi)
# - c(3 - 2c#i)
Again as c approaches the upper limit, in this case 2/#,
#~ approaches #h = 2#g = 3#/2.
Estimation of mean trace length from censored measure-
ments
The above analysis illustrates the important point
that, for a given value of mean trace termination fre-
quency # for the entire population, the mean trace
length li estimated from a population censored at some
value c will be critically dependent upon the form of
f(1). The functional dependence of 1/#i upon c and # is
provided by equations (10) and (1 l) for negative expo-
nential and uniform distributions of actual trace
lengths. These equations have been used to construct
the curves in Figs 7 and 8 which provide a method of
estimating # from a set of semi-trace length measure-
ments at a face where the semi-trace length is censored
at c and where the sample size is sufficiently large to
justify the assumption li = 1/pi. The curves have been
included to provide a simple graphical method of esti-
mating # and it is for this reason that they have not
been plotted in dimensionless form. Also, integral
values of c were chosen because the actual censoring
value can be artificially reduced to a convenient inte-
gral value during a site survey.
Figures 7 and 8 show that the sensitivity of 7~ to
variation of # within a given range reduces significantly
as c becomes smaller. In general for field measurements,
it is desirable that c# should be greater than unity. For
large values of c or #, the curves approach the limiting
relation, where #i = #h. A simple example best illus-
trates the use of these graphs. Assume that, during a
scanline survey, the semi-trace length at a given face is.
censored at 10.0 m and that 155 out of a total of 200
discontinuities from a given set intersected by the scan-
line have a semi-trace length that is less than 10.0 m.
These 155 semi-trace length measurements can be used
to determine li which, for this example, is assumed to
be, say, 3.8 m. Figure 7b shows that if f(/) is of negative
192 S . D . Priest and J. A. H u d s o n

2.0 (o) NeQativeexponential fore be applied to any other form o f f ( l ) through the
is on unbiased estimate of I//J, I
compilation of curves similar to those in Figs 7 and 8.
If sufficient data are available, a histogram of observed
15 semi-trace lengths can be plotted and compared with
the curves in Fig. 5. This will provide a basis for select-
ing the appropriate form for f(l).
I0 The following is an analytical method of estimating/~
/.~,m "1 from measurements of censored semi-trace length,
which may be preferred to the graphical method
05 explained above. The numerical proportion of inter-
c_o
sected discontinuities that have a semi-trace length less
than c is given by H(c), which for a large sample may
0 I I I I be estimated by r/n, where r is the number of discon-
0 0 5 1.0 1.5 20
I,?m tinuities with a semi-trace length less than c and n is the

041 1 (b)
total number in the sample. In the case where f ( l ) is a
negative exponential distribution,

or
r / n = 1 - e -"c

/1-r
03 I ....... e-'' (12)
/1
or
Exomple
02. given in - loge[(n - r)/n]
#, m"1 ffw! texV /t= (13)
c
Similarly, if f(/) is uniform, from Table 4
OI

clSm I IOm 15m 20m 25m

0 I I 1 I I
2 4 6 8 I0 and by integration
iem
Fig. 7. Relation between the estimate of mean trace termination fre-
quency, #, and mean censored semi-trace length, 1i, at various levels Hence
of censoring, c, where f(/) is a negative exponential distribution.
n -- Y
n
exponential form, /~ is estimated to be 0.15 m-1 and
hence the mean trace length for all discontinuity traces, and
being l/g, is estimated to be 6.7 m. Figure 8b shows [1 +_ x/(n - r)/n]
that iff(/) is uniform/~ is estimated to be 0.17 m - ' and
(14)
/t = (c/2)
the estimate of mean trace length is 6.0m. The
approach, illustrated here for negative exponential and Since #--~0 as r---~0, the negative sign provides the
uniform distributions, is entirely general and can there- required root of the quadratic.

I A-IIIIIII°III '°'I
2.0 (a) Unlform 0.4

15 0.3
Example ~
given in|
0.2 the_~. 1
1.0
#,m" /~, m"

0.1
0.5

c, Im ~ 4 m c -5m I IOta 15m 20m 25m

0 I I 0 I |I I I I i
0 0.5 1.0 11.5 210 0 2 4 6 8 I0 12
L|t m

Fig. 8. Relation between the estimate of mean trace termination frequency, g, and mean censored semi-trace length, 1~, at
various levels of censoring c where f(/) is a uniform distribution.
 Estimation of Discontinuity Spacing
The techniques used to determine equations (13) and
(14) for negative exponential and uniform f(1) could be
applied to any suitable form of f(l) to yield similar
expressions that allow a rapid estimate of g to be made
by simply counting n and r at a given exposure which
censors trace lengths at some value c. If more time is
available, however, it may be desirable to compute
several estimates of /~ by measuring each value of
semi-trace length and computing
for several arbitrary levels of trace length censoring c.
The resulting data can be tabulated to give several
estimates of/~. Alternatively it may be convenient to plot
against c for negative exponential f(l), or
against c for uniform f(l). In each case the slope of the
best straight line through the points is a direct estimate
of p.
The term e -'c in equation 10 can be replaced by
using equation (12), giving the following estimator
for ~
1
u = (15)
This expression, previously presented in slightly
Fig. 9. Ordovician mudstone rock face with 1 m scales included (Location 1).
193
different form by Cruden [4], provides a rapid means of
estimating # from censored measurements of semi-trace
length.
TWO CASE STUDIES
Two case studies are presented to provide a simple,
practical demonstration of the theoretical ideas in the
preceding sections. Detailed measurements of discon-
tinuity trace length were obtained by scanline sampling
of two planar faces: Location 1, an Ordovician mud-
stone is shown in Fig. 9; Location 2, a Cambrian sand-
stone is shown in Fig. 10. The scanlines were estab-
lished on 275 x 350mm photographic prints of the
rock faces and discontinuity semi-trace lengths were
scaled off directly as shown in Fig. 6. The orientations
of the scanlines are indicated in Figs 9 and 10. The
observable semi-trace length was artificially censored at
4 m in both cases.
A total of 113 semi-trace length values was obtained
at the first face and 122 at the second face. Histograms
showing the distributions of semi-trace lengths,
presented in Fig. 11, are in these particular cases of
general negative exponential form. The analysis to de-
termine mean trace length will, for the purposes of this
example, be based on the assumption that h(l), and
hence f(l), are negative exponential. A more detailed
statistical analysis would be required to test the validity
of this assumption.
For each location, values of r and li were determined
from the individual trace length measurements for 16
different values of c (Table 5). Using these data, 16
values, termed #1, were estimated using equation (13)
and 16 values, termed #2, were estimated using equa-
tion (15). The resulting values are listed in Table 5 and
plotted in Fig. 12 against c for both locations. Figures
13a and b are graphs of -loge((n - r)/n) against c, the
slope of the best straight line being an estimate of/~.
194 S . D . Priest and J. A. H u d s o n

2,/~ = 0.82 m - ~ corresponding to a mean trace length

of 1.22 m. At first glance, these mean trace lengths m a y
seem rather low when c o m p a r e d with the p h o t o g r a p h s
of each rock face. It must be remembered, however, that a
visual impression, just like scanline sampling, is natur-
ally biased into selecting the longer joint traces.

DISCUSSION
It has not been the aim of this paper to suggest that
the distribution of actual trace lengths, f(1), at a given
face is of any particular form; indeed f(l) could vary
from rock type to rock type and from face to face.
However, if the aim of a discontinuity survey is to de-
termine f(l) and its parameter(s) using scanline sam-
pling, then the distributions of sampled trace lengths,
semi-trace lengths and censored semi-trace lengths, 9(1),
h(1) and i(l) respectively, m a y or m a y not be of similar
form to f(/). F o r example, if f ( / ) is of negative exponen-
tial form, 9(1) may give the appearance of being log-
normal. Once this effect has been recognised and
allowed for in the analysis, it is a relatively simple
matter to obtain a reasonable estimate of # and hence
the mean trace length.
The technique for establishing the precision of the
estimate of mean trace length is exactly the same as
explained earlier for mean discontinuity spacing and
discontinuity frequency, with the use of the reduced

TABLE 5. COMPUTATION OF MEAN TRACE TERMINATION

FREQUENCY
Fig. 10. Cambrian sandstone rock face with 1 m scale included
(Location 2). (a) Location 1 n = 113 c., = 4m
c(m) r //(m) #l(m -l) /a2(m l)

0.25 42 0.144 1.859 1.765

If the trace length population and hence the semi- 0.50 63 0.221 1.631 1.619
trace length population had been negative exponen- 0.75 80 0.305 1.641 1.628
1.00 83 0.325 1.326 1.456
tially distributed, there would have been no significant 1.25 88 0.369 1.207 1.381
variation of estimated p with c in Table 5 and Fig. 12, 1.50 93 0.420 1.154 1.446
apart from the r a n d o m variations p r o d u c e d by a 1.75 97 0.471 1.117 1.317
2.00 99 0.498 1.044 1.281
reduced n u m b e r of sample values. The decrease of the 2.25 102 0.548 1.035 1.265
estimated value of p with c implies that there was a 2.50 104 0.583 1.012 1.250
larger p r o p o r t i o n of shorter semi-trace lengths in the 2.75 104 0.583 0.920 1.217
3.00 105 0.605 0.883 1.200
sample than in the negative exponential distribution. 3.25 105 0.605 0.815 1.173
The value of ~2 at c = 4 m was a d o p t e d as the best 3.50 107 0.655 0.839 1.175
estimate of/~ for each location. The negative exponen- 3.75 108 0.681 0.831 1.169
4.00 108 0.681 0.779 1.154
tial curves plotted on the histograms in Fig. 11, using (b) Location 2 n = 122 c,, = 4 m
the appropriate best estimate of /~, demonstrate the 0.25 28 0.129 1.043 1.032
relatively greater frequency of shorter semi-trace 0.50 53 0.260 1.140 1.098
0.75 70 0.350 1.137 1.103
lengths. 1.00 79 0.406 1.043 1.052
Best straight lines in Fig. 13 could have been con- 1.25 88 0.483 1.022 1.035
structed using a least-squares regression. F o r compari- 1.50 93 0.531 0.958 1.001
1.75 97 0.574 0.906 0.976
son purposes, however, the lines defined by the above 2.00 98 0.587 0.813 0.928
best estimates of # have been constructed. C o m p a r i s o n 2.25 100 0.621 0.761 0.896
between Fig. 13 and Table 5 shows that each estimated 2.50 102 0.655 0.723 0.874
2.75 104 0.694 0.696 0.855
value/~1 defines the slope of the secant to the curve at 3.00 106 0.737 0.677 0.841
each value of c; each value #2 defines an average slope 3.25 107 0.759 0.645 0.823
of the curve up to each value of c. 3.50 111 0.854 0.687 0.833
3.75 113 0.902 0.695 0.833
In summary, at L o c a t i o n 1, / a - - - 1 . 1 5 m -1 corre- 4.00 113 0.902 0.652 0.819
sponding to a mean trace length of 0.87 m ; at L o c a t i o n
 Estimation of Discontinuity Spacing 195

[o) Locotion I
40 n-l13 I

l L~ • closs intervol • 0.25m

3o I L" semi- troce length
Frequency%
\ L r ~ f (L).Fe-~L
20

"~.~ ~AflL)
io

' "--'r --,-,-,__ '

, ~ , , 1--- ~ ~ - ~4°1
0 0.5 I0 15 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 40
Semi-trace length t m
3o [b) Locotion2
n-122
# - 0 . 8 2 m -I
2O A =0.25 m
Frequency%
~"1~/'~ .100/k f (k)
ro
-.-. I i
I~''" I, , , ,-,--r--I--i- I
o0 '
05 i
I0 11,5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Semi- trace length, m

Fig. 11. Histograms of sampled semi-trace length for Locations 1 and 2.

expression given in equation (2) being valid if the trace paper to estimate the probability that a discontinuity
lengths follow a negative exponential distribution. will exceed a certain length. At a rock face, the prob-
Having estimated the mean trace termination fre- ability that the total trace length of a given discon-
quency, ~t, it is possible to use the expressions in this tinuity sampled at random will exceed c is given simply

2.0 Locotion I
~__ (o)

15 ."~ ~. / #2(eCluotion15)
//., m-I

1.0

P'l (eqtmlion 131

05

0 II0 I I
0 2.0 3i.0 4.0
Ct metres

1.5 Locofion 2
(b)

IO
#, mt

0.5
#l

i
LO 21.0 i
3D 4i0
C~n l ~

Fig. 12. Variation of estimated mean trace termination frequency, #, with censoring level, c, for Locations 1 and 2.
 196
3 1- Location I /
o (i) o
-log (--~L-)
0 L
0 I
Loc~lon 2
(bl
2 o o o
o (the length from the scanline to the end of the
- tog,(n,l~-.)
I o
o ~
0 I
0 I
c, metros
F i g . 13. G r a p h i c a l estimation of mean trace termination
f o r L o c a t i o n s 1 a n d 2.
by 1 - F(c). If the discontinuity is sampled by intersec-
tion with a line, the expression 1 - H(c) gives the prob-
ability that the semi-trace length will exceed c. Such
expressions are of considerable geotechnical signifi-
cance because they enable an estimation to be made of
the probability that a given discontinuity or set of dis-
continuities will extend from one point to another in a
rock mass, thereby delineating the geometry of poten-
tially unstable rock blocks.
CONCLUSIONS
Using scanline surveys, estimation of mean discon-
tinuity spacing is a problem of precision whilst esti-
mation of mean trace length is a problem of both accu-
racy and precision. The inaccuracy or bias in trace
length measurements is caused by the scanline preferen-
tially intersecting longer trace lengths and by the inabi-
lity to measure complete trace lengths on a rock
exposure of limited extent.
For mean discontinuity spacing and mean trace
length estimates, the precision is established using
standard sampling theory based on the central limit
theorem. Because discontinuity spacings and trace
lengths have sometimes been reported to follow a nega-
tive exponential distribution, a simple expression was
S.D. Priest and J. A. Hudson
0 0
o derived for determining precision. For this distribution
o o o o o o
I I
2 3
Q 0
• 0.82 m"t
1 I
2 3
frequency,/~,
of spacings or lengths and with the requirement that
the mean value estimate should be within a bandwidth
+E~ of the true mean 1/2 (or 1//~ for trace lengths), the
required sample size n is given by (z/~)2 where z is the
standard normal variable associated with the required
confidence level. Using this formula and the relation
with mean spacing, the precision of the discontinuity
frequency and RQD estimates can also be established.
Four probability distributions were used to study the
bias introduced into trace length measurements by the
I use of scanline surveys. These were
4
f(/)--the distribution of actual trace lengths exposed
at a rock face,
g(/)--the distribution of trace lengths intersected by
a scanline,
0
h(/)--the distribution of semi-trace lengths (the
length from the scanline to the end of a trace),
/(l)--the distribution of censored semi-trace lengths
trace or a fixed distance, c, whichever is least).
It was shown that the distribution g(l) of trace
lengths intersected by a randomly located scanline is
given by
g(l) = ~ ( t )
I
4 where # is the mean trace termination frequency equal
to the reciprocal of the actual mean trace length. The
mean value of g(l), 1/#g, is given by
1//~g = 1//a + a2#
where tr is the standard deviation off(l).
The distribution h(l) of semi-trace lengths intersected
by a randomly located scanline was found to be given
by
h(l) = #(1 - F(I))
where F(l) is the cumulative probability distribution of
f(l). The mean value of h(l), 1/#h, is one half 1/#g.
The mean values of g(l) and h(l) demonstrate the bias
introduced when trace lengths are sampled using scan-
line methods. The only case when there is no bias is
when the standard deviation of the trace length popula-
tion is zero (i.e. the trace lengths are all the same) which
is a highly unlikely event. An interesting case was found
to occur where two separate forms of bias exactly can-
cel; if the actual trace lengths are negative exponen-
tially distributed, the distribution and hence the mean
of semi-trace lengths is the same as the actual trace
lengths. This is because the bias introduced towards
selection of longer lengths by scanline sampling exactly
cancels the bias caused by only measuring the semi-
trace lengths.
The distribution i(l) of censored semi-trace lengths, at
a face where the maximum observable semi-trace length
equals c, is given by
i(l) = h(l)/H(c)
where H(c) is the probability that a randomly inter-
sected semi-trace length is less than c.
 Estimation of Discontinuity Spacing
Measurements of censored semi-trace length provide
an indication of the form of i(l) and hence h(1), g(l) and
f(l). The relations between the distributions provide
graphical and analytical methods of estimating mean
discontinuity trace length from measurements at an ex-
posure where trace length measurements are censored
at c.
D a t a from two rock faces were obtained to illustrate
how an unbiased estimate of mean discontinuity trace
length can be determined from biased scanline survey
measurements.
Acknowledgements--Thework described in this paper forms part of
continuing research into rock mass geometry carried out as a joint
project by the Imperial College of Science and Technology and the
Department of the Environment under the guidance of Professor E.
T. Brown and Mr J. B. Boden. Dr Hudson is currently working at the
Building Research Establishment of the Department of the Environ-
ment where the paper was completed and this paper is published by
permission of the Director. Some aspects of the work also constituted
part of the rock mechanics programme of the Wisconsin Supercon-
ductive Energy Storage Project supported by the U.S. Department of
Energy and the Wisconsin Electric Utilities Research Foundation.
The authors are grateful to Professor D. M. Cruden for his construc-
tive criticism of the manuscript.
Received 14 October 1980; in revised form 11 December 1980.
R.M.M.S. 18/3 8
197
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