(Auth.) - Blast Furnace Phenomena and Modelling (1987, Springer Netherlands) PDF

BLAST FURNACE PHENOMENA AND MODELLING
List of the Members, the Advisory Members and Staff of

The Committee on Reaction within Blast Furnace Feb, 1982
Chairman
Yasuo Omori, Research Institute of Mineral Dressing and Metallurgy,
Tohoku University
Vice-Chairman
Yasuhito Shimomura, R&D Laboratories-I, Nippon Steel Corporation
Secretarial Members
lunichiro Vagi, Research Institute of Mineral Dressing and Metallurgy,
Tohoku University
Masakazu Nakamura, R&D Laboratories-I, Nippon Steel Corporation
Tsutomu Fukushima, Technical Research Center, Nippon Kokan KK
Members
Masayoshi Amatatsu, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
Kuninobu Ishii, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University
Shinichi Inaba, Central Research Laboratory, Kobe Steel, Ltd.
Takeo Usui, Faculty of Engineering, Osaka University
Masaya Ozawa, National Research Institute for Metals
Katsuya Ono, R&D Laboratories-III, Nippon Steel Corporation
Hoichi Kuwano, Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo
Mamoru Kuwabara, Faculty of Engineering, Nagaya University
Saburo Kobayashi, Research Institute of Mineral Dressing and Metallurgy,
Tohoku University
Nobuo Sano, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
Teruhisa Shimoda, Hasaki Research Center, Central Research Laboratories,
Sumitomo Metal Industries, Ltd.
Nobuo Tsuchiya, Technical Research Laboratories, Kawasaki Steel Corporation
Masanori Tokuda, Research Institute of Mineral Dressing and Metallurgy,
Tohoku University
Hiroaki Nishio, Technical Research Center, Nippon Kokan KK
Michiharu Hatano, Hasaki Research Center, Central Research Laboratories,
Sumitomo Metal Industries, Ltd.
Tsuyoshi Fukutake, Mizushima Works, Kawasaki Steel Corporation
Masahiro Maekawa, Central Research Laboratory, Kobe Steel, Ltd.
Akinobu Yoshizawa, Faculty of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
Advisory Members
Tasuku Fuwa, Tohoku University (Prof. Emeritus)
Mayasu Ohtani, Tohoku University
Yasuji Kawai, Kyushu University
Shinichi Kondo, Hokkaido University
Mitsuru Tate, The University of Tokyo (Prof. Emeritus)
Wataru Muchi, Nagoya University
Gyoichi Suzuki, Nippon Kokan KK
Masaaki Higuchi, Nippon Kokan KK
Tanekazu Soma, University of Tokyo
Secretariat
Kunihiro Yoshioka
Tadatoshi Koga
Kenzo Kato
Shigenobu Shimazaki
Kenichi Sato
BLAST FURNACE
PHENOMENA AND
MODELLING
Committee on Reaction within Blast Furnace,

foint Society on Iron and Steel Basic Research,
The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan
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© ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD 1987

Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 1987
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Blast furnace phenomena and modelling.

1. Blast-furnaces - Mathematical models
I. Omori, Y. II. Joint Society on Iron
and Steel Basic Research. Committee on
Reaction within Blast Furnace
III. Nihon, Tekko Kyokai
669.1413'0724 TN677
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Blast furnace phenomena and modelling.

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Blast-furnaces. I. Joint Society on Iron and
Steel Basic Research (Japan). Committee on Reaction
within Blast Furnaces.
TN677.B577 1987 669'.1413 86-29313
ISBN-I 3: 978-94-010-8035-4 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-3431-3

DOT: 10.1007/978-94-009-3431-3
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Preface
As ironmakers are well aware, it was only a few decades ago that the
blast furnace was viewed as a strange 'black box'. Recently, however,
various in-furnace phenomena have become the subject of serious
scientific study, largely as the result of the 'dissection' of dead furnaces,
together with the development of advanced monitoring and control
techniques. In this way, a new frontier has been opened within the
venerable domain of metallurgy. In the light of these new developments,
the Committee on Reaction within Blast Furnaces was set up in March
1977 by the Joint Society ofIron and Steel Basic Research - a cooperative
research organization of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan (ISIJ), the
Japan Institute of Metals (JIM) and the Japan Society for the Promotion
of Science (JSPS). Consisting of twenty-six members and advisors
drawn from the fields of academia and industry, this committee
collected, discussed, and evaluated numerous papers during its five-
year commission. Particular attention was paid to the interpretation of
findings drawn from the autopsy of dead furnaces, in the context of the
live furnace state, and the correlation of data regarding cohesive zone
configuration, level, and furnace performance. The results of this
intense research activity are presented here in the hope that they will
serve not only as a source of enrichment to the professional knowledge
of researchers and operators, but also as textual material for graduate
students in the field of metallurgy. The thirty-one papers are included
within eight chapters as outlined in the following.
Chapter 1 is devoted to the detailed survey of dissected blast furnaces,
focusing on their spatial analysis: namely, their cohesive zone and its
v
vi PREFACE
function, changes in properties of burden materials, burden distribution,

and a number of intriguing metallurgical phenomena including the
recirculation behavior of certain chemical components.
Chapter 2 deals with the progress made in measuring and control
techniques, while Chapter 3 discusses the progress made in constructing
mathematical models of the in-furnace state. Such models include the
most up-to-date two dimensional steady-state and one-dimensional
non-steady-state models, derived from the findings of furnace
dissections.
Chapter 4 deals with quantification of the flows of gas, liquid and
solid materials in the upper and lower parts of the furnace, and related
phenomena such as flooding, fluidization in the dropping zone, coke
movement, raceway behavior, the dead coke zone, and the flow of hot
metal and slag at tapping. Simulation test data are also presented.
In Chapter 5 the in-furnace high temperature properties of
agglomerated iron ores are discussed. Such properties constitute
important parameters for the construction of mathematical models and
for the prediction of cohesive zone position and level.
Chapter 6 takes up the subject of raceway phenomena and tuyere
combustion zone models, while Chapter 7 examines slag-metal-gas
reactions, with particular emphasis on silicon transfer in the lower part
of the furnace. Such reactions are also related to the process of forming
mathematical models.
Finally, Chapter 8 presents a number of views regarding future blast
furnace technology.
The Chairman would like to express his sincere thanks to all
members and advisors for their indefatigable efforts during their five
years of research, and to the ISIJ secretariat for their efforts in
documenting and editing the work. His special appreciation goes to
Dr. G. Belton, Dr. Peter Scarfe, and Dr. John Burgess of the Broken Hill
Proprietary Company who kindly carried out critical reading of the
manuscript.
YASUO OMORI
COMMITIEE CHAIRMAN
Contents
Preface v
Part I: Phenomena in the Blast Furnace
Chapter 1 Dissection of Quenched Blast Furnaces 3

1.1 Introduction 3
1.1.1 Background to the present study . 3
1.1.2 Methods of quenching and their effects 4
1.1.3 General in-furnace situations and peculiar
phenomena 5
1.2 Relation Between Behavior of Descending Burden and
State of Combustion Zone. 14
1.2.1 Fundamental descent behavior of burden in the shaft. 14
1.2.2 Asymmetrical descent of burden . 15
1.3 Behavior of the Core. 16
1.4 Situations in and Around the Combustion Zone 20
1.4.1 State in front of the tuyere nose 20
1.4.2 Formation of shell and movements at the lower part
of the raceway. 20
1.4.3 Conditions inside the furnace and the shape of the
raceway . 23
1.5 Shape of Cohesion Zone and Relation to Distribution and
Movement of Burden. 24
1.5.1 Formation of the cohesion zone . 24
1.5.2 Relation between shape of the cohesion zone and
operation conditions 24
1.6 Behavior of Circulating Elements 30
1.6.1 Effect of water quenching on the circulating elements. 30
1.6.2 Behavior of circulating elements and amounts of
circulation 31
vii
viii CONTENTS
1.7 Changes in Properties of Burden Materials 41

1.7.1 Macroscopic changes 41
1.7.2 Microscopic structural and composition changes. 44
1.7.3 Effects of circulating elements on the behavior of the
cohesion zone. 50
1.8 Reactions in the Hearth 53
1.8.1 Slag formation reactions 53
1.8.2 Changes in the metal composition 53
1.9 Concluding Remarks 58
1.10 Addendum 59
1.10.1 Arrangement inside the furnace 60
1.10.2 Changes in properties of the burden 61
Chapter 2 Measurements in Operating Blast Furnaces 64

2.1 Objectives of Blast Furnace Measurements 64
2.2 Development of Measurements for Clarification of Furnace
Reactions 65
2.2.1 Standard instrumentation for blast furnaces a
~&~ ~
2.2.2 Development of instrumentation since the
introduction of blast furnace dissection. 66
2.3 Relationship Between Furnace Measurement and Furnace
Operation (Actual Examples) 72
2.3.1 Relationship between measurements before blowing
out of blast furnace and results of dissection. 72
2.3.2 Measurements and estimations of the cohesive zone 74
2.3.3 Development and use of the latest sensors to study
furnace interiors 78
2.4 Future Development of Blast Furnace Measurements 91
Part II: Modelling of the Blast Furnace
Chapter 3 Global Formulation 97

3.1 Review of Blast Furnace Models 97
3.1.1 Reichardt diagram. 97
3.1.2 Operation diagram 103
3.1.3 Kinetic model 108
3.1.4 Control models 116
3.1.5 Models for estimating internal situations based on
observed data . 121
3.2 One-dimensional Static Model. 121
3.2.1 Overall reaction rates 121
3.2.2 Overall material balance 135
3.2.3 Temperatures of gas and solid at the top of the
furnace . 136
3.2.4 Flow rate and composition of gas at tuyere level 140
3.2.5 Theoretical flame temperature 140
CONTENTS ix
3.2.6 Temperature of gas and coke at tuyere level. 144

3.2.7 One-dimensional mathematical formulation for
internal state of blast furnace. 146
3.2.8 Effect of various operating conditions on productivity
and situation in blast furnace 151
3.2.9 Some applications of the model 162
3.3 Layered Structure Model . 166
3.3.1 Radial distribution of flow rate of gas 166
3.3.2 Mathematical-kinetic model of blast furnace 169
3.3.3 Numerical analysis of blast furnace operation 174
3.3.4 Computed results . 178
3.3.5 Steady-state two-dimensional modelling 182
3.3.6 Governing equations for cylindrical polar
coordinates 184
3.3.7 Some auxiliary relations 186
3.3.8 Numerical solution of two-dimensional model 188
3.4 Two-dimensional Model for Gas Flow, Heat Transfer and
Chemical Reactions . 195
3.4.1 General concept of the radial distribution model. 196
3.4.2 Momentum transfer 196
3.4.3 Mass transfer with chemical reactions 200
3.4.4 Heat transfer . 202
3.4.5 Input conditions 203
3.4.6 Method of analysis 205
3.4.7 Simulation results . 208
3.5 Two-dimensional Formulation by Finite Element Method /214
3.5.1 Flow analysis of gas ' 215
3.5.2 Computed results for gas flow 221
3.5.3 Simultaneous analysis of gas flow and heat transfer 229
3.5.4 Computed results on the simultaneous gas flow and
heat transfer . 231
3.6 Model for Estimating the Profile of the Cohesive Zone . 238
3.6.1 General description of the mathematical model . 239
3.6.2 Relation between indices estimated using the
mathematical model and from blast furnace
operation (cohesive zone analysis with 4000 m 3
class blast furnace) . 253
3.6.3 Analysis of operation with decrease in production 259
3.6.4 Future direction 263
3.7 One-dimensional Dynamic Model . 263
3.7.1 Outline of mathematical simulation model 264
3.7.2 Applications to blast furnace operations 272
3.8 Notation 280
Chapter 4 Flow of Gas, Liquid and Solid . " 297

4.1 Flow of Solids During Charging and Control of Burden
Distribution 299
x CONTENTS
4.1.1 Burden distribution of bell top furnaces 301

4.1.2 Burden distribution of bell-less top furnaces 314
4.2 Flow of Solids in the Upper Part of the Furnace 325
4.2.1 Information from dissected blast furnaces 325
4.2.2 Burden descent model 326
4.2.3 Decrease in angle oflayer inclination with burden
descent 329
4.2.4 Influence of some other factors 333
4.3 Flow of Solids in the Lower Part of the Furnace 336
4.3.1 Basic phenomena . 336
4.3.2 Formation of mixed zone in the peripheral region
near the wall 340
4.3.3 Movement of coke to the raceway. 344
4.3.4 Movement of coke in dead coke zone and hearth. 350
4.4 Theoretical Approach to the Flow of Burden Material in the
Furnace 352
4.4.1 Stress distribution in the blast furnace . 352
4.4.2 Inclination of the dead coke zone boundary . 360
4.4.3 Notation (Sections 4.3 and 4.4) 362
4.5 Numerical Simulation of Radial Gas Flow Distribution 364
4.5.1 Burden distribution model 364
4.5.2 Two-dimensional gas flow in the blast furnace 366
4.5.3 Outline of results of calculation 369
4.5.4 Concluding remarks 375
4.5.5 Notation 376
4.6 Flow of Gas and Liquid in the Dropping Zone 376
4.6.1 Counter-current flow region 377
4.6.2 Cross flow region 388
4.7 Flow of Slag and Metal in the Hearth During Tapping 395
4.7.1 State of coke bed in the hearth 396
4.7.2 Flow of slag during tapping . 398
4.7.3 Flow of metal during tapping 402
4.7.4 Mathematical simulation of hearth flow 405
Chapter 5 High Temperature Properties of Iron Ore

Agglomerates . 414
5.1 Reduction Behavior in Lumpy Zone. 414
5.1.1 Estimation of reducibility in lumpy zone 414
5.1.2 Determination of reaction rate constant of reduction
and comparison with blast furnace operation 417
5.2 Change of Mineral Phases in Blast Furnace 420
5.2.1 Change of mineral phases during reduction. 420
5.2.2 Mineral phases in reduced iron ore agglomerates 426
5.2.3 Change of gangue minerals 439
5.3 Flow Resistance of Gas Through the Fused Packed Bed . 445
CONTENTS xi
5.3.1 Measurement of pressure drop in fused packed bed 446

5.3.2 Numerical calculation of gas flow resistance through
a fused packed bed by use of an orifice model 451
5.3.3 Equation of pressure drop in fused packed bed 456
5.3.4 Quantitative determination of softening properties 458
5.4 Effects of High Temperature Properties of Burden on Blast
Furnace Operation 472
5.4.1 Factors for evaluating high temperature properties of
burden 472
5.4.2 Relationship between high temperature properties of
burden and blast furnace operating performance. 476
5.5 High Temperature Properties of Burden with Cohesive Zone
Model and Direct Measurement of Cohesive Zone . 483
5.5.1 Estimation of cohesive zone with theoretical models 483
5.5.2 Effect of softening properties on gas permeability 486
5.5.3 Evaluation of softening properties of sinter 486
5.5.4 Direct measurement of cohesive zone 491
5.6 Notation 492
Chapter 6 The Raceway 498

6.1 Measurement and Observation of the Blast Furnace
Raceway 498
6.1.1 Movement of coke particles in the raceway 498
6.1.2 Condition near the raceway . 500
6.1.3 Reactions in the raceway 503
6.2 Mathematical Model of the Raceway 506
6.2.1 One-dimensional model 507
6.2.2 Two-dimensional model 520
6.3 Notation 542
Chapter 7 The Lower Region of the Blast Furnace and the

Slag-Metal-Gas Reaction 546
7.1 Reaction of Silicon 547
7.1.1 Introduction. 547
7.1.2 Behavior of silicon in the blast furnace. 549
7.1.3 Kinetics of silicon transfer 553
7.2 Other Reactions. 562
7.2.1 Manganese 562
7.2.2 Titanium 563
7.3 Application of Reaction Models of Silicon to Blast Furnace
Operation . 564
7.3.1 Review of silicon reaction models. 564
7.3.2 Partition reactions of Si, Sand Mn 566
7.3.3 Mathematical model of silicon reactions in the blast
furnace 575
7.4 Notation 597
xii CONTENTS
Part III: Flexibility and Adaptability of Blast Furnace
Chapter 8 Blast Furnace Ironmaking Technology in the Near

Future 605
8.1 Flexible Operation 605
8.2 Increase of Furnace Life 611
8.3 Mechanization of Cast-house Operation 614
8.4 Technology Development Related to Innovative Steelmaking
Process 615
8.5 Use of Blast Furnace for Producing Other Metals 618
Index 621
Part I
Phenomena in the Blast Furnace

CHAPTER 1
Dissection of Quenched Blast Furnaces
1.1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.1. Background to the Present Study

Even though analytical studies and computer modeling of reaction
kinetics have developed steadily since the mid-1950s, the blast furnace
has remained a 'black box' and its operation largely empirical. For this
reason many dissection studies on a large number of blast furnaces
have been conducted. I-I I This method of study, in which an operating
furnace is quenched and disassembled so as to gain insight into the in-
furnace behaviour, had already been used in the usN 2 and in the
USSRY
What differs in the case of the Japanese studies is that there have been
many replacement blowouts owing to the rapid advances in blast
furnace technology, such as enlargement, high pressure operation, low
fuel consumption, and high rate of production, so much so that in the
past 10 years as many as four experimental and nine operational
furnaces have been closed down and submitted to scientific research.
The matter is not only one of mere numbers, but the results have been
positively utilized in developing Japan's own technology, such as in the
low Si operation and stabilization techniques for the furnace condition.
Much of the results of dissection studies has already been published
elsewhere,14.15 but every dissection is unique in providing new
observations and insights. In the present study, in which we have been
fortunate to obtain the participation of many people who had actually
3
4 BLAST FURNACE PHENOMENA AND MODELLING
conducted dissections, more recent data were available, making the

analysis more comprehensive.
1.1.2. Methods of Quenching and their Effects

At the outset, the effects of operational conditions, blowout procedures,
and methods of quenching were examined on the basis of detailed
reports submitted.
As regards the method of quenching, the small experimental blast
furnaces were all cooled with nitrogen in much the same way as in the US
Bureau of Mines case, 12 but the operational furnaces were quenched with
water except for Nagoya 1 BF which was quenched with nitrogen. In
each of the latter cases, the effects of blowout and water cooling were
assessed by comparison of the before and after conditions and with
results of continuous measurements taken during the cooling. Objectives
were to observe mainly (i) changes in the positions of various charges,
(ii) changes in temperature, particularly the rise caused by oxidation
with water cooling, (iii) changes in the properties of the burden, and (iv)
changes in chemical composition.
One example of change in the stock line is shown in Fig. 1.1 which is
representative of the changing position of the content. This figure also
shows the descent distance as estimated by the bend of the pipes which
rSl -
• ... _-
Whe"
blowout
o
Descent
aftel walel
Quenching
16 hrs
6 hrs aller
blowol-t
When
______ dissected
5
~--- ---I~
~-t
i________ ~ ! 10
I ~ g
r----- -j ~ 15
o'"
20
"
~__ _ __ Tuyere
~ ~'O 0.5 1.0 1.5

Distance of descent of burden (m)
(Since 6 hrs after blowoutl
Fig. 1.1. Descent of burden following blowout (Tsurumi 1 BF).

DISSECTION OF QUENCHED BLAST FURNACES 5
had been inserted into the shaft after blowout and before water
quenching. It will be seen that the descent is 0·8-1'2 m at the stock line
on blowout, while that due to water spraying is about 1 m at the stock
line, getting smaller as one goes downwards and becoming almost nil in
the lower part of the shaft. Also, judging from the bend of the pipes, this
descent was almost flat in the radial directions. In addition to the above,
substances that melted and dripped through have to be taken into
consideration. However, as the locations and times at which these
composition changes take place remain unclear, no quantitative
examination is yet possible.
During quenching the temperature rise in the shaft due to water
spraying was examined, and a 150-200 °C rise was observed depending
on the details of the spray used. I. 8 Although no actual measurements are
available for the lower part of the furnace, it is estimated that the
temperature would be lower than in the shaft.
It has been shown that the property and composition changes are
subject to a considerable extent to the influence of the water spray.
However, not all the effects are known today, so results of dissection
studies should be considered in relation to individual requirements.
1.1.3. General In-furnace Situations and Peculiar Phenomena

The major operation parameters of the dissected blast furnace that this
committee has discussed are summarized in Table 1.1, and representa-
tive in-furnace arrangements of matters centering on the distribution of
ore layers are shown in Fig. 1.2. The features of those blast furnaces
during operation and immediately before and after blowout are as
follows.
(1) Relative to burden and operation
Higashida 5 BF: production of cast iron
Tsurumi 1 BF: burden mostly of acidic pellets
Kawasaki 2 BF: low strength coke
Amagasaki 1 BF: layer-by-Iayer charging of many different
kinds of raw materials and medium size coke
(2) Relative to conditions just before blowout
Kawasaki 4 BF: long time of blowing-down before blowout
Kawasaki 2 BF: frequent occurrences of hanging and slipping
(3) Relative to charging
Kawasaki 3 BF and 4 BF: control of ore/coke ratio at the center
part by means of auxiliary distributor plates
0\
TABLE 1.1 t:I:l

Data on Dissected Blast Furnaces
~
....,
Hirohata Kukioka Kawasaki Kawasaki Kawasaki Tsurumi Chiba Kokura Amagasaki
1 BF 4BF 4BF 2BF 3BF 1 BF 1 BF 2BF IBF 2l
Inner
~
volume (m 3) 1407 1279 922 I 148 936 1150 966 1350 721 ~
tT1
Hearth "tI
diameter (m) 8'5 7-9 1·7 N 7·1 7-6 7-6 8-4 6'7 II:
tT1
Average daily Z
0
production (tiD) 2605 2 III 1630 1872 1433 1682 1242 2527 1290 ~
tT1
Tap~ing rate
(tim· D) 1·85 1'65 1·77 1·63 1'53 1-46 1·29 1·87 1·79 ~
Last production ~
(tID) 3289 2268 1700 1459 1722 1252 2187 1380 ti
Last tapiJing ~
0
rate (t/m 3 • D) 2·24 1·77 1-48 1'56 1·50 1·30 1·62 1·91 ti
tT1
Time to water t""'
quenching from t""'
blow-out 20 min 30min 7h I h 100 min 105 min 20 min (90 min) 35 min Z
-
0
Time of water
quenching 6 h 30 min I h 55 min IOh 13 h 35.5 h 22 h II h 4h 45 min 14.5 h
Charging Bell + Buckets and Bell +
apparatus Bell Bell distributor bell distributor Bell Bell Bell Bell
plates plates
Charging
sequence CC.CO.OO. CC.OO. CC.OO. CC.OO. CC.OO. CC.OO. CCtoO. CC.OO. C.O.
Coke base (t) 12'5 7·2 5·8 7·28 6·2 7·35 10·2 4·7
Ore/Coke ratio 3·0 3·94 3-49 3·09 2·97 3·09 2·8 3·25 3-6
State of charge 20 0 , V Slightly M Flattish by Inclined to one Use ofY4Ch 20-25 0 , V 10-15 0 , V 20-25 0 ,
because of the use of side beca use distributor V; slightly 0
damaged y, ch of slipping plates; segregated VJ
(FJ
top armor inclined to tTl
apparatus plates one side (')
....,
Burden 0
-
composition (%) Z
sinter 50-4 61 58 79 60·2 60·2 39·9 0
pellets 15'2" 11·6" (2 b) 10 " 13 0 70 a 16 a 39·9" 'T1
lump ore 34-4 29 29 30 5 39'8 39·8 20'2 10
c:
tTl
Top gas Z
temperature (')
(DC) :I:
tTl
center part 300-700 100-400 110 200-300 110 500 315-370 200-500 0
periphery 50-150 50-300 95 130-250 120-170 200 52-130 150-200 III
Top Tleo (%)
center part 20-30 30 40 46 15
~
....,
periphery 45-55 35-40 45-50 43 52
;:J
~
o Acidic. b Mixed slag. C Basic. Z
f;
tTl
(FJ
-.)
00
5,
Om ttl
s:
~
5 21
Reduchon ~
Role 10,01 Scaffold
CJ 10 f;
~ 10 20 E I. tT1
= 20 30 '" ;0 '"tI
_
= 30 50
50 70 .E ::r::
tT1
""0v Sofle .. ng loy .. ' Z
;;;
15
o
gE I· a:::
~Holl:molten laye',;
v
'"
c ~
~
gr 20 o
8o
- 25 Carbon bnck tT1
Slog b
Z
Q
30
(0) H.Oholo 11lF (b) Ku~JOko 4SF
Fig. 1.2. Inside arrangements of dissected blast furnaces.

N
S
w
N)~trft'OO: ~elr:(S)07 ~- Tl + 10m --k "'l,," ,,,~·~:,;w ~
tl
r Jl
Tl+8m - 1?L ~-:;,t::~:~:::::CI::l~:~::ai'."\ rJl
-
tTl
(')
::l
- - Tl+6m -f'.:I-.-~i'l 0
z
0
- Tl+4m --j~p~' \-;0...--- ~\"!J '"I1
t)
c:
tTl
-- Tl+2m - I:;:;~ ='.' _ :P""~~
Z
(')
::r:
tTl
Tuyefe
level
-~~I . ~ tl
Raceway Raceway 0:1
r'
:;: 22 Tuyere >
:;: 6 Tuyere :: 'I Tuyere rJl
!; '7 Tuyere lunu,ad! 170mm¢1 >-l
1120mm¢1
1140mm¢1 '"I1
c:
::>;i
• 5011.n;n9 zone [J Bed coke
D Coke, [fiI Ore and <ol.e. Z
Iril Ore.
>
(')
lei Kakura 2Bf tTl
rJl
Fig. 1.2.-contd.
1.0
o
-
-0-- : Ore
~ : CoSl:e
: Ore Qnd Col.e
t:;:I
1___ : Dense loyer
..,z:;r (Mixture of Lime,
Coke and Fine Particles) §
21
Bu,dol'l :
~
Pellel 700" 1!S
l Ole!' 30"'<'1 tTl
Cole 515 ."
~Clle Ic.~ I
:I:
~
Ir"'t"r Vol
~
1 1501' )
H~(lIrit D.n ~
76.,
~
t:l
IH
S ~
o
t:l
tTl
E~ Charging S~u"nc",
N 0102+ C1 C2+ E
C2 ' lorm"d cok"
z
Cl
Idl Tsurumi 1BF lei Kawasaki 3BF
Fig. 1.2.-collld.
w
rra:a O'e 10\e'
~ 1[11J1 Fused '0 ... tj

V;
~ Ho ·h "'e;led 1000el C/')
~ tr1
n
o Vod
-l
AP~ Q 'J CHG '\10 (3
Z
~ 7'00 o'Tl
~ /:)
6'00
-=:: ,.. 0--
c:::
tr1
~
6l-;;~~~'~~Ccf-
-- -- ----
,'-- 5'00
Z
j$r-u:t1r:}-KJIJJ n
QFe::prr;:o1JJ OC'!i ::r:
:OlO][IJGWr-1 tr1
JI'tn'JIJ01[ - - , ~'OO· tj
?;: I til
I ,
3'00
I ~-l
2'00 ;g
J- /' 6 : FORMED COKE
D:DISTRIBUTOR
I
"~
tr1
C/')
III Ko"csok , 4SF Ig i Kowoso~ , 3BF
Fig, 1.2,-contd.
......
tv
-
20
m. Sl
I::(l
eb"c< ~ Qrelo..,.e'
15 ~ M..-ed IO,e' ~--l

1ft I f\lSed 1 lo'~e(
_ Holr,fus.ed' ~
R Med· ,,"1"1 ~'.7e cc~e
Vied'tllT"' 5'ze cc~e
~
M coI"lo,!'I""9 sfu9 1!)
CO io:e In.,.cr
unm cor,fo,,,,ng }'log tr1
10 '1:j
~ A ... so!,l ::t
M' )' ed bvrde" loyer
tr1
burden Z
~ Co~p. of ! .. -(ere !'lose o
~
5
~
;..
~
o
~
o
T.H. U
o tr1
r
4m 3 2 I 0
t:
Z
o
Ih) Ch ibo I BF 1,1 Amogosoki I BF
Fig. 1.2.-contd.
While furnaces other than those mentioned above were typical of the
medium to small blast furnaces that work on sinter, the states of their
melting zones were considerably different due to differences in the
charge distribution, top design, and at the tuyere.
Generally, the ore layers and the coke layers keep their as-charged
stratification well in descending to the melting zone in the lower part of
the furnace, where three or four ore layers are softened and fused
together before melting. This formation of the fusion, or the cohesion,
zone is again considerably different from one furnace to another, but
the inverse V axisymmetrical shape, seen in the cases of Kukioka 4 BF,I
Hirohata I BF,t Kokura 2 BF,4 and Tsurumi I BF,s appears to be typical.
When considered together with the behaviour clarified by means of
marker materials,6-s. 16 the descent and structuring behaviour of burden
in the furnace may be functionally classified as shown in Fig. 1.3.
"-=-'~+-Coheslon
zone
Combustion
zone
Fig. 1.3. Functional structuring of blast furnace.
(1) The top part, where the layering is determined by the charging
method, burden materials, and size distribution
(2) The lumpy zone, where the individual particles of ore do not as
yet get fused together, and the coke and ore layers make an
orderly descent as stratified
(3) The cohesion zone, where the ore is softened, fused, and
eventually melted, the ore descending forming the cohesion zone
in accordance with the state of gas flow that is in turn determined
by the burden distribution and the position of the tuyeres
(4) The coke zone, which is situated beneath the cohesion zone and
above the core, or the conical deposit of coke known as the dead
man, serving as the coke supply source for the combustion
zone
(5) The combustion zone, which is a zone of coke burning in and
around the raceway in a swirling motion
(6) The core, which is a deposit of coke of conical shape, found in the
lower part of the coke zone, and where the descending behavior
of coke is not a continuation from above, the coke being held up
for a long time
(7) The melt bath, which is composed of the slag layer on top of the
metal layer, both filled up with coke, which is often much
coagulated near the bottom, and the bath itself filling the space
between the lower portion of the core and the hearth, the upper
surface being raised or lowered in accordance with the state of
formation of slag
1.2. RELATION BETWEEN BEHAVIOR OF DESCENDING

BURDEN AND STATE OF COMBUSTION ZONE
1.2.1. Fundamental Descent Behavior of Burden in the Shaft

In this chapter we shall call the lumpy zone together with the cohesion
zone the shaft; then the coke zone, the core, and the melt bath collectively
form the core. Thus, in Fig. 1.3, we will regard the entire furnace as
consisting of the shaft, the core, and the combustion zone.
The following features were common to all the furnaces.
(1) the ore layers and the coke layers descended stratified until the
ore layers were melted down.
(2) the layer thickness decreased, while the angle of inclination also
decreased, as the burden descended.
Therefore the burden descends approximately in a piston-like flow
with the distribution given at the furnace top as the initial condition,
decreasing the angle of inclination of each layer mainly under the
influence of (i) the shaft angle, (ii) contraction and melting of ore layers,
and (iii) collapse into the raceway.
Incidentally, in the Kukioka 4 BF and Chiba I BF furnaces we
observe instances where the coke layers and the ore layers did not retain
the stratification, but formed a mixed burden layer at the furnace wall.
This phenomenon is known to be due to wall trouble, I and therefore is a
variation of the basic pattern. This theory has been verified in a test
conducted with a two-dimensional model for an accident involving the
fall off of armor plates at the furnace top which had happened in the
Kukioka 4 BF furnace.
In the shaft, certain peculiar formations were seen: (i) in the Tsurumi
1 BF furnace the radial distribution of the ore layer is clearly different
between the top five or six layers and the layers beneath them, and (ii) in
the Amagasaki 1 BF the medium lump coke layer is convex at the center
presenting a mushroom-like appearance. In the former, it is suggested
that fluidization of the central portion of the coke layer occurred when
the top gas flow distribution was changing while an ore layer of lesser
gas permeability was charged. 17 From the blast volume that would give
rise to fluidization, those upper five or six charges are thought to
correspond to the time when the fluidization ceased to continue as the
gas flow was reduced. The case of the Amagasaki I BF is considered to
be similar except that here the fluidization took place in the medium
lump coke layer, which is more apt to be fluidized.
In any event, these features should be regarded as peculiar to the
stockline, or the furnace top portion, suggesting the importance of blast
volume in the formation of stratification structure at the top, along with
the more obvious influence of charging apparatus and property of the
raw materials.
1.2.2. Asymmetrical Descent of Burden

Sometimes the burden in the shaft descends non-uniformly along the
periphery. This is mainly due to non-uniform combustion rate of coke
at each tuyere and non-uniform flow resistance of the burden,
particularly that in the cohesion zone, which gives rise to uneven gas
flow. They all influence the formation of the cohesion zone.
For example in the Kokura 2 BF, as shown in Fig. 1.4, the tuyeres of
the east and west sides are oflarger diameter (120-140 mm) than those
of the north and south sides (70 mm, some blinded altogether). As a
consequence, not only the location of disappearance of the cohesion
zone but the degree of decrease oflayer inclination is higher in the east-
west direction than in the north-south direction. This attests to the fact
that the blast volume, and hence the rates of melting and descent of
burden, was greater in the east and the west sides. This will be discussed
again later.
120mmr/)
E
* S * * : Blinded tuyere
Fig. 1.4. Tuyere diameters of Kokura 2 BF.
Further, in the Chiba 1 BF, in which asymmetrical distribution was

found, two tuyeres on the east side had been blinded. This, together with
the peripheral development of mixed burden layer due probably to the
formation of ansatz, might have retarded the melting and descent of
burden in that direction. In the Amagasaki 1 BF, where north-south
asymmetry was noted in much the same manner as in the Chiba 1 BF,
however, neither unevenness in the tuyere diameter nor noteworthy
development of ansatz was found.
Though the true cause thus remains unknown, the following two
observations may offer a clue: (i) there was an iron notch on the north
side, about which the descent of burden appeared to have been faster
than at any other place; (ii) there were certain indications on the north
side wall, which might have been the traces of slightly developed ansatz,
because there the ore layers showed a tendency to hang from the lower
part of the shaft through the bosh. Of these two, the former should merit
further research, for there is an independent observation, made on an
operating large blast furnace, according to which the wear of
refractories can be related to the positions of the iron notches. 18
1.3. BEHAVIOR OF THE CORE
Generally, the core is made up of coke deposited conically, whose top

part isthe so-called coke zone, while at the lower end it touches upon the
raceway making an angle of30-50 o. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.5, where

the motions of various parts of the core are also depicted. It will be noted
that these motions, which have been reasonably deduced from various
observations to be discussed below, are distinctly different above the
slope from below it.
Coke zone
Cohesion
zone -1'~~I
Centrol
core
- Melt both
Coke flowing into raceway

2 Sluggish flow into raceway at the
lower port of deposit
'3 Sluggish descent
'4 Periodic heaving motio:l
Fig. 1.5. Schematic view of movements in the central core.
As may be judged from Fig. 1.6, which shows the distribution of

formed coke layers that were charged as markers and of caged tracer
pieces, and from Fig. 1.7, which gives the locations of the graphite
tracers, the basic pattern of behavior above the slope is determined by
the motion of the coke flowing into the raceway.
With regard to the behavior of materials below the slope, on the other
hand, the following observations have been made.
(1) Even though the half-molten layers did exist stratified, the
markers, which were expected to be present continuously from above,
were not found (Kawasaki 3 BF; Fig. 1.2).7
(2) Thin layers containing lime were found descending making an
interval of 200-500 mm (Tsurumi 1 BF).8
(3) The locations of disappearance of un melted burden were found
to correspond at 2-3 weeks' lagging to the changes in armor position
(Kawasaki 3 BF).7
(4) The residence time of the hearth coke, as estimated from the
graphitization degree of coke at the hearth, was about 1 week (Chiba
1 BF).16
Even though the peculiar phenomenon that the cohesion zone itself
had descended was seen in Kawasaki 2 BF and in Amagasaki 1 BF, it
may be concluded from these results that the descent of materials below
the deposition slope is not continuous from above but intermittent, and
that the motion is so sluggish that residence there is for 1-3 weeks.
In fact, there is further evidence to support this theory of intermittent
descent of the core materials. An examination showed that the shell at
the lower part of the raceway which was in contact with the core
descended stratified/ and this is considered to be a result of heaving, or
Kawasaki I Tsurumi
3 BF . 1 BF I
--- ---L- -5L---:

L
.
I
I
~ \ I
~
t F\e
~~.II • I
I
~G,
~~ I
Marker
Coke
Loyers
TL
Fig. 1.6. Distribution of caged samples and marker coke layers inside the
furnace.
of
Mark
o Cubic 5 doys 21 hrs. 090

~ large Ir!angular prism 3 days 2 hrs. ago
o 1 '8 Cylinder 1 day 20 hrs ogo
A Small Irlongular prism 19 hrs ogo
Fig. 1.7. Presence of graphite tracers (Chiba IBF).
up-and-down, motion that the core coke was making owing to the
difference in buoyancy exerted by the tapping and accumulating
periods of hot metal and slag. 19 Further examination of the mechanism
of this motion is left to a later section but, in short, the driving force of
descent is due, partially at least, to the intermittent carburization of
metal by coke that accompanies change of slag level, and to the
consumption of coke on direct reduction by the dripping slag.
Another probable cause of coke motion is the pushing-up of core
coke under increasing buoyancy due to accumulating slag, in which the
coke tends to ascend floating along the raceway at the periphery. This is
suggested by two observations: (i) the thin lime layers found in the
Tsurumi 1 BF furnace core coke zone were horizontal at the central part
of the core lower part, turning upwards at the periphery; (ii) there was a
coke zone of slightly different nature between the shell around the
raceway (to be described later) and the core, and there coke particles of
different color, namely those coke particles that were impregnated with
slag, were occasionally found.
Finally, the upper part of the raceway where the rate of inflow of
burning coke and the gas velocity are both large should be under a
smaller load than the central part of the furnace, and consequently the
ascent of coke from below should be easy. However, this problem is still
under active discussion as no conclusive evidence has been revealed in
the dissection studies.
1.4. SITUATIONS IN AND AROUND THE COMBUSTION ZONE
1.4.1. State in Front of the Tuyere Nose

Generally, right in front of a tuyere there is a cavity called the
raceway, in which coarse coke particles are often found loosely packed.
Further ahead, there is the shell that is compactly made up of finely
divided coke, small size coke that is thought to have been created in the
raceway, and metal and slag. This zone transcends into the core, which
is composed of coke lumps. This situation is shown in Fig. 1.8, which
depicts the case of the Kukioka 4 BF as typical. l
It has been deduced from the results of probing for core depth
undertaken during active operation that the raceway cavity created by
the blast during the course of production had actually been extended up
to the shell. Though the dimensions and shape of the raceway differ
from one tuyere to another, it has been established that each one is
individually separated from the adjacent raceway.1.4
1.4.2. Formation of Shell and Movements at the Lower Part ofthe Raceway
The formation of the shell found in the Tsurumi I BF is depicted in
Fig. 1.9. It was formed starting from slightly above the tuyere center
plane to a thickness of 30-60 mm with, as mentioned above, small to
fine coke, slag of high basicity and high alumina content, and metal.
From the distribution of these substances, densification presumably
proceeded first with the coke particles closing together, then with the
viscous slag clogging the gaps between the particles. The fact that the
slag has a high basicity (high alumina content was the same for the
Kawasaki 3 BF, which operated on a mostly sinter charge, as for
Tsurumi 1 BF, for which the charge was mostly lump ores) would
appear to indicate that generation of SiO and inflow of lime in the
raceway was considerable. The features of the raceway lower part may
be summarized as follows.
(1) Traces of shell were often found stratified in the raceway lower
part, and the compositions ofthe slag in them were much the same in all
the cases. It may be that this stratified descent is due to changes in the
tuyere front state caused by the tapping slag, a phenomenon that is quite
often observed in small and medium size blast furnaces (Fig.l.lO).
(2) Many dark coke particles having numerous depressions on the
surface (those described as 'pockmarked') were found between the shell
and the wall of the raceway lower part. This was thought to show that the
metal and slag that drip down through this part have a different
o
Cil
r:n
~
::l
o
z
o"rI
10
~
(j
::r:
tTl
o
I:C
I : Co .... ty ~
II : Lorge brown round.sh cot.e ~
lit : Small brown round,s" c:olo.e "rI
1\ : Dork dM~ loyer hnt;t;lura of groph,re. meloi $Iog and C
5moll cokel
: Lorge coke .to line co~e 1· ,5 mml
\'1 : Oork ongulor lo rge co!.; •. tl'lelo; ond 5109 drop,"
\"11 : lO'g8 brown co!.:.e
~III : Dark small co'l.a, metal al'ld stag drop!
~
tTl
r:n
IX : Brown middle size colte Impregnoted with slog
\ : B.rown and dor!.:. large co~e
'V
101 Ibl
Fig. 1.8. State of materials distribution in front of tuyere (Kukioka 4 BF). tv

Slog
Co e
A.r-...,----'bIc-+_ Void
Melol
Roce- _ ' _ Shell

way ...... Core
13-6cml
r"·
CO"'~'o'"
90 __ ___
,,,",,,
-0~ ~ I \
~~e
- 80 • _0
c:!' I " 50_
o c 30
'" '"
:> :>
c
10
S
~~ 20
Melol -16
~ 0
10 Slag
0» C A
=I 7
large i Mot"
Coke
SmollL
Fig. 1.9. State of shell structure around the combustion zone (Tsurumi I BF).
1 Inside of roceway
2 The shell. a moxlure of
small coke and droplets
of melol and slog
MOlly medium size coke.
loosely pocked as a whole
4~ 1 Troces of shell
8 Many poe kmarked coke
Fig. 1.10. State of structural arrangement near the combustion zone as

observed in the Kawasaki 2 BF and 3 BF.
composition from that of the core, and that the movement of coke in this
part of the furnace is very sluggish.
As the behavior of materials in and around the raceway appears to be
related to the discontinuous movement in the core, discussed earlier, as
well as to the dynamics of coke consumption, further research is called
for.
1.4.3. Conditions Inside the Furnace and the Shape of the Raceway
As the asymmetrical distribution of burden found in the Chiba 1 BF
and the peripheral unevenness found in the Kokura 2 BF were
considered as being due to peripheral uneven distribution of gas flow,
the relation between these phenomena and the blast volume of
individual tuyeres has been examined.
It is known that in the Kokura 2 BF the tuyere nozzles at a certain
orientation were intentionally narrowed to protect the furnace wall. 4
The blast volume for each tuyere was calculated using the Wagstaff
formula 20 from actually measured values of raceway depth, particle size
in front of the tuyere, and tuyere nozzle diameter. This is shown in Table
1.2. It will be seen that in the north-south direction, in which the small
diameter tuyeres were deployed, the blast volume was as low as 1/3 to 1/5
of that in the other directions, a fact that was considered to have caused
the cohesion zone to descend as far down as the tuyere leve1. 4
TABLE l.2
Blast Volumes Estimated for Individual Tuyeres of Kokura 2 BF
No. of Diameter Depth of Mean size Apparent Bosh gas volume

tuyere oftuyere raceway of coke density of at tuyere
(mm) (mm) (mm) coke (g/cm 3) (Nm 3/m in. tuyere)
1 70 200 7-4 0'92 6'3

2 140 430 10'6 0'92 32'5
4 130 600 13-2 0'96 45'4
6 120 400 13-4 0'93 29'2
5 120 470 11-3 0'86 29'9
6 140 620 11·9 0·82 45'0
7 140 450 9'9 0'90 32'6
8 140 490 10'5 0'86 35'5
9 140 715 15'2 0'86 57'5
21 140 550 12'1 0'91 43'7
22 70 250 18'8 0'89 12'3
Further, the permeability distribution of the burden affects the shape

of the raceway. This was seen in the Kawasaki 3 BF, where the armor
plates were so manipulated that more of the ore would be provided at
the center, so that the unmelted ore layers descending through the
furnace center would be increased and the raceway would become
shallower for the same blast velocity. 7 This observation suggests that the
distribution of charged materials does affect the raceway shape through
changes in permeability induced in the furnace lower parts. That is to
say, when the burden at the center is richer in ore, the central flow would
be weakened, and enlargement of the raceway towards the core would
be hindered, resulting in less flow of gas towards the core. Therefore the
tuyere front combustion zone should be such that the extent of the zone
can be controlled by means of tuyere nozzle diameter changes and
possibly by other devices on the basis that distribution of charged
materials will greatly affect the conditions inside the furnace,
particularly those in the lower parts.
1.5. SHAPE OF COHESION ZONE AND RELATION TO

DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENT OF BURDEN
1.5.1. Formation of the Cohesion Zone
Ores, in the form oflumps, sintered ore, pellets etc., descend through the
furnace, going through processes of reduction, softening, melting, and
dripping on to the hearth, and at temperatures between the start of
softening and dripping they form the cohesion zone. With regard to this
cohesion zone, the following features were common to all the furnaces
examined.
(1) The zone consists of a number of annular layers of fused ore.
(2) Each fused layer gets reduced and melted by the layer until it
disappears by dripping away along the core slope.
The shape of the cohesion zone may be inverse V, W, or upright V,
depending on the distribution ofthe gas flow which is determined by the
operation conditions, but recent investigation has revealed cases of
inverse V-W mixed type in the Chiba I BF and Amagasaki I BF. These
observations are summarized in Table l.3.
1.5.2. Relation Between Shape of the Cohesion Zone and Operation

Conditions
The shape of the cohesion zone is influenced by (i) the distribution of
the charged materials, (ii) the descent behavior of materials in the
TABLE 1.3
Distribution of Charged Materials, State of Descent and Features of Cohesion Zone
Furnace Distribution of charged materials Descent of burden Features of cohesion zone

and operations
Hirohata I BF 1. V charging with bell; 1. Descent of 0 and C layers 1. Promotion of center flow by
formation of center flow as stratified high tapping rate
by in-flow of large lumps 2. Decrease of slope as they 2. Cohesion zone is sharp
2. Promotion of center flow by descend inverse V; skirt in all
CO~ mixed charging 3. Core coke movement is orientations disappearing
3. 0 layers and C layers perfectly sluggish by melting high above
stratifying tuyere level
Kukioka 4 BF 1. V charging by bell but 1. Descent as stratified except 1. Low fuel rate; normal tapping
CC~OO~ type; much in-flow mixed layer at periphery rate; presence of periphery
of ores to center, suppressing 2. In certain directions, mixed layer making cohesion
somewhat the center flow periphery flow dominated, zone W shape
2. Because of accidental helping center cohesion zone 2. Improved gas utilization rate
fall off of armor plate, O-C to extend to lower part of by coexistence of central
mixed layers developed at furnace flow and periphery flow
periphery, promoting 3. Cohesion zone disappearing
formation of periphery flows before tuyere level reached
3. No discontinuity in ore layers
to the furnace center
Kawasaki 4 BF 1. CC~OO~ charging by bell, but 1. Descent as stratified all the 1. Low fuel rate and normal
flat gas distribution intended way through tapping rate intended; flattish
by making use of armor gas flow distribution
plates
(continued)
TABLE 1.3-contd. N
0\
Furnace Distribution of charged materials Descent of burden Features of cohesion zone

and operations
2. Thick 0 layers at center when 2. Formation of inverse V O:l
armor plates in use cohesion zone; central ~
cohesion zone extending VJ
...,
below tuyere level '"rI
Kawasaki 2 BF 1. With bucket and bell 1. Descent as stratified all the 1. Tending to central flow
c:
CCtOO. charging, tending to way through domination; forming low ~
slight center flow domination inverse V cohesion zone ~
tTl
2. Presence of fused matter '"t:I
below tuyere level, probably ::r:
tTl
due to hanging and slipping Z
before blowout 0
~
Kawasaki 3 BFl. CCtOOt charging with bell, 1. Basically descent as stratified 1. Charging intended for flat gas tTl
while strengthening periphery all the way through flow distribution; formation Z
flow by use of armor plates 2. Formation of peripheral of inverse V cohesion zone
>-
2. Stock line inclining to one mixed layers at shaft lower because oflowproduction rate ~
t:I
direction, perhaps an part where wall thickness operation
~
influence of blowout decreases 2. Central cohesion layers 0
extending below tuyere level t:I
tTl
Tsurumi I BF 1. CctOOt charging with bell; 1. Descent as stratified all the 1. Inverse V type cohesion zone t""
70% pellet; distribution way through due to low production rate; t:
Z
controlled by changing 2. Evidence of flowing in to normal fuel rate operation Cl
method of forcing pellets raceway along core slope 2. OIC at center nearly zero;
into skip sharp temperature peak at
2. When normally blown, center
almost all ore layers
discontinued at center
Chiba I BF 1. CC~OO~ charging with bell; 1. Wall much eroded; extensive 1. Central flow and periphery
small O/C; basically central formation of mixed layers flow mixed type under low
flow dominant type due to ansatz production of rate operation;
2. 0 layers and C layers both 2. Occasional large disturbances due probably to disturbed
uneven and greatly disturbed in both 0 and C layers; this distribution of charged
and presence of blinded materials
tuyeres brought about 2. Height of inverse V cohesion 0
VJ
unbalanced blast distribution zone rather high for low VJ
-
tTl
production rate (j
>-l
Kokura 2 BF 1. CC~OO~ charging with bell ; 1. Stratified descent both of 0 1. Normal production rate; 0
-
central flow dominant type and C layers central flow dominant type Z
0 0
2. Presence of mixed layers at 2. Original 30 slope flattened operation "r1
center; small flow of ores at lower part of furnace 2. Inverse V shape cohesion I:)
into central part, promoting 3. In N-S direction, where some zone
center flow tuyeres only 70 dia. or
iiiZ
(j
blinded, cohesion zone :r:
descended as far as tuyere tTl
level 0
tl:I
Amagasaki 1. Heavily pellet-loaded charges; 1. Basically stratified descent 1. Basically, high production rate
VJ
>
I BF thicker ore layers at middle, 2. Development of periphery and formation of inverse V >-l
and thicker coke layers at flow due to mixed layer cohesion zone, but because ;:J
periphery and center formed on N side, helping of development of mixed
2. Ore layers occasionally central cohesion zone to layer on N side, flow became
broken at center, due survive to below tuyere level periphery dominant, making ~
tTl
probably to periodic changes cohesion zone asymmetrical VJ
in gas flow distribution
N
-J
lumpy zone and the cohesion zone, (iii) the conditions in the
combustion zone, and (iv) the state of coke inflow at the combustion
zone. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.11; it can be seen that the factors have a
cause-and-effect relationship with each other, so individual examination
can be problematical. For the sake of simplicity, if one singles out the
two factors of (a) the distribution of charge and (b) the production rate,
which is in proportion to the blast volume, their relationship with the
shape of the cohesion zone may be summarized as shown in Fig. 1.12.
Here the ordinate, the ore/coke distribution index (O/C), is the weight
ratio for the Kawasaki 2, 3, and 4 BFs and the Tsurumi 1 BF,
the layer thickness ratios of ore and coke layers as averaged over the top
five or six layers for the Chiba 1 BF, Amagasaki 1 BF, Kukioka 4 BF,
and Hirohata 1 BFs, and the layer thickness ratio as averaged over five
layers right above the cohesion zone for the Kokura 2 BF.
Distribution control
Properties of burden
Top burden distribution 1 1 - - - - - - - - - - ,
Fig. 1.11. Interrelations among operation variables and resultant shape of the
cohesion zone.
u ;~L ____
Q t:I
1.5
til
Vi
m
0 n
>-l
"Eo (3
? Z
Q)
o'TI
~
g' I:)
Q. c:::
Q m
0 Z
r
n
::r:
~ m
t:I
I:C
2.0
" "
~
>-l
I L~J r~;l
..' 4 :: u
Note: o
o
In Ore Co~e ratios
]
10 Ci: 1$ bv v\leighl 2
o C . IS bv lo\er thickness I
m
Sror:E' ~~: I Asvmmetricol shope rille to mixing W shope due to 1111::<'ln9 of center Inverse V V shope with flat gas flow due to
I
Vi
of cenler riow Inverse VI Gild and periphery flows due to center periphery flow
perlpher, flow flow
N
Fig. 1.12. Relations between the shape of cohesion zone and the distribution of charged materials. \C)
The conclusions that may be drawn from these observations are as

follows.
(1) In the case of normal bell-charging operation, the O/C at the
center is small, and the inverse V type cohesion zone will be formed
(Kawasaki 2 BF, Tsurumi 1 BF, Kikura 2 BF, Hirohata 1 BF).
(2) The elevation of the inverse V cohesion zone center is high when
the blast volume (the production rate) is large.
(3) By making the central O/C greater by the use of the armor plates,
the cohesion zone center is lowered until it touches the core top; then a
steady V shaped cohesion zone is formed because, as the motion of the
core coke is so sluggish that the cohesion zone captured in the lower
parts of the core cone slope is held up for a long time, affecting the
permeability of the core, the flow at the periphery is enhanced
(Kawasaki 3 BF and 4 BF).
(4) If a mixed burden layer is formed in the periphery due to
difficulties at the furnace wall, the permeability of the periphef'j is
improved, so that a W type cohesion zone is developed as a result of
mixing of the central and the periphery flows (Kukioka 4 BF).
(5) When a mixed burden layer is formed in the periphery and either
circumferential inbalance in the blast volume or uneven descent of the
burden has occurred, an asymmetrical cohesion zone is formed under
asymmetrical mixing of the center and the periphery flows (Chiba 1 BF).
Here the phenomenon in the Amagasaki 1 BF, where the cohesion
zone was asymmetrical in shape and the unmelted ore layers had
descended as far as near the slag layer of the core lower part, is
apparently different from the case of the Chiba I BF above, but the two
causes mentioned in Section 1.2.2 may be the ones that are to be
considered. However, no evidence is available as yet.
1.6. BEHAVIOR OF CIRCULATING ELEMENTS
1.6.1. Effect of Water Quenching on the Circulating Elements

The elements that circulate through the furnace interior via gaseous
phases are the alkalis, i.e Na and K, Zn, S, Si, AI, Mg, and possibly
others. The behavior of the first five elements is of particular interest
because it is related to the following operational problems;
(a) Formation of ansatz; K, Na, Zn
(b) Behavior of softening-melting of ores; K, Na, S
(c) Changes of coke properties: K Na

(d) Increase of blast pressure due to overheating at the tuyere front: Si
(e) Composition of the hot metal: Si, S
It was hoped that the dissection studies would ascertain (i) amounts
of circulation and accumulation, (ii) states of occurrence, both
macroscopic and microscopic, and (iii) effects on the softening-melting
behavior of ores. However, these elements were all subject to the
influence of the water quenching and other actions taken,S and the
following problems remained unsolved.
(1) Influence of water quenching. As clearly shown in Fig. 1.13, the
influence was considerable at least in the shaft. The changes incurred
were not consistent, but the trend was that, as the water circulated, the
concentration increased slightly at the top portion but decreased in the
middle to lower parts of the shaft. In particular, the decrease of alkalis at
the middle portion of the shaft was great. This may mean that what were
seen in the dissection studies were only those that were in forms which
are relatively stable to water.
(2) Analysis only ofsolid phases. The analysis of circulating elements is
possible only with solid samples, and no examination together with the
gas counterparts is possible.
(3) Changes ofmicroscopic states during cooling. Analysis is possible for
phases that are not only water-insoluble but have already been
sUbjected to segregation and other structural changes.
(4) Difficulty of quantitative determination. As the content of each
constituent does not remain unchanged, and as no reference is available
to serve as the standard, determination of absolute or even relative ones
that are consistent is very difficult.
Therefore the examples of calculations to be discussed in the
following should be understood as subject to these restrictions.
1.6.2. Behavior of Circulating Elements and Amounts of Circulation

The distribution, regions of circulation, amounts of circulation, and
difference in absorption by different ores have been assessed and
summarized in Table 1.4 for alkalis, S, and Zn.
As may be seen in Table 1.4, the macroscopic distribution is basically
much the same for all the blast furnaces examined, but it must be
remembered that the behavior ofS in coke is inconsistent so that further
analysis is needed, and that alkalis in the core lower part might have
been influenced by the quenching water, since unusually high
concentrations were sometimes found.
w
tv
Temp. lOCI 1:0

400 500 600 700 800 900
Iri--~-.--~--r--T--~ §
.... after quench
I
~
I '", 0-0 before quench
:-"
I \ ~
tTl
E
·0 .~ '"t:I
g ::c:
I .. ~ tTl
:';
·0 Z
~ 15.0 o
.c
o ~IDg a:::
I 'im~ .c~~~~~
.a3:cr
•• Co-<) K~O TFe
o-a RD before quenching ~
I 20.0 ..... Tecrp _ ~ after water quench
~ No~O'T.Fe
. . . R0 oher quencljlng ... 0--0 IK"O + No!OI T Fe ~

Tvyere level
~. t:l
Point of a:::
sampling
o I0 20 30 40 50 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 o 0.0001 00002 o 0001 0.002 0.003 0.004 o
Reduction degree 1%1 K,O /T Fe, NacO /T Fe, SIT Fe ZnO/T Fe t:l
IK20 + Na,OI /T Fe tTl
b
Fig. 1.13. Influences of water quench on circulating elements in blast furnace (Tsurumi IBF). 52C)
TABLE 1.4
Behavior of Circulating Elements and Amounts of Circulation
Alkalis Sulfur Zinc

Ij
Distri- Concentration both in ores and Content in ores increases from Content, both in ores and in Cii
[Jl
bution in coke increases from 1000°C 1000°C zone and attains peak in coke, increases fast from 900°C tT1
n
zone, and that in ores attains middle to lower part of cohesion zone, reaches maximum at 1100- ::l
peak in cohesion zone just before zone, below which it gets 1200°C, then decreases rapidly. o
melting (Fig. 1.14). Thence alkali distributed between metal and This means that peak position is
z
o'Tj
in slag droplets decreases. In slag. Distribution corresponds, in lower part of lumpy zone and
coke, on the other hand, concen- like alkalis, to shape of cohesion in upper part of cohesion zone. D
tration peak at slightly lower zone, suggesting gaseous S Relationship with gas flow iiiz
position than for ores, then originated from below (Figs 1.18 unclear in that there were n
decreases in combustion zone. and 1.19). On the other hand, two instances in central flow type ::c:
tT1
However, there were cases where types of behavior found for S in furnaces where middle to Ij
concentration was high even at coke: in one it decreases as periphery parts were richer in Zn I:I:l
furnace center (Hirohata I BF burden descends (Hirohata I BF, (Hirohata I BF, Amagasaki 1 BF).
and others). Maximum content of Tsurumi I BF, Kawasaki 2 BF, This is because circulation region ~...,
alkalis per se found in cohesion and others); in the other it of Zn is different from those of
zone lower part, and distribution reaches maximum slightly below alkalis and S (Figs 1.23 and 1.24)
corresponds well to shape of cohesion zone as in Kokura I BF
zone. Therefore it is surmised (Fig. 1.20)
tT1
[Jl
that ascending gaseous alkalis
originate in combustion or
I
dripping zone (Fig. 1.15)
(continued)
w
w
w
.j:>.
TABLE 1.4-contd.
ttl
Alkalis Sulfur Zinc'
E
...,
Circula- From lOOO°C zone down to From lOOO°C zone to tuyere level From middle part of lumpy zone ;:g
tion region tuyere level of 900-1250°C to cohesion zone
~
Paths of Reduction-gasification from slag Gasification on combustion of Direct sublimation or reduction- ~
ascent droplets trickling through coke in combustion zone (COS, gasification at 1200-1250°C, and tTl
dripping zone and that from HsS, CS~, and ascent on gas ascent on bosh gas "tl
::r.:
coke burning in combustion stream generated in combustion
zone, as well as by gas stream zone ~
upwards from combustion zone
o
a::
into furnace interior
Amount of l3-24 kg-(Na20 + K20)/ton-hot 0'4-2'7 kg-S/ton-hot metal 5,2-6 kg/Zn/ton-hot metal in ~
circulation metal (Table 1.5 and Fig. 1.17) (Figs 1.21 and l.22), though Amagasaki I SF; 6' 5-7' 5 kg in ~
depends much on S content in Tsurumi I BF t:I
coke 8
Difference Basic sinter < acidic pellet Acidic pellet < basic sinter, Not much difference among ores, t:I
tTl
in absorp- (Fig. 1.16), though in Amagasaki though in Amagasaki I BF the though generally ores are more t""
t""
tion by ore 1 BF it was MgO-bearing MgO-bearing pellets were less effective than coke Z
pellet < lump ore < sinter effective q
For the in-furnace circulation balance, there is a detailed report

available for the Hirohata I BF. For all others, the values cited above
and summarized in Table 1.5 are those that were estimated from
changes determined in the height direction at locations that were
deemed representative. Also, the total amount of active alkalis, i.e.
excluding those that have adhered to the walls, has been estimated for
TABLE 1.5
Estimated Circulating Alkalis
Furnace
Hirohata I BF 13-1
Kawasaki 2 BF 19'5
Kawasaki 3 BF 16'5
Tsurumi I BF 24
Kokura 2 BF 17-18
Amagasaki I BF 22-23
5~-'~--------------------~
Ore Slag
o • Periphery
o 6 A Middle
C • Center
] 10
C
-"
u
o
1;;
C
E
g 15 C
i-'"
-Si
o
20 o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3

IK,O + NozOI /15i0 2 + CoO + AI203 + MgOI
Fig. 1.14. Changes in alkali contents in ores and slags in blast furnace
(Tsurumi IBF).
W
0\
Na , O + K, O 1%1 NO lO + K, O 1%1
~ <0 .1 >2%
0 01 - 04 III
1.5- 2
• >0.4
1-1.5 §
Belore <I 'Tl
charging 0. 7 C
~
f;
t'I'l
"C
:I:
t'I'l
Z
~t'I'l
~
~
o
6
I:)
t'I'l
E
z
Cl
101 In the slag Ibl In the ores lei In the coke
Fig. 1.15. Distribution of alkalis in blast furnace (Hirohata 1 BF).

0.5
g>
.~
'"
t
0 : Middle K2 Kawasaki 2BF
K3 Kawasaki 3BF
:!! 0.4
0 : Periphery
Tl Tsurumi 1 BF
-"
u Sinter
0 KK2 Kokura 2BF
10
Acidic A1 Amagasaki 1 BF
E
g 0.3 pellets
.9
~ill K2
. .\ ----ll..
0
0:; 0.2
L1 \
u
." ~O \SR
ill
KK2 \SP ,
E
a
is 0.1 !) \ "
I~
" A1
z I \ Tl
, if 6,
K3
0
0 0.01 0.02 003 0.04 0.05
IK 2 0 + Na201 IT Fe
Fig. 1.16. Difference in alkali absorption between sinter and pellet.
Unit: !kg Ipl
Fig. 1.17. Alkali (Na20 + K20) circulation balance m blast furnace

(Hirohata IBF).
the Tsurumi 1 BF of inner volume 1150 m 3. 8 The result was 5600-

5900 kg of (Na20 + K20), which is 2· 5 to 2· 7 times the amount that was
contained in all the coke and ores charged, which was 2000-2200 kg.
As regards the circulation of Si, from the composition of ash in the
coke near the tuyere front combustion zone, changes in the slag, and
thermodynamic considerations, it may be safely presumed that a
considerable amount of Si0 2 will gasify as SiO and ascend through the
furnace in the gas flowing out of the combustion zone. It may further be
assumed that the SiO thus generated will be consumed in (i)
disproportion reaction, (ii) reduction to metal, and (iii) condensation
into and absorption by ores and slag by oxidation, but clarification of
regions for these is difficult.
Silicate formation in lime in the Tsurumi 1 BF is shown in Fig. 1.25. It
will be seen that the limes in the central part, i.e. those that are on the
course of gas flow that does not pass through the ore layers, can form a
compound with SiO at fairly high levels in the furnace. Because of the
temperature at that location, it is reasonable to consider that the
ITsurumi 1 Bfl
SjT.fe lin acid pellell
o 0.0004 0.001
o t
Ji
a;
,t t
CL IKawasaki 3 Bfl
,
1t ! JACid pellel
,
5 SjTfe lin sinterl
00004 0001 ~ I S,nler
50
I : Metal drop
E
n s: ~
~~
(j)
~10 E ~ C'- a
~ if 0-
D
in ': r0-
10 C'-
ro
~
u
E
o ~ .~:
..:= 15 E \ b
l'
(j)
u 15
c
.~ B
o c
20 ~
o
20 6
Tuyere level
o 0.04 0.08 0.12

S lin melal dropl 1%1 S lin metal dropl 1%1
Fig. 1.18. Changes in S contents of ores and metal in blast furnaces (Tsurumi
1 BF and Kawasaki 3 BF).
1511%1 S 1%1 5 1%1
•• ••
~ < 10 ~ <005 ~ 0.01 - 0.05
•
~ 1.0- 1.5 0.05-0.10 0.05-0 10
> 1.5 >0.10 >0.10
101 In the slog Ibl In the metol Ie! In the Ores
Fig. 1.19. Distribution of sulfur in blast furnace (Hirohata I BF).

• (K 0 ~ BF) Amogo,o i I Bf Kowc:sok '2 SF

• HQClshOO 51lf • Wall 'ide
S.l 1.0 .. H.rchoto 11lf .. Cen,.r po"
0.9
.
So ,,, CO!1"bU5t,O'" Torol S
g 08 fudu@'
•
~_ 07
gZ I
.
.•
0.6 "
0
~@ 0.5 "."
~! 0.4 0'
g~ 0.3
_ 0.2
• ••
"".. ~
.
~
£ 0.1 ".
H, 0,0 •
-0,1
03 04 05 0, I 0,2 03 04 05 0 I 02 03 04 05 06 07
TOlol S 1%1 Tolol S 1%1 S 10 ,,1
Fig. 1.20. Changes in sulfur content of coke.
Fig. 1.21. Circulation of sulfur in blast furnace (Hirohata IBF).

" e:,w"J"
Tsurumi I BF Unit: [kg·S THMI Kawasaki 3 BF
Coke Flux Ores Coke Ores

Charge 013
299 Balance 0.09
lumpy
I ""
zone
l L _]34
-0.62 -075
Cohesion
zone
2.92 ~r
04~ 0.49 Met,l [SI/S =8.0
25 Ui
1.25- -;
~ (1~0
1,14
. 618 Slag 210 kg
125~ 0
0591 ~5t ~ ~
"
Hearth U
ISlagl IPigl [Slogl [Pigl
231 kg 274 kg
Fig. 1.22. Sulfur balance in the Tsurumi 1 BF and Kawasaki 3 BF.
formation is through a solid reaction with Si0 2 produced by oxidation

of SiO by CO 2,
Conversely, this means that the gas that passed through the cohesion
zone supplied the SiO there, and it may mean further that there can be a
source of Si0 2 to the cohesion zone other than that through the supply
of Si to dripping metal. However, quantitative analysis from the
dissection study results is as yet almost impossible.
1.7. CHANGES IN PROPERTIES OF BURDEN MATERIALS
1.7.1. Macroscopic Changes

Only the property changes of ores will be discussed here.
In the shaft lumpy zone, ores have been left untreated after blowout
until water quenching, and been subjected to the influence of sprayed
water. Their states as found on dissection are summarized as follows.
(1) The sintered ores had been disintegrated through reduction or
embrittled during the time between blowout and water spraying,
making direct application of the observations to quantitative analysis of
reduction-disintegration rather problematic.
Zn 1%1
~ <001
0.01-0.1
>0.1
Before
c ho(g ing 0.006
Fig. 1.23. Distribution of zinc in blast furnace (Hirohata 1 BF).
(2) The lumpy ores have mostly been thermally cracked or worn to
pulverized form, only a small portion of them retaining the original
form, just as in the case of sinter.
(3) The pellets, both acidic and basic, on the other hand, mostly
remained in the original form, regaining the strength after having been
reduced to about 40 kg/pellet once. 10. 22
(4) The degree of reduction is inordinately low before the start of
softening-melting, clearly indicating re-oxidation having ocurred, so
much so that no differences were seen due to the type of ore.
In short, no particularly novel insights were gained into property
changes of ores in the lumpy zone. For this, investigation of the shaft of
a live blast furnace by sinking probes will be more fruitful.
With regard to the cohesion zone lower part, on the other hand, the
entire process, starting with cohesion of several pieces of ore,
A ... : Zn
o • :S
13.5 c • :K
120
] 10.5
~
~9.0
2
E 7.5
o
.,
.!: 6.0
~ 4.5
g
o.~ 3.0 "--
1.5
O L--L~ __~-L__L-~~~~~
800 1000 1200 0 0 I K 100102
Temperature I·CI I I I
o 0.02 S 1%1 004

o 02 04
Zn 1%1
Fig. 1.24. Changes in contents of circulating elements m sinter and their

regions of circulation (Amagasaki IBF).
T,urum i I B.f
CoCO CetOH coo 5,0 . 2COO , ,0,

I @
2 @
0 0 0
,3 {), @ 0
5 {), @
6 {), I>. {),
7 {), @
8 @
9 @
Fig. 1.25. Results of X-ray diffraction analysis for lime (Tsurumi IBF).
progressing into agglomeration of the ore layer as a whole, unification,

contraction and densification under static load, and finally separation
and melting of slag and metal, has been seen in a huge mass. Though
there was a distinct difference between the mostly acidic pellet charge
and the mostly basic sinter charge as shown in Fig. 1.26, detailed
analysis has not yet been made. Nevertheless, having seen the
phenomenon in an enormous mass, every investigator was very strongly
impressed with the need to understand the characteristics of softening
of ores under load. Other items that were left for future research were the
force of holding the burden when unbalanced descent of the cohesion
zone was taking place and characteristics of the melting by the
layer.
+ 50 mm sinter IK-31 1%1

Portion of Rate of contraction 1%1
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
I
Portion of unfused !T-l ) pellets 1%1
oI
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 loaded softening curve
[
XI0' h,.-.,---r--:.r--r--T--T-T-.,::...-.j I
I /-
i1IT/ /~Y []
l1Lb/;/ J 13
(
Sinter\
70%) []
'0
I '0 ---14
[]
T-l : Tsurumi I BF
t
- M
":':L 15 K-3: Kawasaki 3 BF
Fig. 1.26. Effects of burden materials on the development of the cohesion zone.
1.7.2. Microscopic Structural and Composition Changes

In Tables 1.6 and 1.7 the behavior of gangue constituents in the ores has
been summarized with acidic pellet and sinter as representative of ores.
The following conclusions may be drawn.
(l) From the crystalline viewpoint, even while acidic pellets exhibit
X-ray diffraction spectra of alkali silicates readily in the cohesion zone
or thereabout, no such lines are seen in the sinter, but first spectrum
lines of alumina that is dissolved in calcium ferrite appear then spectra
due to 2CaO . Al 20 3 • Si02 are seen.
TABLE 1.6 o
Changes of Gangue in Acidic Pellet r;;
'J)
t'I1
()
Structural characteristics X-ray diffraction ::l
analysis o
z
Before 1. Homogeneous structure composed of iron oxide and silicate slag a-Si02
o'T1
charging 2. In the gangue, the silicate slag particles exist between particles of quartz of 18
about 100 /l and particles of iron oxide §i
Z
Lumpy zone 1. Pore increase in pellet, leading to formation of concentric cracks ()
(- 950°C) 2. Not much change in gangue ::r:

t'I1
o
Early stage 1. Formation of primary slag (K20-FeO-Si02 type low-melting slag) seen at Na2Si03 I:tI
of fusing periphery
(950°C- 2. This slag disappears from places heated beyond 1000°C, and occasionally ~..,
llOO°C) seeping of slag out to surface is seen, indicating periphery getting densified
(Structural and compositional changes in radial direction begin, and 2 or 3
pellets start to coagulate with each other)
t'I1
'J)
(continued)
I
~
Vl
+>-
0\
TABLE 1.6-contd.
Structural characteristics X-ray diffraction

t:I:I
analysis
~...,
Cohesion 1. Many metallic iron particles at periphery and many FeO particles at center KAlSi04
zone 2. Much molten slag Na2Si03
(1150°C) 3. FeO at center starts spheroidizing 2FeO· Si02
contraction
30% tT1
Marked structural and compositional changes in radial direction

i
'"0
::r:
(1250°C) ~
Periphery Middle part Central part o
contraction ~
50% tT1
State of More metallic iron, Metallic iron and FeO and less ~
iron and conglomerating less FeO metallic iron
State of High melting point slag Porous slag of high Low melting point slag
~
tl
gangue of K20 3-Al20 3 type Al20 3 content of 2FeO . Si02 type with ~
low Al 20 3 content o
tl
tT1
t""
Half-molten 1. In upper part of zone, many pellets seen to have core FeO seeping out to surface t""
zone 2. In middle part, slag formation of lime, olivine, and others in progress Z
(- 1350°C) 3. In lowest part, conglomeration of metal has progressed so far that almost no
o
slag is seen
TABLE 1.7
Changes of slag in sinter
Structural characteristics X-ray diffraction tl

(j)
analysis of veins VJ
tTl
(j
Before 1. Composed of phases of iron oxide and acicular or massive calcium ferrite, with CaO·2Fel 03
...,
charging silicate slag, some of which is relatively large, dispersed in between CaO· 3FeO . Fe203 oz
2. Calcium ferrite is of high basicity (CaO/Si0:J and high Al 10 3 content while y-2CaO . Sial o
calcium silicate has basicity of ~ 1·0 and low Al 10 3 content ~-CaO· Sial ."
3. Acicular ferrite is CaO· 2Fel03 like structure and low in AlP3' while massive tJ
c:::
ferrite is of CaO . 3FeO . Fel0S like structure and high in Al1 0 3 tTl
Z
(j
Lumpy 1. Structure before charging is well preserved ~-CaO· Sial
::r:
zone 2. Diffraction spectra of calcium ferrite no longer seen, indicating complete (y-2CaO· Sial) tTl
(~950°C) decomposition tl
t:tl
3. Both acicular and massive calcium ferrite decompose into iron oxide and slag
(contain 30-40% FeO) at about 1000°C preserving structure as it was; spectra of ~
...,
2CaO . Al 20 3 • Sial obtained from massive ones in early stage
Early 1. Molten slag begins to appear 2CaO . Al10 3 . Sial
~
softening- 2. Massive calcium ferrite has disappeared, and instead a slag and metal mixed (~,y-2CaO . Sial)
cohesion phase, the slag being chiefly of 2CaO . Al1 0 3 . Sial, is seen, while many traces ~
tTl
(~ 1150°C) of acicular ones are still seen VJ
Contrac-
tion 20%
(continued)
.j::.
-...)
.j::>.
00
ttl
TABLE l.7-contd.
~>-l
Structural characteristics X-ray diffraction
analysis of veins
~
Cohesion 1. Structure is undergoing great change: mixed phases of slag and metallic iron, ~,y-2CaO . Si02 ~
m
zone where slag is the seeped out slag at the periphery or the dark to transparent 2CaO . AlP3 . Sial
(1200- ones in the interior, are seen :r:""m
1300°C) 2. Phase containing dark slag is compositionally close to 2CaO· Si0 2 containing Z
Contrac- little Al 20 3, and is thought to have been derived from the acicular calcium
o
~
tion 30-50% ferrite; that containing transparent slag is of a 2CaO . Al 20 3 . Si02 containing
much Al 20 3, and is thought to have derived from massive calcium ferrite
~
;..
3. Slag at periphery is of low basicity and high alkali composition
~
Half- 1. Both metallic iron and slag conglomerated into large particles tl
molten 2. Many iron particles contain slag globulets, at which interfaces high ~
zone concentration of Ca and Mg is detected o
tl
(~ 1350°C) m
t""
t:
z
Q
(2) Structural and compositional changes of the gangue start with

reaction of Si0 2 with alkali in the case of acidic pellet, or of CaO . Si02
with alkali for sinter, both with formation of primary slag at the particle
surface; thenceforward, as the temperature rises, the acidic pellets
undergo distribution changes in composition and structure via the
liquid phase, leading to formation of metallic shell, as shown in
Fig. l.27. Though this process is not so apparent for the sinter, such a
tendency is still seen as shown in Fig. l.28.
(3) In the ore layers just before melting, separation of metal and slag
is complete if the ore is acidic pellet, with the metal presenting compact
structure, but in the case of sinter a considerable amount of gangue is
seen condensed within large voids and at the surface of the layer, but
also many small granules of slag are found within the metal phase.
Examination in an XMA (X-ray microanalyzer) often reveals a sharp
concentration ofMgO at the interface of those minute slag particles and
metal matrix, a fact which may be considered as attesting to the
~ 80
c;-
c 60
0
Q
~
u
u 40
0
0
QJ
;,0 20
3.0
/,c-., '-0
, "
0"" \
,,
c:r' \ AI
'b___ · o ____o
Fig. 1.27. Changes of structure and composition of acidic pellet in radial

direction (Tsurumi IBF, 12S0°C).
beneficial effects ofMgO on the high temperature properties of ores and

low silicon operation of blast furnaces.
r
~ 75
>-
u
c
0
"-
50
"
u
u
0
0
<))
4: 25
.c 1.5
~
1:'
;;; 1.0
~
~
'"
a< 0.5
,c
.';: Q.) 2c
<)).c <))
D- "-
U
Fig. 1.28. Changes of structure and composition of sinter in radial direction

(Kawasaki 3BF, 1200°C).
1.7.3. Effects of Circulating Elements on the Behavior of the Cohesion

Zone
Of the circulating elements, those that influence the softening-Gothic
melting behavior of ores are alkalis and sulfur. The sulfur, even though
showing macroscopically a high content in the cohesion zone,
microscopically, e.g. in XMA investigations, was rarely seen in local
concentrations. Therefore it may be concluded that S is in a low melting
point phase, such as FeS, and as such would not affect the softeningY
The alkalis, on the other hand, participate in the formation of slag at
an early stage of softening, as mentioned in the preceding section, and
are seen to be contained in the gangue of the cohesion zone to an
appreciable extent. From these observations, the alkalis are likely to
exert a great influence on the high temperature properties of the ores.
A series of loaded softening experiments were conducted on ores

sampled from locations in the lOOO°C zone that were judged to have
been subjected to a similar thermal history with their reduction adjusted
to 6%. The results are shown in Fig. 1.29 in comparison with those for
samples from before the charging. It will be seen that the stay in the
lOOO°C zone, the zone that is thought to have been influenced by the
circulating elements, brought about a marked softening for the sinter,
but for the acidic pellet it was a slight improvement. This is in agreement
with Shimomura et af. 24 who studied the effects of alkalis on a laboratory
scale.
0 -0- -
10 '"
.~ CD
'"" 0V
o ~
20 LV
.=
"
!" ..
0-"
~ 30 'iJ -
00..5
c
,Q 0
U 40 • Sinle,.
~ v • MgO pellet
;:
8 50
0
• Acidic pellet
'0
'" 60
"
C<
70
80
90
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500

Temperoture I'CI
Fig. 1.29. Softening under load cuIVes of specimens sampled in the furnace in
comparison with their before-charging counterparts (Kawasaki 3 BF).
Thus, macroscopically, the effect is reversed on the acidic pellet and

on the basic sinter, but the contraction at an early stage of softening is
somewhat greater for both when containing alkalis, though the
deformation of pellet after this is small. This is probably because first a
silicate type low melting phase containing alkalis is formed in the skin
of the pellet, then, as this phase seeps out on the surface, a high melting,
high Al 20 3-K20 phase is formed in the skin, while a strong metallic
shell is formed assisted by the low melting phase, and this shell is strong
enough to hold the pellet for a while.
This theory is supported by comparison of changes in high
temperature reduction rates between the cases with alkalis and those
without alkalis, shown in Fig. 1.30. However, even for acidic ores, if the
Al 20JSi0 2 ratio is small, i.e. if the alumina content is small, formation
of Al20 3 • K20 . 2Si02 and low melting phase is promoted, so the
softening can be hindered.
2.0 r - r - - , - - - - r - - , - - - - - r - - - ,
u
Sl
~
~ 1.0 1.0
o
0<
<I
I
U O~----,~-_+--~-_+~O
Sl
~
1000 1400
~
o R.Dl: Before charging
~-1.0 RD2: Taken in the furnace - 1.0
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400

Temperature I'CI
Fig. 1.30. Changes in the difference of high temperature reduction rate (RD)
between specimens sampled in the furnace and their before-charging counter-
parts (Tsurumi 1 BF).
As shown in Fig. 1.29, on the other hand, softening is markedly

greater for sinter than for basic pellet. Thanks to a laboratory study of
alkali addition for varying amounts of gangue, in which more gangue
was seen to be more liable to be affected,22 this phenomenon may be
understood as due to differences in the quantity of gangue. That is to
say, of the two strengthening constituents of basic ores, metal and high
melting slag, the slag is the more liable to be affected by alkali, and slag
is richer in the sinter than in the pellet.
The discussion studies have shed light on the characteristics of the
cohesion zone, from which the importance of high temperature
properties of ores, in particular the softening behavior under load, has
been recognized anew. The method of evaluation is under continued
study, but it will have to be one that can appreciate the relation between
the high temperature softening under load characteristics of ores and
the amount and composition of gangue (for acidic pellets especially the
Alz0 3/Si0 2 ratio, and for basic sinter the basicity and the MgO content)
with alkali contained.
l.8. REACTIONS IN THE HEARTH
1.8.1. Slag Formation Reactions

There was great expectation that dissection studies would clarify the
reactions taking place in the region from the dripping zone to the
hearth, because this is where the composition of the pig, the final
product of a blast furnace, is determined. Unfortunately, from the
samples taken from the dripping zone, no conclusive evidence was
obtained as to how the droplets of metal and slag had been interacting
quantitatively during active operation. Therefore analysis results
reported herein will have to do no more than suggest basic notions for
physical and chemical influences in the combustion zone.
As regards the slag formation process, results obtained in the
Kawasaki 3 BF, which was operating on a mostly sinter charge, and
those gained in the Tsurumi I BF, whose charges were of mostly acidic
pellet plus limestone, have been comparatively summarized in
Fig. 1.31.8 Also, relations among gangue of ores, coke ash and flux
components seen in these two furnaces are shown in CaO-Alz0 3-SiO z
ternary diagrams in Fig. 1.32.
From these results, the major factors in slag formation were singled
out as shown in Table 1.8, of which the action of factors (6) and (7) has
been schematically depicted in Fig. 1.33. The importance of the
combustion zone for flux components and high melting phases that did
not quite get melted before the melting level was reached should be
appreciated.
1.8.2. Changes in the Metal Composition

In the test blast furnaces, a tendency of Si, Mn and Ti contents in metal
droplets to rise to an extremely high value in the vicinity oftuyere level,
dropping again in the hearth, was seen.5, 6 In the operational furnaces no
such clear trend was observed, except perhaps for Si, which sometimes
showed similar behavior as may be seen in Figs 1.34 and 1.35, In a test
furnace, further, an interesting observation shown in Fig, 1,36 was made
with regard to the behavior of C and Si. Namely, at the tuyere level,
where the partial pressure of SiO is high, decrease of C content may
6 .-~---r--,---"ro--~---r--.---r--.---r--,
Sinter 0.546 >
Ore 01,/. 0.057
5 0
Coke 0.051
Coke 0.038
t"
:] 4
°
l
0;
>
2 3 ." "W:"",
\'>,11 ,
. ,, ""
~
. ,\ 0
\61 ..
~ ~ a;
::: "'0 c:
"0 4 0 ' :
o .- QJo
~ -~· U - -"'-. ~\~!?. ~I~ - - - - -
"'~.O,D
t 1+
I
r-
Drop 01 .,~
i I
t~ ?
2 I
Massive
i
0.3 0.4 05 03 04 05
CoO IS,02 CoO j AI,O" + MgOJ
+ Coke 0620 Ore 01,1 , 0584

a;
..
>
5 C
0 Coke 0.625
;;;
:] 4 0 ""'- Ompplng
level
Qj
~ 3
E
g
..::! 0
o
v;
0-1
2
Finol topping slog
0.4 o.~
Fig. 1.31. Changes in slag droplet composition (Kawasaki 3 BF and

Tsurumi 1 BF).
occur because decarburization due to the reaction SiO + C = Si + CO

can predominate over the carburization reaction.
Another significant observation was that for P, obtained in the
Tsurumi 1 BF. As may be seen in Fig. 1.35, the radial distribution of P
was higher in the periphery, and this corresponded well with the
distribution of the converter slag charge, which contained much P.
From these results, the following conclusions have been drawn
6 I
O re av. 0.316
5 Coke 0.309
] 4
~
.!1 3
..
~
>- 2
2
E
g
..
u
c
0
0
6- 1
- 2
- 3
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1
• 0.2 0.3
Fig.1.31-contd.
Ka YQsa I No.3 8 F TSLPrumi No.1 B'F.

McS5.I'<'e Drop
o • Well sde
s.o.
I) .... Mddle
• Cetl1et'
AI,O J Iwl%1
Fig. 1.32. Relations between composition of gangue in the charge and changes
in composition of slag.
regarding the influences of those factors on the longitudinal and radial

distributions of metal components in the lower part of the furnace:
(1) The component that is strongly influenced by the gas flowing out
from the combustion zone to the melting zone: Si
(2) The components that are influenced by the Si content: Mn (and
C)
TABLE 1.8
Major Factors Contributing to Formation of Slag
Mainly sinter Acidic ores + Lime
Formation of (1) Separation and (1) Formation of acidic
dripping slag in dripping off of low slag out of reaction of
the zone basicity, low melting silicate slag and lime,
phase out of high and of lime phase
basicity, high that has reacted with
melting phase slag somewhat
(2) Radial composition
changes due to
segregated
distribution of lime
Assimilation reaction (3) Reaction of dripping slag with high melting
of two phases phase that descends carried by metal and coke
Effects of combustion
zone
motion (4) Inflow of unmelted high melting phase into
temperature combustion zone
(5) Promotion of melting of unmolten phase by
prevailing high temperature
reaction (6) Reduction of Sial and generation of SiO
combustion (7) Separation and scattering of coke ash
Tsurumi 1 BF Kawasaki 3 BF
Sinter IB=;o 18016090
Acidic pellet 70%
lime
Gangue
Olivine ICoO)
I zone
Center
I Tuyere I
level
I Center
RocElvay
I Coke
Final slog
I ash
CoO,"SiOc
Fig. 1.33. Schematic representation of slag formation; comparison of the cases

of mostly acidic pellet burden and mostly sinter burden.
(3) The component that is influenced by the shape of the cohesion

zone and the gas flow distribution in it: S
(4) The component that is influenced by the distribution of charged
material that contains much of the same element: P
Somp ling IMelo l porlto n)

p OSl fion
.------.. c Si S Mn
II j I j II
." ..... 00
I
i
---J OT
---l eN
~ ,~H
'''' ...
--'
I
Fig. 1.34. Compositional changes of droplets of metal and slag (Hirohata I BF)_
.
• woU ~Ide
.& M~ddl8 porr
• C~nler pOfl t::owosoh:3 BF
- Mo
E 3 ! 18 C
;:: 2 ;:t; 19
_~ I a20
'" 21
~ 0 ~2'2
~ - I ~13
6 - 2 0
ConCenlrQI,on ~
huruml I SF
] S E 18 C
- - 19
E ~ 20
1 2 g 21
~ 0 ~ 22
c g23
C_ 1 0 24
O ~I~2~
~ 3 ~'~O~O'~O~
. 1~1~~~O~'C~a~I~
1 ~O~O~I~O~O~
~ ~O~
~
ConCf;!nllo tIOt'J '\.
Fig. 1.35. Compositional changes in metal droplets (Kawasaki 3BF and

Tsurumi I BF)_
• ..... ,
...... "
• 6 Tuyefe \
12 Te~pero r ure or
IS· Ct\ \\~ .. \
~ , '
Alomlt~ \ ... \
'quid surfoce
1700'C
'1~
10 '. rOllo \ \ \ \ \ ~ 16QO'C
E
~\\'''.~ I500'C
1 8 "~ 1400'C
II gO ->--<~. ..,,~ ,-,
0
;;
6 H/
+n l
.;;
6
.'{~
", 'If \:\\~,:\
"::.\
-05
'--"'Ii
(f.~~' .' , .~~...
2
. .
'\
,"\
\ '\ \
\,'
'\
'\
. "'.
101 0 I 2 3
C 1"'01
• 2
S,
4
tOot
6 Ibl
0
0 6
C 10.0 1
Fig. 1.36. Change in Si and C contents of hot metal at experimental blast

furnace of Nippon Kokan.
1.9. CONCLUDING REMARKS
The Committee on Reaction within Blast Furnace, the Joint Society on

Iron and Steel Basic Research, ISH, was fortunate to have been able to
collect an enormous amount of dissection study results and to have so
many people participate with their personal experiences and observa-
tions gained from dissections. The reports presented were examined
from every angle, but it was clear that dissection studies by themselves
could not produce many quantitative conclusions. Nevertheless, many
insights were gained and many points of future research identified.
In view of the many studies that have already been published, the
present report was compiled so as to avoid excessive duplication. We
believe that basic notions for and states of affairs within the blast
furnace with regard to the following points have been clarified:
(1) The behavior of various charged materials above the core
(2) The influences of distributions of burden materials, tuyeres, and
states of furnace walls on the shape of the cohesion zone
(3) The behavior of circulating elements except SiO
(4) The influences of alkalis on the behavior of softening-melting of
ores
(5) The role of the combustion zone in slag formation reactions
On the other hand, there is still almost no knowledge about the
movement of the materials within the center core, and about the
locations, paths, and quantity of condensation or absorption of SiO.
When evaluation and analysis of such macroscopic factors as the force

that supports the steady descent of the cohesion zone, which was also
left unc1arified, is added to these, it has to be said that many problems
remain for future blast furnace technology to face and solve.
1.10. ADDENDUM
The foregoing was compiled from data obtained before June 1979. Since
then, the Nagoya 1 furnace 25 - 27 and the Kakogawa I furnace 28 - 3o were
blown out, and dissection results have partially been published. The
pertinent data and the in-furnace arrangements of these two furnaces
are shown in Table 1.9 and Figs 1.37 and 1.38.
TABLE 1.9
Data on Dissected Blast Furnaces (Supplement)
Nagoya 1 BF Kakogawa 1 BF
Date of blowout 1 June 1977 5 March 1978

Inner volume (m 3) 2518 3090
Hearth diameter (m) 11 11-9
Average daily
production (tiD) 4315 3306"
Tapping rate (t/m 3 • D) 1'71 1'07"
Operation conditions
just before blowout
blast volume (Nm3/min) 3100 3800
blast temperature (0C) 742
fuel rate (kg/t) 465 581 b
(O/C) 3'77
Steady furnace Steady furnace even
though blast greatly
decreased
Burden Mostly pellets Mostly (70' 5%) pellets
comprising sinter,
cold pellets, fluxed
pellets, and acidic
pellets
Method of cooling By nitrogen from top By water spraying
to tuyere
a Just before blowout. b All coke.

TH Side
Fig. 1.37. Inside arrangements of dissected blast furnace (Nagoya IBF, 2nd).
1.10.1. Arrangement Inside the Furnace

The arrangement oflayers, particularly the shape of the cohesion zone,
was a complex asymmetrical one in the Nagoya I BF, and was an
inverse V verging slightly on a W in the Kakogawa I BF. This
observation has been examined in the light of analysis according to
Fig. 1.12.
Since the Kakogawa I BF was operating on a high pellet burden, so
that the Ole ratio was high in middle to center parts, and since
operation was under a reduced blast, the layers were rather flattened.
Then there was formation of a mixed burden layer at the furnace wall,
and further some of the tuyeres were blinded. These together appeared
to promote the slightly decentered W type cohesion zone.
For the Nagoya I BF, on the other hand, even though not all the
reports have yet been returned, flattening of structure due to high pellet
burden, formation of mixed burden layer due to some wall trouble, and
some influence of either tuyere or iron notch were in evidence.
Therefore it may be concluded that basically both blast furnaces
behaved as expected from Fig. 1.12.
The temperature distribution in the radial direction in the Kakogawa
w N
OT
Fig. 1.38. Inside arrangements of dissected blast furnace (Kakogawa IBF).
1 BF was reversed for the upper and the lower parts. For this, the
information of reduced blast should be considered. In the same furnace,
further, a layer of fine particles that contained metal and slag was found
to exist at the boundary between the core coke of the dripping zone and
the overlying layer of coke that was flowing into the combustion zone.
As the presence of a similar layer was detected in other furnaces also,
this observation should be considered as revealing a phenomenon
important for analyzing the gas flows and other movements in the
vicinity of the central core.
1.10.2. Changes in Properties of the Burden

The Nagoya 1 BF was special in that it was quenched with nitrogen,
thereby eliminating effects due to cooling medium. Examination was
conducted chiefly on the cold bond pellet and has been summarized as
follows.
(1) The disintegration of sinter was greatest at a reduction degree of
about 10% and less on either side.
(2) Little disintegration was seen in the pellets, but cracks developed
concentrically, and the decrease in strength was considerable.
(3) The reduction rate was not the same in the radial direction even
within a single ore layer, the reduction progressing fast suddenly in the
vicinity of the cohesion zone.
(4) In the cohesion zone, there was unreduced FeO remaining at the
center, and this tendency was stronger for acidic pellet.
It will be noted that these observations are basically the same as those
obtained through water quenching. However, the significance of the
Nagoya I BF is that it has substantiated the conclusions drawn from the
results obtained on the water sprayed samples. The reports on alkalis,
zinc, sulfur, and others as unaffected by water are awaited.
REFERENCES
1. K Kanbara, T. Hagiwara, A Shigemi, S. Kondo, Y. Kanayama,

K Wakabayashi and N. Hiromoto, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 62(1976), 535.
2. Y. Shimomura, K Nishikawa, S. Arino, T. Katayama, Y. Hida and
T. Isoyama, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 62(1976),547.
3. M. Sasaki, K Ono, A Suzuki, Y. Okuno, K Yoshizawa and T. Nakamura,
Tetsu-to-Hagane, 62(1976), 559.
4. K Sasaki, M. Hatano, M. Watanabe, T. Shimoda, K Yokotani, T. Ito and T.
Yokoi, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 62(1976), 580.
5. Technical Research Center, Nippon Kokan K K, report submitted to 54th
Committee (Ironmaking), Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
(JSPS), Rep. No. 54-1059 (1970).
6. RAndo, T. Fukushima and S. Kishimoto, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 57(1971), S665.
7. K Horikawa, report submitted to 54th Committee (Ironmaking), Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), Rep. No. 54-1371 (1976).
8. G. Suzuki, report submitted to 54th Committee (Ironmaking), Japan
9. S. Hashizume, H. Takahashi, T. Nakagawa, S. Tomita, M. Sato, Y. Morioka
and H. Koitabashi, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 64(1978), S108.
10. K Yoshimura, T. Sato, A Fukihara, S. Shimazaki, K Narita and M. Maeda,
Tetsu-to-Hagane, 64(1978), S551.
11. M. Tate, Y. Kuwano, K Suzuki, T. Chang, H. Go and M. Matsuzaki, Tetsu-
to Hagane, 62(1976), 35.
12. 1. J. Bosley, N. B. Melcher and M. M. Harris, J Metals, Sept. (1959), 610.
13. V. M. Muravev and N. I. Mischenko, Stal in Eng. (1970), 591.
14. M. Tate, notes submitted to 40th Ironmaking Committee, Joint Research
Society, ISIJ.
15. S. Kondo, 33-34th Nishiyama Memorial Seminar, ISIJ (1975), 125.
16. M. Kondo, Y. Konishi, H. Koitabashi, Y. Morioka, S. Hashizume,
H. Takahashi, K Okumura and S. Tomita, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 64(1978), S546.
17. O. Tajima, report submitted to 54th Committee (lronmaking), Japan

18. N. Shimada, Y. Koyama, A Miyamoto and M. Nishi, Tetsu-to-Hagane,
58(1972), S34l.
19. H. Nishio et al., Tetsu-to-Hagane, 62(1976), S38.
20. J. B. Wagstaff, Proc. AIME Blast Furnace, Coke Oven and Raw Material
Comm. (1953), 104.
2l. K Kojima, T. Nishi, T. Yamaguchi, H. Nakama and S. Ida, Tetsu-to-Hagane,
62(1976), 570.
22. G. Suzuki, report submitted to 54th Committee (Ironmaking), Japan
23. R. Takahashi, Y. Omori and Y. Takahashi, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 62(1976), A99.
24. Y. Shimomura, M. Sasaki, T. Nishi, K Nishikawa and T. Enokido, Tetsu-to-
Hagane, 63(1977), A79.
25. K Ezaki, Y. Abe, K Iwatsuki, K Imada, M. Takasaki and N. Inoue, Tetsu-
to-Hagane, 67(1981), S50.
26. A Suzawa, T. Inazumi, M. Takasaki, T. Noda, K Ezaki and K Nojima,
Tetsu-to-Hagane, 67 (1981), S5l.
27. K Exaki, T. Inazumi, Y. Kojima, M. Takasaki, J. Haruna and K Nojima,
28. M. Takami, S. Tada, R. Hori, T. Okada, I. Kobayashi and H. Yamaguchi,
29. I. Kobayashi, S. Inaba and K Narita, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 67(1981), S720.
30. I. Kobayashi, S. Inaba, M. Shimizu and K Narita, Tetsu-to-Hagane,
67(1981), S72l.
CHAPTER 2
Measurements in Operating Blast Furnaces
2.1. OBJECTIVES OF BLAST FURNACE MEASUREMENTS
Currently the measurement of blast furnace conditions is performed for

a variety of purposes. This chapter outlines the progress being made in
areas of blast furnace measurement, ranging from the clarification of
blast furnace reactions to the control of furnace operations. The
description centers not so much on measurement hardware as on
measuring methods and their application to blast furnace operations.
With the development of blast furnace operations, a wide variety of
measuring methods have been developed to clarify furnace physics and
chemistry. Today some of these measuring processes are increasingly
being built into routine blast furnace instrumentation. In recent years a
number of blast furnaces have been dissected for analysis. As a result,
furnace burden behavior is better understood and many control points
of blast furnace operation have been clarified. This has resulted in a
demand for the measurement of variables at these control points in an
operating furnace. This is why new measuring methods have been
studied, and the result is that the technical level of blast furnace
operations has since been improved.
The methodology of blast furnace measurement covers not only the
determination of temperature and gas distribution in the blast furnace.
The dissection of blast furnaces has recently clarified to a large extent
how the properties of burdens change as they descend through the
furnace. It also has shown the large effect that changes in properties
64
MEASUREMENTS IN OPERATING BLAST FURNACES 65
have exerted upon the operation of the furnace. This has led us to
believe that, if samples are taken of the burden during furnace
operations, they will provide a clue to enable burden properties to be
improved. Accordingly, blast furnace instrumentation now includes
sampling of the furnace burden.
2.2. DEVELOPMENT OF MEASUREMENTS FOR

CLARIFICATION OF FURNACE REACTIONS
The development of blast furnace measurement in the past decade is

outlined below.
2.2.1. Standard Instrumentation for Blast Furnaces a Decade Ago

It was about ten years ago that detailed dissection of blast furnaces was
first started in Japan. Before that, a few small blast furnaces were
examined for furnace reactions, but the results were not conclusive
enough to significantly alter the basic concept of the blast furnace
process. It is true that at that time blast furnaces were already exhibiting
steady, excellent performance. However, the conceptual ideas of the in-
furnace phenomena then differed widely from our understanding at the
present time.
sounding
rod
top gas temp.,
pressure, composition
furnace top probe
Itemp, gas compn.1
gas static ---T- wa!1 temp.

pressure
blast temp. &

pressure
pig & slag

temp.
compn. L_-====r-L-- Hearth & battom
temp.
Fig. 2.1. Instrumentation of blast furnace about a decade ago.

Figure 2.1 shows the standard instrumentation of an up-to-date blast

furnace built at that time. l As is clear from the diagram, the instruments
used were not as varied as they are now, and the objectives of
instrumentation were limited mainly to computer control for the
prediction and control of furnace operations and to the control of
burden distribution at the furnace top to reduce fuel rates.
2.2.2. Development of Instrumentation Since the Introduction of Blast

Furnace Dissection
As mentioned in the preceding section, the use of dissection analysis to
study burden behavior in the blast furnace marked a turning point in
the development of blast furnace instrumentation. Table 2.1 shows a list
of reports on blast furnace instrumentation that have been presented at
the annual conferences of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan. As the
table shows, the number of reports dealing with instrumentation
development has risen steadily. In this list there may be a time lag of one
to two years between the presentation of the reports and the actual
measurements, but the listing is sufficient to allow us to make the
following observations about the development of blast furnace
instrumentation over the past decade.
(1) The practice of dissecting blast furnaces for furnace analysis has
clarified in much more detail than before the formation of the cohesive
zone in the furnace, the flow of gas through the cohesive zone and the
chemical reactions in the furnace. It has further drastically altered the
very concept of the process. This epoch-making advance in blast
furnace technology in tum has generated a demand for new blast
furnace instrumentation. Behind this demand lies the belief of
ironmakers that a knowledge of the position and behavior of the
cohesive zone in an operating blast furnace is essential for the
successful operation and control of the furnace. Methods for the direct
measurement of the cohesive zone have since been exhaustively sought,
and several methods for indirectly estimating the location and
movement of the cohesive zone have been developed. However, their
commercial application to actual blast furnace operations has not yet
been perfected.
(2) Initially, measured values of the temperature and the chemical
composition of gases just above the stockline surface were used to
estimate the shape of the cohesive zone. Recently, to increase the
accuracy of such estimates, measuring probes are actually being
inserted into the burden. The trend appears to be toward increasing the
TABLE 2.1
List of Reports of Blast Furnace Measurements
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 ~
Furnace Charge Gas temp. Gas flow" Charge Hot spot Mechan- fJ-wave
~c::
top profile distribu- tracing profile monito- ical profile g;
and temp. tion by He measure- ring by profile meter ~
distribu- (Kobe) (NKK) ment camera measure- (Chiba)
tion (Chiba, (Chiba, ment
Furnace Gas flow" ~
(Muroran, Kawasaki) Kawasaki) (Chiba)
top probe by He Z
NSC) o
system Gas tracer '1:l
Gas (Kokura, velocity (NKK) ttl
velocity Sumitomo) distribu-
distribu-
tion
G fl w"
as. 0
tion S
Z
(NKK) Q
(SumitomotracHmg c;,
'by e
Charge (Hirohata, §
profile NSC)
and gas
compn.
distribu-
tion ttl
CJ)
(Chiba,
Kawasaki)
I
(continued)
~
0\
00
TABLE 2.l-contd.
to
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981
~
>-l
Upper Horizontal Horizontal Gas temp. Furnace Horizontal
shaft probe probe near wall analysis fixed ~
(Kimitsu, (NSC) (SOmm) by upper probe ~
NSC) (Waka- and lower (Sakai, 1:;
yama) horizontal NSC) tTl
probe "tI
::r:
(Kimitsu,
NSC) ~
0
Horizontal E:::
tTl
probe Z
;..
(SL-IO,
11.7 m) ~
(Mizu- t:I
shima, E:::
0
Oita) t:I
tTl
Sampling t"'"
(SL-IO.7 m)
t:
Z
(Kobe) Cl
Lower Horizontal Horizontal Vertical

shaft probe probe sonde a
(SL,-12 m) (Kimitsu) (Chiba,
(NKK) Fukuyama)
Bosh Melting Melting Melting Melting
zone zone zoneD zoneD
measure- measure- measure- measure-
ment by ment by ment by ment by
radio- stave vertical vertical
active temp. sonde sonde a::m
tracer (Muroran) (Kobe) (NKK)
(Hirohata,
>
[Il
c:::
NSC) f;;
Tuyere Temp. Tuyere Coke Tuyere a::m
level and gas probe sampling probe ...,Z
in (sampling, (Yawata) (NKK) [Il
raceway ....,
etc.) Z
(Sumitomo) (Kimitsu) Raceway
observa- 0
'"C
tion by m
high-
speed ~
Z
camera 0
(Kimitsu) ttl
t"'"
>
[Il
...,
(continued)
"r1
c:::
~
(")
m
[Il
96
-.J
o
t:l:l
TABLE 2.I-contd.
~...,
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981
21
Hearth Metal Metal and ~

tTl
flow slag flow "tl
radio- by radio- ::r:
active activity ~
tracer (Hirohata) o
~
(Hirohata) tTl
Topics Hirohata All coke operation of biast furnace ~

furnace ~
dissec- t:I
tion
report 8
t:I
tTl
aThis item relates to the total furnace height. E
z
o
depth of the measuring position of these probes in the shaft. Currently,

an upper shaft probe designed for introduction 10 m or so below the
stockline is fast being established as a practical proving unit. Probes
which monitor reactions still lower in the shaft are under development.
(3) The behavior of coke in the raceway, the flow of gas from the
raceway, and the change which coke undergoes in the hearth are
important variables, the control of which is essential for the control of
the blast furnace. For this reason, measurements are also being taken of
the furnace interior at tuyere level. Specifically, a particular probe,
called a tuyere probe, is introduced into the furnace interior through the
tuyere to take measurements and samples as it travels through the
raceway to the furnace center. The commercial application of this new
device is under way to enhance control over blast furnace operations.
(4) The world energy situation and fluctuating steel demand have
forced blast furnace operators to adjust furnace operations to meet large
marginal fluctuations in steel output and in fuel/raw materials. This has
required the availability of suitable instrumentation to keep blast
furnace operations under precise control and to improve the control
systems based on the above. Consequently, shaft probes have since been
perfected. They are now used to collect in-furnace data and, as a result,
the circumferential probing of the blast furnace interior has almost
been perfected. Circumferential probing is aimed at balancing the state
of the furnace around its circumference.
(5) In order to clarify furnace reactions in even more detail, probing
has recently been carried out in the lower part of the furnace, and from
the lower part to all regions within the furnace both vertically and
horizontally. The probes now under study include those that are
designed to penetrate the furnace wall into the burden, at a point
approximately 14 m below the stockline. Still others are on trial to probe
the furnace interior at tuyere level.
The bosh remains the only area where probe measurement has yet to
be achieved. In this connection, the vertical sonde which was once tried
in Germany over 10 years ago is about to be returned to service to make
thorough longitudinal probing of the blast furnace possible, at least at
one point in the radial direction.
(6) If the gas flow distribution in the blast furnace is clarified, it will
greatly help to elucidate furnace reactions. And it is for this reason that
many measurements have been repeatedly taken of the gas flow velocity
at the stockline surface. In this regard, standard measurement practice
has yet to be established.
2.3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FURNACE MEASUREMENT

AND FURNACE OPERATION (ACTUAL EXAMPLES)
Some of the examples of measurements taken recently in Japan to

clarify furnace reactions, together with examples of the application of
the results to furnace operation, are shown below.
2.3.1. Relationship Between Measurements Before Blowing Out of

Blast Furnace and Results of Dissection
It has been revealed from the dissection of quenched blast furnaces that
there is an important relationship between the formation of the
cohesive zone and the operation of blast furnaces. Therefore determina-
tion of the shape of the cohesive zone has become an important issue.
As will be discussed later, however, the development of a method for
directly measuring the cohesive zone has not yet been completed, and
several methods for indirect estimation already developed are being
used without clarification as to whether the estimation corresponds
with the actual conditions in the furnace.
For this reason, in developing the method for cohesive zone
measurement, examination was made as to whether or not the condition
of the cohesive zone discovered on dissection could have been
estimated from the detecting element information obtained when the
blast furnace in question was in operation. However, most of the
furnaces so far dissected were small and old with insufficient
instrumentation. In these furnaces, the judgement of the furnace
condition relied mainly on the top gas temperature and composition
distribution. Since there was no concept of the cohesive zone when the
first dissection was carried out, no comparison was made between the
findings and the actual operation data. In the later dissection of
quenched blast furnaces, the condition of the cohesive zone was
estimated before blowing out, and a comparison was made between the
estimated shape and the results of dissection.
Figure 2.2 shows the relationships between the rough shapes of
cohesive zones observed on dissection and the top gas temperature
distribution and distribution of reducing gas utilization during actual
operation, obtained for several blast furnaces. 2 It is apparent from the
figure that there is a general tendency for the shape of the cohesive zone
to be almost the same as that of the temperature distribution, and that
the distribution of gas utilization shows a reverse tendency.
At Hirohata No.1 furnace, the top of the cohesive zone is high and
N.A
c w c w C w C W C
Furnace Furnace
wall center
Hlrohoto Kukioko Kawasaki Kawasaki Tsuruml Chiba

No.1 No.4 No_ 2 No.3 No.1 No I
G (good) 6. ineu rly good) 0 0 X Ihadl 6
Fig. 2.2. The relation between the dissected shape of the cohesive zone and the
top gas data during furnace operation.
the temperature distribution shows a very high level in the furnace

center; thus there is a good correspondence between the results of
dissection and those of operation. For Kawasaki No. 2 and No. 3
furnaces, flat distributions indicating low temperatures in the furnace
center correspond well with the low levels of the cohesive zones. Indeed,
at Kawasaki No.3, peripheral gas flow was strengthened by controlling
the burden distribution at the furnace top. This is an example where the
results of estimation from operation are in fair agreement with those of
dissection. For Tsurumi No. I furnace, a cohesive zone similar to that of
Hirohata No. I was estimated from the measurements taken during
operation. However, the actual cohesive zone had a considerably
different shape. In the examples of Kukioka No.4 and Chiba No.1
furnaces, it was predicted that the center of the cohesive zones would be
rather high, and this was confirmed. However, the actual cohesive zones
had the complicated shapes shown in the figure, and these could not be
estimated during operation.
Although it was possible in some of the above cases to predict the
shape of the cohesive zone from the measurements of top gas during
operation, this does not always produce reliable results. For this reason,
it has been of urgent necessity, as will be discussed later, to develop

model equations for estimating the shape of the cohesive zone more
accurately, and methods for its direct measurement.
2.3.2. Measurements and Estimations of the Cohesive Zone
2.3.2.1. Development of direct measuring methods

(a) Radioisotope method. By using a radioisotope (60 Co) Shimomura
et al. 3 developed a method of directly measuring the cohesive zone.
Figure 2.3 shows the principle of the method. The radioisotope was
charged at a prescribed point in an ore layer at the furnace top. On
reaching the cohesive zone, the radioisotope melted and finally flowed
out of the tap hole in the molten iron. During tapping, the radioactivity
of the iron was measured and the height of the cohesive zone was then
estimated from the time it takes from the charging of the radioisotope to
its discharge at the tap hole. Retention time in the dropping zone may be
negligibly short but there is a problem in the estimation of the retention
time of pig iron in the hearth. In our case, the time it takes for pig iron to
shift in the hearth was actually determined, to formulate an equation of
retention time estimation.
cohesive zone
dropping zone
Fig. 2.3. Principle of measurement. 3

Figure 2.4 shows an example of the above radioisotope-based

measurement method. It was found that, using this method, radial
measurements at two or three points enabled the shape of the cohesive
zone to be estimated.
TE
<D
1
'"
tuyere
tuyere
tap hole
Fig. 2.4. An example of measurement in Hirohata No.3 blast furnace?
(b) Vertical probe method. A method for directly measuring the

position of the cohesive zone in the furnace was developed at Nippon
Kokan Technical Research Laboratories by measuring the length of a
conductive cable inserted in the furnace. 4 As shown in Fig. 2.5, special
cables are inserted perpendicularly from the furnace top. The end of
each cable melts when it reaches the cohesive zone. Therefore the height
of the cohesive zone can be determined by measuring the residual
length of the cables in the furnace.
measuring roll
!calculation of height of cohesive zone)
Fig. 2.5. Schematic diagram of measuring apparatus.

The cable length can be determined by sending square-wave voltage

pulses through the cables and measuring the time until reflected waves
return. It has been ascertained that measurement is possible to an
accuracy of ± 30 cm or better, for a cable of 159 m in length.
As shown in Fig. 2.5, three cables radially spaced are lowered from
the fixed probe in the furnace while tension is applied to prevent
deflection, and their lengths to the positions where they melt in contact
with the cohesive zone are measured. An example of measurements is
shown in Fig. 2.6, from which it is found that the height of the cohesive
zone fluctuates considerably with time. Figure 2.7 reveals that the shape
of the cohesive zone changes greatly depending on the operating
conditions of the blast furnace. When the fuel rate decreases, the height
of the cohesive zone decreases and, at the same time, the pressure drop
• center
o middle
5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15
time Ihrsl
Fig. 2.6. Change of height of cohesive zone. 4
25f--_--1
No. FR Si
CD 460 40 20
(2) 490 50 E
~\
G) 540
Q)
60
~
Q; 15
.~
E .,
\\
0
Co 10
..c
OJ \
1! \
.~
5
0
,~
\ I I I
2.4 2.5 2.6 2] \ 3.6 3] 3.8
pressure at the shaft
wall Ikg/em')
Fig. 2.7. Change of cohesive zone and shaft pressures.4

in the lower portion of the furnace increases. Thus it was found that the
height of the cohesive zone shows a good correspondence with the
change in shaft pressure.
2.3.2.2. Use of measuring devices together with estimation models for the
cohesive zone
In blast furnace operations, a knowledge of the shape and position of
the cohesive zone is vital but, in the absence of thoroughly satisfactory
direct measuring methods, a variety of estimation methods have been
tried. For routine control of the furnace, the behavior of the cohesive
zone as calculated by an estimation model is used as reference data.
The basic concept which guides the building of estimation models is
founded on the following two factors:
(1) As it flows through the cohesive zone, the hot reducing gas that
rises from the raceway will affect the furnace walls by its pressure
and temperature.
(2) The geometry of the cohesive zone will change the temperature
distribution and composition distribution of the top gas.
To make more accurate estimates, furnace walls have recently been
provided with measuring elements, or shaft probes have been employed.
The major estimation models that have been developed so far include
the following.
(a) Static pressure model. Developed by Sugata et al.,s this model is
designed to estimate the shape of the cohesive zone from the vertical
distribution of the static pressures that are measured by measuring
holes provided at positions up the furnace walls. Chapter 3 describes
this static pressure model in detail.
(b) Stave temperature model. Irita et al. 6 investigated the shape of the
cohesive zone and the changes in its shape in a MuroraN Works blast
furnace. As is clear from Fig. 2.8, the variations in the vertical
temperature distribution, as obtained from the cooling staves in the
furnace walls, is found to be in good agreement with the movement of
the shape of the cohesive zone, as calculated by the estimation model. In
short, movement of that area of the cohesive zone which is adjacent to
the furnace walls causes the heat loads on cooling staves to change,
thereby making it possible to estimate the form of the cohesive zone.
This method is intriguing in that existing detection devices can be used.
(c) Model based on gas temperature distribution and gas composition
distribution measurements. Shigemi et aU constructed a model in which
w (Z!
1~-~
w
o
"
1
13\
12
10
9
131 \
12
10
9
13)
12
11
10
9
13) 12
11
10
9
8 8 8 8
7 7 7 7
6 6 6 6
5 5 5 5
100120140160180 100120140160180 100120140160180 100120140160180

shapE of, stove temp- shape of stove temp- shape of stave shape of stove temp
cohesive zone eroture lOCI cohesive zone erature (OCI cohesive zone erature cohesive zone erature rei
Fig. 2.8. Relation between the shape of the cohesive zone and the distribution
of stave temperature. 6
furnace temperature distribution is calculated from the gas temperature

and gas composition observed at two levels in the blast furnace shaft. In
this method, the solid temperature line of lOOO°C as estimated by the
model is assumed to correspond with the shape of the upper surface of
the cohesive zone. The validity of this method in relation to actual blast
furnace operation is discussed in a report by Shigemi et al.
2.3.3. Development and Use of the Latest Sensors to Study Furnace

Interiors
2.3.3.1. Profilometer for blast furnace burden

At the furnace top, the distribution of charging coke and ore feedstock is
adjusted to control the reducing gas flow distribution in the furnace.
This is one of the fundamentals of blast furnace operation. To
accomplish this, coke and ore charging must be succeeded by the
accurate measurement of their respective profiles in the furnace.
Traditionally, steelmakers have mainly used mechanical methods to
take profile measurements. At Kawasaki Steel Corporation, they have
developed microwave and laser measuring instruments. These
mechanical and non-mechanical instruments are introduced below, as
are the state of their use in blast furnaces. They have their advantages
and disadvantages relative to each other but, with the progress of their
development, these apparatuses are sure to be established as reliable
measuring methods.
(aJ Mechanical profilometer. As Fig. 2.9 shows,8 a weight is suspended
from a pair of wires attached to the tip ofa lance provided in the furnace
throat. As the lance advances, the weight is lowered and lifted repeatedly
A SWING VALVE
B LANCE DRIVING DEVICE
C SOUNDING DEVICE
I A CLOSED CASE
Cr~!\f~=m~~~~~-~;-~-~g~b
t,\, LOCAL CONTROL
, PANEL
:,:""
0 I 2 3 4m
por
r;-WAITI NG
ION
x.y
RECORDER
If ~y.
f\f'L ~t<;; 'II \LJi

LEVEL IJf ~n v
11'1)( ~ LlA CENTRAL CONTROL
rr,J/' r, armor notch 0 lorel
armor notch 5 Icoke)

AND OPERATION
PANEL
\' icc
wa
m ~
q: ~
center of
MEASURING EXAMPLE
furnace
Fig. 2.9. An example of a mechanical profilometer. 8
along the burden surface to measure the burden profile. It takes

approximately 40 s for this profilometer to take a measurement at 12 to
13 points along its route from the furnace wall to the furnace center. It
was first mounted on Kawasaki Steel's Mizushima No.3 blast furnace
in May 1979.
As the notch number of the movable armor plate is changed, so is
the profile of charged coke and ore feedstock, as Fig. 2.10 shows.
Accordingly, when a notch number not smaller than 3 is used, coke is
charged more on the furnace center side to form an M-shaped profile,
and if on this profile (coke layer) ore is charged, a pattern of burden in
which the ore/coke ratio is higher on the furnace wall side is obtained.
(b) Microwave method. A microwave generator provides oscillatory
modulated waves, which on reaching the burden surfaces bounce back
to the receiver via a receiving antenna. In this microwave method, the
I
r----------sL~Om--------~
~~, I /-
~~'~'~---SL=lm---~~'7"~-~
.....:-: - .,. I /::.... /
1--------'''''''',...,,~,- SL~. 2;t>',,4::''-'"''''""'------\
coke "":::' ore
MA 4 notch
MA 3 notch
MA 2 notch
Fig. 2.10. Notch number of movable armor and burden profile.
time that this process requires is measured to determine the burden

profile. Figure 2.11 shows a general view of the profilometer. The
measuring probe requires approximately 2 min to complete a measure-
ment scan between the furnace wall and the furnace center. Figure 2.12
compares the values obtained by this microwave method with those
actually measured by a wired weight. The good agreement between the
two sets of values shows how practical the microwave method is in
service.
(c) Laser method. Figure 2.13 shows the principle of the laser method.
By using a beam scanner, laser beams are projected from a window in
the furnace top to scan the burden. The locus of light described as a
result is recorded by a TV camera from another window. By
calculations, profile measurements are made possible over a wide range
ofthe burden surface. Figure 2.14 shows a profile image of the coke layer
surface and a profile of calculated results. The time required for the
complete measurement was approximately 2 s.
meos;uring stroke
1---- -7000----1
position of probe head on

stond by
measuring points <D - @
Fig. 2.11. Microwave type profilometer.

In the laser method, where continuous measurements are possible,

the distribution of burden descending speed can be estimated from
time-dependent changes in the profile. The distribution of layer
thickness in each batch of raw material charged can also be estimated.
] 5
~
OJ
c
"D
4
0
:"
Q; 3
Q)
E
-'"
~ 2
Q. A
~
0 I
';
g
E
2 3 4 5
measured values 1m)
o: data obtained during insertion
D. : data obtained during withdrawal
Fig. 2.12. A comparison between microwave profilometer reading and

measured values.
Beam I
Scanner
Burden surface
Fig. 2.13. Principle of laser method of measurement.

Z
Sl = El + 36698 - 1000
0000 - - - - ,- - - - -"I - - - - - ~ -- --
I
I
I I ,
E -1000 - - - - -+ - - - - - - - - - - --T'---=---
I I f
.§
! : / :
-WOJ
:::; -2000
, ,.-,1/ ''
u
o I
__ J_--
1_1---'I
- - - - - - 1 - - - - , - , - - - - - - - r-----
II
Vi
I
I , I
-3000 --- - - .----- T------r----
, I I
I
L - - - - - L -____L -____L -___

I
x
-1200 0000 1200 2400
Distance from the center (mm)
Fig. 2.14. A profile of calculated results.
2.3.3.2. Horizontal probe in the blast furnace shaft

The practice of measuring the temperature and composition of top gas
by means of a cross probe arranged on the burden at the furnace top was
first commercially started a fairly long time ago. Recently the desire to
obtain information from nearer the cohesive zone has produced a shaft
probe designed to be inserted into the burden to take measurements. Its
mounting position on the shaft is becoming ever lower.
(a) Development of lumpy zone measuring technique. Yamamoto et az.9
have developed a technique for comprehensively observing the lumpy
zone of the shaft in a blast furnace at Sakai Works, Nippon Steel
Corporation. As Fig.2.15 shows, in this system the information
gathered from all these detecting elements is synthetically analyzed and
the state of the lumpy zone is accordingly studied. These detecting
elements comprise a throat diameter probe (TOP), shaft diameter probe
(SOP), and shaft wall probe (SWP). TOP is a traditional cross probe
laid out at the furnace throat to detect the temperature and the
composition of top gas. SOP is a newly developed, mUlti-purpose probe
which is laid out across the furnace and fixed on both ends in the shaft.
Figure 2.15 shows the cross-section of SOP. SOP has different detectors
built into its pipe to measure the temperature and composition of the
furnace gas and the speed of descent of the burden, respectively. In
contrast, SWP is attached to the furnace walls to determine the speed of
burden descent. The speed of burden descent is measured by a
magnetometer, a new device the principle of which is based on the
measurement of the difference in magnetic permeability between iron
detect.ng elements
~od at d sIT bl.l.()t: of f@:'T!pemfUfl!!
g05 cQr"pm,~ ·on
Rodlol mognelOMtUer
C lfcumferenuol mognerome1er
INOla II *
TOP .. ---Throot D iameter
[ SOP ... -- Shoft D~omeler Probe
prObe]
SWP·· --- Shalt Wall Probe
Fig. 2.15. Lumpy zone measuring system. 9
ore and coke. Normal shaft probes measure intermittently, whereas the
SDP is capable of continuous measurement. Since 1975 these probes
have been installed on the Sakai No.2 blast furnace. The behavior of the
cohesive zone has since been calculated using both measured values
from these probes and the aforesaid mathematical model built for the
estimation of the cohesive zone geometry. Figure 2.16 shows the
4.0
'\
""
"" -
'0
>-_ 3.0
u >-
c 0
-<>
5>--
~ ~ 2.0
11
0
10
I x 10- 2 % I
--
68
-...
.-
66
64
ISil 62 • -;-. ~ ,........,
60
58 I'--
56
Sl814 15 16 17 18 19 20
Distance of the top end of the root
from the stock line Iml
Fig. 2.16. The relation between the top end of the root, Si contents, and the
frequency of slips.9
relationship between the position ofthe cohesive zone and blast furnace
operation. Figure 2.17 depicts the calculated shape of the cohesive zone
and the corresponding pattern of gas flow. This measuring system has
made the control of blast furnace operations possible.
i-I
- 2 3 4 5 6 Sl
~co
1%)
500 'C" --' V--
2
) - - - )-
BOO 50 1\
~ct \
I ~ V
<;
~
I
" 600 40
V 7""
700 'C~
l'i--.
Q.
E
,,
10 2! ,
/
I
SDP
~
12 0 400 30
rn
I
L!-V
14
~
16
18
0
20 2
c
V
f\
-'" 09
~
22
V
.~
~
24 0-
f\
w
O.B
ill
26 <;
3
07
Inner volume m3 2797
Pig iron
productivity
tiD m3 130
0
~
3 0
2.0
V
Fuel rate
t:,P/V
kg/T
-
441 10,1 2BI
0.279
'"U1~~
-
o 0
GO >-~
~
:.:::: E
1.0 '-..., /
o l)-
0
uQ)
~
lJeo % 53.7 o >

1=1
Tf 'C 2337
furnace furnace
Slip Time/D 2.2 wall center
Fig. 2.17. Calculated shape of the cohesive zone and the corresponding pattern
of gas flow. 9
(b) Lower shaft probe. In order to obtain information from the lower
shaft, i.e. from near the cohesive zone, Oita Works, 10 Nippon Steel, has
recently provided its blast furnaces with a mini-probe (mini-shaft
probe) at a point 12 m below the stockline. Measuring tests are still
going on to study blast furnace reactions.
Figures 2.18 and 2.19 show the state of mini-probe mounting and
examples of measured data. As is evident from the illustration,
depending on furnace operation, the mini-probe can reach a part of the
- - - - octuo l ,tock line

46m
-H--~-- 'hoft probe
7.1 m
mini-probe in the middle ,hoft
top hole center
Fig. 2.18. The state of mini-probe layout in the middle shaft. 1O
IDEGI 1%1
1100
I I 1/
1000 mini -probe measu red ~ 70
te mperature ~
17
900 60
It I~ 1/
800
17 50
/ 1'\ V c
700
V 40 <;
Q
~ 1\ r'< 17.."
~~ f\ ~ini-probe
<; meosurt i 30 ~
iii 600
CL
E ~.
gas uti l i z~tion V ~
0
0>
2 500 ~co
20
~ 10
0
~
1\ shait ~robe u
'"
0
0>
400 \ ~co
17
300
-; 0
K ./
200
1-'\ /
sha ft probe f- /
100 t~ m~e r~ t urre
~ 1/
/
0
V
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I 0
Fig. 2.19. Example of the data measured by the mini-probe in the middle shaft
ofOita No.2 blast furnace (around 13 :30,7 May, 1980).10
cohesive zone and conduct probing operations. Figure 2.20 is an

example of the analysis of measured values obtained by the mini-probe.
As the diagram shows, unlike the measured values from the shaft probe
and from the throat probe, the values obtained from the mini-probe are
found to fluctuate over wide margins on account of the mini-probe's
closeness to the cohesive zone. This shows how much more accurately
the mini-probe can detect furnace behavior than other probes.
Period I Period II Period III
[Dec. 25, 1978 - Feb 10, 19791 IFeb II, 1979 - April 10, 19791 [April II, 1979 - June 30, 19791
I'CI 28F [%1 ['CI 28F 1%1 ("CJ 2BF (%1
1000 «: 1000 q 1000 <r

[II 60
800
600
400
200
Fig. 2.20. Patterns of mean gas temperature and ffias utilization in periods L II
and III, respectively.
2.3.3.3. Venical probe

Progress has been made in the investigation of the furnace interior
using horizontal probes installed in the shaft of the blast furnace. It has
also become possible to investigate the furnace top and to use the data
for operation control. The measurement in the furnace with such
vertical probes was carried out by Schiirmann et alY in 1960 at blast
furnaces in West Germany. In recent years, studies by this method have
been actively carried out again in Japan. This has been done because
this method can provide information on the reactions during the ascent
of the reducing gas in the furnace and contribute to the clarification of
the conditions in the furnace based on the concept of the cohesive zone.
The utilization of vertical probes for the measurement of the cohesive
zone height is described in Section 2.3.2.l(b). Therefore use of vertical
probes for the measurement of the reducing gas temperature and
composition in the vertical direction is dealt with here. The principle of
these probes is the same as that of the above-mentioned vertical probes
used in Germany and details are omitted here. These vertical probes are
classified into the consumable type, used mainly for research activities,
and the non-consumable type installed for long service and intended
for daily operation, and control purposes. In the former type, a flexible
tube containing a temperature measuring cable and a gas sampling pipe

is inserted from the furnace top. The end of the flexible tube is drawn
down into the furnace with the descent of the burden, and measurement
is made until it melts in the cohesive zone. In the latter type, a rigid pipe
is installed in the furnace, which contains measuring elements capable
of temperature measurement and gas sampling at appropriate heights.
Continuous measurement in the vertical direction is possible by
installing this pipe in the burden until the descending burden
approaches the cohesive zone. Figure 2.21 shows examples of these
installations and measurement data. 12
position of weight
before measurement gas seal
pushing rod
oj Schematic diagram of measuring apparatus
10
I
\~middle
--+_--1 20 1979.6.14 1979.]].14

A [BJ
o 500 1000 oL-L-s-::'o-:-o- - I0-'-00--'1300
temp. ["CI temp ["CI
b) An example of measurement
Fig. 2.21. Measuring apparatus and an example of measurement by the vertical

sonde. 12
2.3.3.4. Tuyere probe

Recently a tuyere probe has been increasingly used to examine the
raceway and to sample coke in the farthest end of the raceway, an area
often referred to as the deadman. (Problems of the raceway are
discussed elsewhere in another chapter.) Further, tuyere examination
has now commenced with a mounted camera or other device for
observing the state of the raceway. The details are as follows.
(a) Coke sampling by tuyere probe. Nishi et al. 13 examined the raceway
and the deadman by using the sampling apparatus illustrated in
Fig. 2.22. First the probe with sampling points was inserted from the
tuyere to sample coke. Furnace temperature was then estimated from
the crystal form of the coke carbon. Coke size distribution was also
measured. Figure 2.23 gives an example of sampling results. The area
where temperature changes abruptly coincides with the wall of the
raceway. From the appearance of sampled coke, it is found that coke
size undergoes a drastic change at the raceway boundary wall. Figure
2.24 shows the results of sampling conducted at different times at
different operating rates. As is apparent from these diagrams, the lower
the operating rate, the larger the mean size of furnace coke and the
greater the degradation of coke.
Specification of sampling apparatus.
Diameter of sampling tube 800 A IJISI
Pushing machine Self-propelled pneumatic hammer
Pushing force: 80t hammer

Driving apparatus Driving force
Topping force 90kg-m 1800 times/mini
Sampling time 15 min
Depth into BF 5.8 m Ito the center of BFI
Fig. 2.22. Apparatus for sampling from tuyere, and its specification. 13
II)
v
Sample A Iproductivity 2.08 tid . m'! II)
"(;0 v
c
II)
0. O~OO~~~~~8~Q~ ~
0. 0
II)
..c <: ;g'o'~i::.!1~!1.~c ~'l;tYo a.
u ~Bc: . 0.
80 74"l ,15~ <:
g~ .c
v
o~
60 col:e
melol g~
80
~
C
40 60
" 0. .... ......1... •Iog (; II) ~
~ 5 20 ~,~....___ ... :.t"-"'" 40 ~
>- " 0
.. "a.
Gi E 20
,- 0
"0 100 'C...;..2.7 >- " 0 fi
'~- 80 ~:::~~7r""":;:
38~-~.:.r5~-:;;::: SO- 38~ c 100
.Q 80 Ul
,g~ 60 SOmm 25 - 15 15 - 10 10 - 5 :;-
-;;;
" 40 ,g~ 60 z
~o .!i ~
40
20 ~ <3g5-3
" u 20
o"tI
0 0
II)
~o " ...v tIl
i'! .~ -- 0
~ "'0 ~
2000 30 -; 0>
\1)- !; _ 2000
-5iii '0 .s ~
a. . ~ U + '0 0 1
E " • 20 "
Z
.! ,,~ 1600 -0u ~ .§ 0 1600 1: Cl
,,0» 8 O:l
G) -£ .! ~~~
~ g> ~ 1200 10 ~ "1? ~ 1200 [;
11)--
~.2 ~
"-'0_ o '"I ~ ~~ ~
o 1.0 2.0
o '"I
Distonce from Ihe tip of tuyere [m!
~~~ Distance from the lip of tuyere Iml ;:J
[oj Exomple of Ihe size distribution and amount fbi Example of the si ze distribUlion ond amount
of coke in the sompling pipe ot high of coke in the sompling pipe 01 low
productivity.
productivity.
~
tIl
r:n
Fig. 2.23. Results of coke sampling at different blast furnace productivity.13
00
1.0
Distance from the tip of tuyere

o O.6-0.Bm
.--:'Ift
,(
" \\
\'~:o
MSl o : Micro strength
MSI mdex
: ReactiVity
I0
f k b I
co.e e ore
chargmg ond
"-"-. ,'x)(\
• 1.2-1.6
• 1,8-2.2
~ 4 \\{ "de> 1J151 fcom I,y"•
\. ',' 8
.a
3
\... " \ Z ","
'<~::::::t::.:-·~
...
20' - 2
::i ...... .
1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2
'~'-:_J
, ---
Productivity It/d·m 3 )
Distance from the lip of luyere
oj Relation between the productivity of the furnace
and the mean size of coke sampled at luyere level. Q 0.6-0 8m
• 1.2-1.6
.1.8-22
85r-------------------~
Distance from the tip of luyere
m
~ 00.6-0.8
m
~
.
X 1.2-1.6
~ 80 .1.8-22
o
U
75
1.6 1.8 2.0 1.0 '--:-'------:-'-:-----"-;:--------f.,.--'

1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Productivity It/d o m3 J Productivity It/d. m3 )
bl Relation between the productivity of the furnace c) Relation between the productivity of the furnace
and the strength of coke sampled at luyere level. and the properties of coke sampled at tuyere level
Fig. 2.24. The relation between the furnace productivity and the properties of
sampled cokeY.
As the furnace operating rate becomes lower, the furnace center,

namely the deadman, becomes inactive. So, in order to control the
furnace central temperature, it is useful to measure the temperature by
means of the tuyere probe.
(b) Observation ofraceway. In blast furnace operation, observations of
the state of coke in front of the tuyere and judgements from this
information are vital, but it is very difficult to carry out such
observations continuously. To solve these problems, Nippon Kokan
have developed and practised raceway observation using a television
camera. A high-speed camera has also been used to observe coke
behavior in the raceway. A raceway observation television, which is
mounted on a wheel and can be moved freely to any selected tuyere,
transmits an enlarged picture to a monitor tube and the state of the
raceway can thereby be monitored continuously.
In addition, observation of the behavior of coke falling in front of the
tuyeres has also been practised. Nippon Kokan has investigated the
behavior of raceway coke in the Fukuyama Works No.4 furnace using a
16 mm high-speed camera when low strength coke was used. 14 The
measuring system is shown in Fig. 2.25. The size distribution of raceway

coke was calculated by analyzing the film taken at 3000 frames/so The
relation between the charged coke strength and the size in the raceway
was confirmed. Thus on-line measurement of raceway conditions will
be expected to become a major means of furnace operating control.
CRT
Monlior
Wriling pen
camero
~
~ .....: t------'
NOle2:
Colculolion of Hard copy
Ihe rolio of while
Two color
momtor
area / block area
Fig. 2.25. Measurement system for coke size and volume rate in raceway. 14
2.4. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF BLAST FURNACE

MEASUREMENTS
As described above, the development of blast furnace instrumentation

in the past decade or so has been tremendous, particularly since the
introduction of blast furnace dissection analysis. Figure 2.1 shows blast
furnace instrumentation of a decade ago. Figure 2.26 shows the latest
blast furnace instrumentation. The latter features the extended use of
detectors to measure furnace variables (the temperature and composition
of reducing gas that ascends in the furnace and the sampling of solids
that descend) at various points in the furnace. With the progress of
furnace control systems where information from these detectors is
processed and an estimation model is used, stable operation of large
blast furnaces has become established. Despite this, blast furnace
vertical probe
sounding rod
top gas temp.,
furnace top probe
~ pressure, c~mposition
._---( burden profile meter
\ thermoviewer
gas static. ____ -;
layer thickness meter
pressure ~_
upper shaft ---:-'- - H - t - - - wall temp

probe
__ r---- micro pressure
lower shaft _~~+----+-
probe blast temp
& pressure
heat flow _-+----'1
meter N----blast flow meter
tuyere probe --~------«
pig & slag
temp
compn
Fig. 2.26. Instrumentation of newly constructed blast furnaces.
instrumentation needs further development before the control of

furnace operations is perfected.
The dissection of blast furnaces has brought home to ironmakers the
importance of the cohesive zone. This awareness has prompted
ironmakers to estimate the position and the shape of the cohesive zone
and operate the blast furnace with the results of the estimation in mind.
This has naturally improved the level of overall furnace control.
The problems yet to be solved lie in the inability of existing
techniques to directly and continuously measure the cohesive zone. In
addition, blast furnaces of still larger sizes and of ever longer lives are in
demand. To meet this demand, the stable operation of furnaces is
essential, and this in turn requires the establishment of a comprehensive
blast furnace control system aided by overall instrumentation.
The targets of comprehensive instrumentation include (1) a clear
understanding of the state of coke and ore in the blast furnace, (2) the
attainment of a level of measurements which fully reflect furnace
information obtained by furnace dissection, and (3) a full knowledge of
the state of reducing gas. Therefore the items requiring development in
the future include the following:
(1) A method for directly measuring the position and shape of the
cohesive zone.
(2) A method to determine the behavior of the 'root' of the cohesive
zone, i.e. the movement of the cohesive zone near the furnace
wall.
(3) A device to determine the behavior of molten pig iron and
molten slag in the hearth.
(4) A method to measure gas velocity.
(5) A method to measure the distribution of burden layers more
accurately.
Moreover, as soon as these methods are developed, it will be equally
important to establish their commercial application as practical
measuring instruments for blast furnace control.
REFERENCES
1. Private communication: from the construction design chart of Nippon
Steers blast furnace in 1969.
2. Blast Furnace Phenomena and Their Analysis. Interim report from the joint
research committee of Iron & Steel Institute of Japan, Japan Institute of
Metals and Japan Society for Promotion of Science (1979), Iron & Steel
Institute of Japan.
3. Y. Shimomura, K Kushima and S. Arino, Tetsu-to-Hagane. 62(1967), S65.
4. T. Fukushima, H. Yamada, T. Kobayashi, Y. Niwa, T. Furukawa and
B. lino, Tetsu-to-Hagane. 67(1981), S70.
5. Kimitsu Works, Nippon Steel, report to 54th Committee, Japan Soc. for the
Promotion of Sci. and Tech., No. 1456 (1978).
6. T. Irita, Y. Kanayama and K Tashiro, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 64(1978), S48.
7. A Shigemi, A Suzuki, Y. Hida and K Yamaguchi, Tetsu-to-Hagane,
64(1978), S47.
8. Kawasaki automatic burden profilemeter for blast furnace, Catalogue of
Kawasaki Steers Engineering Division.
9. T. Yamamoto, T. Masahisa, H. Kanoshima, Y. Hayashi and K Tamura,
Tetsu-to-Hagane, 67(1981), A1l7.
10. Oita Works, Nippon Steel, paper presented at March meeting (1981).
Committee for study of inside blast furnace reactions, Organization of
Joint Basic Research, ISIJ.
11. E. Schiirmann, W. Zischkale, P. Ischebeck and G. Heynert, Stahl u. Eisen,
80(1960),854.
12. A Katayama, N. Tsuchiya, K Okabe, S. Taguchi, K Okumura and
S. Tamura, Tetsu-to-Hagane. 66(1980), S682.
13. T. Nishi, H. Haraguchi, Y. Miura, T. Sakurai, K Ono and K Kanoshima,
Tetsu-to-Hagane. 66(1980), 1820.
14. K Sano, H. Nishio, T. Miyazaki, T. Ariyama and H. Yoshida, Tetsu-to-
Hagane, 63(1977), S522.
Part II
Modelling of the Blast Furnace

CHAPTER 3
Global Formulation
3.1. REVIEW OF BLAST FURNACE MODELS
Although the blast furnace process has been studied by numerous

researchers for many years, a variety of problems still remain unsolved
concerning the rates and mechanisms for the phenomena occurring in
the furnace. The major reason for this is that the blast furnace process
includes many physical and chemical changes which occur simul-
taneously. A number of attempts have, however, been made to develop
mathematical models for the better understanding of this complicated
process. The models have also given a great deal of information on the
internal situation of the blast furnace. This has proved useful for the
improvement and the stabilization of the operation. It is therefore
instructive for the future advancement of a blast furnace model to
review the models already proposed. Mathematical models proposed
hitherto may be classified as the following five groups:
(1) Thermal analysis of the furnace based on thermodynamics
(2) Application of the operation diagram
(3) Kinetic model
(4) Control model
(5) Models for internal situations based on observed data
A brief description of the best models in each group is given below.
3.1.1. Reichardt Diagram

Reichardt' proposed that a blast furnace was divided into five zones in
terms of temperature because the heat requirements of the burden
97
material descending in the furnace could be calculated as a function of

temperature provided that the sequence of reactions occurring and the
temperature range for each reaction were both known. The function of
each zone was defined as follows:
(i) 0-400DC: preheating of burden
(ii) 400-900 DC: indirect reduction
(iii) 900-1200 DC: direct reduction
(iv) l200-l400DC: fusion of reduced iron and direct reduction
(v) > l400 DC; formation of slag, reduction of metalloid (Si02,
MnO, P20S etc.)
Heat exchange between the gas and solid (or molten) phases took place
together in each zone mentioned above. According to this concept, the
heat requirement of the burden was calculated for 100 kg production of
hot metal. A result calculated by Reichardt! is shown in Fig. 3.1.1. Lines
Heat requirement
___ 0
o 10 5 5/10 4 kcol
r--~I----'I--'I----'--'G
I~ lbl I 1
\1
I~--+I- - - T o t a l heat requirement---f-----;--I
~~
- - -
500
2 1 I
m
"'
.D I
1
. '
\ I ~ Heal requlre7ent over 90Q"C
0
0
I 1
H C
~a. - - - -
1
1-----,1-1 ~ I
~ 1000 Consumption --L-->k-I~--+----+---I
cedel 900'C \ I
1 \
4b
I \
J ~ Requirement
1
Consumption \
I I over 1400"(
_undeI1400°C-~ I ""',
J I 'J I " B
1500 L-__-+"---'L-_-i.J:"""'-_ E
0 ____
i B i----- _~
5X104kcai
105 _IA
Heat consumptiofl Heot consumption
I - - - - - - T o l o l heat c o n s u m e d - - - - - - - I
Fig. 3.1.1. Heat requirement curve for 100 kg Thomas pig iron.!
GLOBAL FORMULATION 99
1-5 in Fig. 3.1.1 (a) represent the heat requirements for the following
process:
1. Heating up and fusion of iron
2. Heating up and fusion of slag
3. Heat for decomposition of limestone and formation of slag
4. Heat of direct reduction of iron oxide
(a) direct reduction restricted in range 900-1400DC
(b) direct reduction occurs above 1400 DC
5. Heat of reduction of MnO, Si0 2 and P20S
The overall heat requirements for the whole process were obtained by
summing each heat requirement curve illustrated by lines 1-5, which is
shown in Fig. 3.1.1 (b). The two lines in the temperature range 900-
1500 DC show the two different fashions for the reduction of iron oxide
assumed above.
The heat content ofthe gas was calculated on the assumption that the
blast at 600°C reacted with coke at 1400 DC in the tuyere zone thereby
producing a gas mixture of CO and N 2 . This meant that 1 kg carbon
reacting with air made 2·33 kg CO + 4-45 kg N2 gas. Assuming
that 83·5 kg carbon (95·6 kg coke) was required for the production of
100 kg pig iron (66·4 kg C for combustion, 13-8 kg C for direct reduction
and 3· 3 kg C for hot metal), the heat availability of the gas could be
calculated as a function of temperature. An example of the calculated
result is shown by the line URKN in Fig. 3.1.2 together with the heat
requirements of burden materials given by the line ABCD.
Heat carried out

by top gas
Heat loss
N
c o~--~~~~--.---o~
<D
"~
-"
~ 500~~~--~~--+---~
c
o
o
rn IOOO~----~~+-~~--~
<D
~ 1500 t-i----~-+--+-----'>,<+_-----""""I A
Q;
a.
E
c'" 2000 L..-'_ _ _ _'-----'-----'----_ _---'---_ _- " U
2 0
Amount of heat IIO-s keal)
Fig. 3.1.2. Heat requirement and availability.l

In Fig. 3.1.2, the heat coordinates corresponding to the points B, C

and D give the heat requirement above the temperature at the
individual point. On the other hand, the heat coordinates for the points
U, R, K and N give the heat content of the gas which is available for the
temperature region over the individual points. The line ON in Fig. 3.1.2
represents the overall heat input which is generated by combustion of
66·4 kg C, and OD reveals the overall heat output accompanied by the
output of hot metal and slag. Therefore the heat given by ND is the
remaining heat after subtracting the heat requirements of the burden
materials from the total heat input. Moreover, ED is considered as the
heat content of discharged gas and the latent heat for the vaporization
of water. As the result, NE becomes the heat loss through the wall.
The lines for heat availability of gas (UN) and heat requirements of
the burden (ACD) must not intersect for stable operation. According to
this theory, the least coke consumption can be achieved by minimizing
the difference between both lines in Fig. 3.1.2. This is called the ideal
operation of the blast furnace in one aspect. I By decreasing the amount
of coke consumption, the line for heat availability of gas moves to the
heat requirement curve. If the case (4b) in Fig. 3.1.1 is assumed to be
taken by solid burden, the heat content line for gas contacts first the heat
requirement line at point B. This fact means that the lowest carbon rate
is determined by the heat requirement for the temperature range above
900°C. It was evaluated as 52·0 kg/lOO kg hot metal in the case of
Fig. 3.1.1. 1 If the burden takes the other course shown by (4a) in
Fig. 3.1.1, point C gives the minimum carbon consumption.
As explained above, Reichardt1 pointed out that the amount of heat
required by burden materials had to be supplied by the gas with a higher
temperature than that of burden materials and the fuel rate was
determined by the heat requirement in the higher temperature range of
the burden.
Some modification was proposed by Ridgion 2 for more precise
calculation of the heat requirements curve on a computer. Numerous
reactions which occurred in the blast furnace were taken into account
in the specified temperature range for each reaction and summation
of the contributions of all reactions together with the heat content of the
solid phase and heat loss gave a heat requirement of the burden. The
heat requirement curve for solid phase was calculated in 50°C steps
from O°C to 1500°C. A typical computed result obtained by Ridgion2 is
illustrated in Fig. 3.1.3. During his calculation of this curve, changes in
the quantities, temperatures and heat content of gas stream caused by
0 15 ~
C
ill ill E-
rn 2 ~ E 13
~
- - - J'.'
E- .2 ~
4 6 ~ ~ ~ 11 ~
~ >f-
~r-
---a 6 -
a ill ill if> 9-::-
u
a a> 0 a> _f- I

~ 0
~-o
=
illS) ill~
8 I a I
N I a 7
-
0
10 - I 3 c' 5""
0 I eTc '>
12 I ill ill 3 S!ill
l' t t ~ill -~ ~
(; 1
c ______Ts_T.!_ ~_1S_ ____
0
":u
~ ~
a eT
<{
E
18 :u
0
ill
20 I
0 2 4 6
8 12 14 1610 18 20
Temperature I Xl 0- 2 °el
Fig. 3.1.3. Graphical representation of stepwise heat balance?
chemical reactions were considered in each 50 0 e step of solid

temperature. For computation of the gas line, the theoretical flame
temperature was obtained, first of all, from the amount and composition
of the tuyere gas using the assumption that the injected blast reacted
with coke at 1500°C. Account was taken of the variation of specific heat
with temperature and the changes in mass and heat content of the gas
stream due to the exchange of gaseous components with the solid phase.
The resultant curve of heat availability which is shown in Fig. 3.1.3
looks almost a straight line.
An attemptl was made to determine the longitudinal distribution of
solid temperature from the lines of heat requirement and heat
availability vs. temperature. From Fig. 3.1.3, an approximate equation
for heat transfer was written by Ridgion 2 for 50 0 e step divided by two
isotherms:
(3.1.1)
where A z is cross-sectional area, a is effective surface area per unit
volume, hgs is heat transfer coefficient, tlHT is amount of heat
transferred from gas to solid for one incremental step, tlz is longitudinal
distance between the two isotherms Tsl and T s2 , and Tg and Ts are mean
temperatures of the increment, Tg = (Tgl + T gz )/2, Ts = (Tsl + Tsz)/2.
Thus:
(3.1.2)
Though hg.,A z and a are not independent of the operating conditions

and the shape of furnace, a simplified equation may be written as a first
approximation:
.6Zr = 1::goo !J.HT/(Tg - Ts)
(3.1.3)
F
where
F = 1:: o15OO !J.HT /(Tg - T)
s
Figure 3.1.4 illustrates a computed result on the longitudinal distribution

of solid temperature from eqn (3.1.3).
1.0,.......-----------,
0.8
..c
]' 06
Q)
] 0.4
c
Q)
E
15 0.2
OL-~~_L_L_L~_ _~
o 400 800 I 200 I 600

Solid temperature I"CI
Fig. 3.1.4. Computed temperature profile of solid particle."
Another precise model was proposed by Wartmann 3-6 according to

the Reichardt principle. In the model, the blast furnace was divided into
four zones: preheating, indirect reduction, direct reduction and hearth.
Heat and material balances in each zone were combined with an overall
material balance taken around the whole furnace. Consequently the
quantity of heat transferred from one zone to another, the production
rate of pig iron, the discharge rate of slag and the consumption of coke
were determined numerically from the model.
The models mentioned above have been quite effective, even up to
the present time. However, some uncertainties have been found for the
determination of the boundary temperatures and for the prediction of
reduction behavior which plays an important role for the determination
of the heat requirements in the higher temperature region.
3.1.2. Operation Diagram

The theory of the heat exchange between gas and solid in the blast
furnace was proposed by Kitaev. 7 According to the theory, the thermal
capacity of the gas stream, which is defined as the product of mass
velocity and heat capacity, is almost constant throughout the blast
furnace, while that of the solid changes along with longitudinal
position. In the upper part of the furnace, the thermal capacity of
burden is less than that of gas. This causes the temperatures of gas and
solid to sharply increase longitudinally downwards, with decreasing
difference between them. In the lower region, the thermal capacity of
burden is seemingly higher than that of gas because of endothermic
reactions such as solution-loss reaction, direct reduction of iron oxide
and reduction of metalloid. In this region, both temperatures of gas and
solid again increase longitudinally downwards, with increasing difference
between them. There is a region between the upper and the lower
regions mentioned above where the temperature is kept almost constant
around 1000°C and the ratio of thermal capacities of gas and solid
almost equals unity. This region is called the thermal reserve zone, in
which heat exchange hardly occurs. From another aspect it is also
called the thermal pinch point. As a result, the principal shape of the
longitudinal distribution of temperature in the blast furnace can be
expressed by the simple heat exchange theory by using the apparent
heat content which includes the latent heat of the phase transformation
and the heat of chemical reactions. The temperature profile obtained
from this theory is illustrated by Fig. 3.1.5.
I
I
I
I
I
I
\
\
\
"- ,
""
Tuyere 0'---4--'-00------"80'-0--1--'-20-0--"16-00-2-'000
Fig. 3.1.5. Typical temperature profile in blast furnace.

Staib and Michard8,9 proposed the existence of the chemical reserve

zone for ideal operation of a blast furnace which has uniform burden
distribution. In this zone, oxygen exchange between gas and burden, i.e.
the reduction of iron oxide, is not active due to the equilibrium of the
reduction:
FeO + CO = Fe + CO 2 (3.1.4)
This region therefore has the characteristics of a chemical pinch point.
This heat and oxygen exchange theory was proved by the results of
internal measurements of some blast furnaces undertaken in the USSR
and European countries. lO- 12 On the basis of such elementary furnace
phenomena, a physico-chemical model for the functions of the furnace
was proposed by Staib et '1l.8 as shown in Fig. 3.1.6.
1m)
STOCK LINE
18.7
HEIGHT I---~ Heat exchange zone
' - ----, --~:;"" g

Primary reduction
'\
zone
16.2 5
1
.-I
, '"
,-
/"
13.2 4
:.-- Reduction intensity curve Thermal and
1 chemical reserve
I
I zone
10.2 3
\
\ ,,
7.2 2
,
- --- ----
----- ---- -- .........
1\ ,,
4.4 I
lower zone with high ,;, \
,,
intensity of reduction and
solution 105s reactions ',,, -",' , " I
-- --- --------------~..:~~,-
TUYERE S -- --- 500 1000 TEMPERATURE "0 1500
5 10 % 15
Fig. 3.1.6. Reduction intensity and burden temperature estimated from the
observed temperature of gas. lO
An operation diagram was developed by Rist et al.13 for analyzing

blast furnace operation on the basis of the outstanding findings
concerning heat and oxygen exchange described above. The outline of
the theory is explained below referring to the reports ofMiyashita and of
Hatano. 13 First, let us consider a simple example for understanding the

principle of the operation line, using the following assumptions:
(1) The reduction of iron oxide proceeds uniformly in the radial
direction
(2) The particle diameter is small compared to the furnace
diameter
(3) The bulk density of iron is unchanged as reduction proceeds
(4) There is no radial component of gas flow
(5) Isothermal conditions are taken for zone balances on energy and
oxygen
(6) There are no reactions such as carbon deposition, carburization
of iron, decomposition of carbonates and hydrates
Under these assumptions, oxygen exchange between gas and iron
oxide in the furnace can be expressed as follows for a differential height:
(3.1.5)
where n Fe is molar velocity of iron (mol/m 2.s), ng is molar velocity of gas
(mol/m2 .s), X, Yare relative oxidation of iron oxide and reducing gas.
For example, Y is 1·5 for hematite and zero for metallic iron. The
operation line for a shaft furnace can be easily obtained from the
integral form of eqn (3.1.5). However, the blast furnace has two active
zones on both sides of the thermal and chemical reserve zone. One is an
upper gaseous reduction zone whereas the other is a lower elaboration
zone. The operation line for such a complicated reactor is not as simple
as that for a single function process. An example of the operation
diagram for the blast furnace is illustrated in Fig. 3.1.7 with X and Y
coordinates as atomic ratios ole and OIFe respectively, where no
account has been taken of hydrogen for simplicity.
Oxygen exchange gives the following relationships for the X axis:
(3.1.6)
where X b , Xr and Xd designate atomic number of oxygen in blast, that
generated by the reduction of metalloids (SiO b MnO, P20S), and that
generated by direct reduction of iron oxide, respectively; and for the Y
axis:
(3.1.7)
where Y b , Y r and Y d designate number of oxygen atoms in blast, that
combined with e in the reduction of metalloids, and that combined
A
.-r---------~--._~H
~
>- 2
0
Xc OC
;:
U
f--4----+-41000'C
800
600
400
Fig. 3.1.7. Operation diagram. 13
with C in the direct reduction, respectively, and f.l is the requirement of

reducing gas for one atom of Fe.
It should be noted thatf.l in eqn (3.1.7) has the same meaning as n g/n Fe
in eqn (3.1.5). A straight line with slope f.l can be obtained from eqns
(3.1.6) and (3.1.7). This is the operation line for a blast furnace as shown
by ABCDE in Fig. 3.1.7. The partAB of the operation line expresses the
amount of oxygen removed by gaseous reduction. It is located in the
region I < X < 2. Therefore,Xi and Yi represent the numbers of oxygen
atoms removed from iron oxide by gaseous reduction per mole of CO
and per mole of iron respectively.
When a top gas compositionXe is obtained for an initial oxidation of
charging iron oxide Ye, the equilibrium state for the reduction ofwustite
may be another limiting condition. Therefore the operation line can be
rotated around the point W which has the equilibrium gas composition
for wustite reduction. It is also apparent that the operation line cannot
pass through to the right-hand side of the point W. The shaft efficiency
r, which gives the effective utilization of gas in the reduction furnace, is
defined as follows:
(3.1.8)
(Ye - Yd)max has a maximum value in ideal operation where the

operation line passes through the point W. In actual operation, r has a
smaller value than unity because the operation line passes on to the left-
hand side of the point W. For the explanation of the thermal behavior of
the furnace, a heat balance equation for the elaboration zone can be
written as described below, where the temperature of the thermal reserve
zone T R(OC) is taken as the reference temperature III the heat
balance:
(3.1.9)
where
(3.1.10)
and Yv is number of oxygen atoms in blast per iron atom, qv is heat
content of blast at the reference temperature T R , qc is heat of reaction for
C + !02 - CO per oxygen atom at T R, q g is heat consumed by the
reaction C + CO 2 - 2CO per oxygen atom at TR,f, I are heat contents of
hot metal and slag,Pis heat loss in the temperature region above TR,qris
heat of direct reduction of oxides except iron oxide per oxygen atom, r is
number of carbon atoms dissolved in molten iron per iron atom, qr is
heat of carbon dissolution into molten iron per carbon atom, Yzqz is heat
of indirect reduction of iron oxide in the elaboration zone taking T Ras
the reference temperature.
The operation line in Fig. 3.1.7 may be expressed by the following
equation in accordance with the material balance:
(3.1.11)
where Y s can be neglected because it designates number of oxygen
atoms replaced by sulfur in slag.
By eliminating Y d by combining eqns (3.1.9) and (3.1.11), the
following equation can be derived:
Yv( X qc + :: + qg - 1) = [Y - (X - l)(Yr + Y s) + X(Q/qg)] (3.1.12)
This equation gives a family oflines for Yv as a parameter. The fixed

point P is determined as the intersection of the following two equations
which are obtained by considering eqn (3.1.12) as an identical
equation:
X = qg/(qc + qv + qg) (3.1.13)
Y = (X - l)(Yr + Y s) - X(Q/qg) (3.1.14)
The lines given by these two equations are drawn in Figure 3.1.7 as
lines L\I and L\2. qc and qg are thermodynamic constants; consequently
the line L\I has just one variable, qv, which includes blast temperature,
whereas eqn (3.1.14) contains (Yr + Ys) which are determined by the
composition of hot metal and Q, the output of heat in the elaboration
zone except the heat of reaction accompanied with direct reduction.
This equation can therefore evaluate the effects of composition and
temperature of hot metal, amount and temperature of slag, and the heat
loss in the elaboration zone on the operation result. In addition to this
the distance VE is obtained graphically as follows:
(3.1.15)
This means that the point P takes a balance between heat input
(VE X qg) and heat output (BV X qg). As summarized above, the
operation line of the blast furnace which can satisfy simultaneously
both heat and material balances is obtained as a line connecting points
Wand P. The point W is determined by the reduction equilibrium in the
shaft part and the point P is determined by the heat balance in the
elaboration zone.
This theory was applied to the analyses of fuel savings by the
injection of reducing gas into the lower part of a blast furnace under the
assumption of fIxed shaft efficiency.'4 Furthermore, favorable comparison
was made between the results obtained from the theory and those
observed for the experimental blast furnace. '5
3.1.3. Kinetic Model

The model reported by Flierman et al. 16 divided a blast furnace into fIve
zones, these being shaft, melting zone, zone containing molten
materials, tuyere zone and hearth. The reaction rates of indir6ct
reduction of iron ore by CO and by H 2 , the solution-loss reaction and
the decomposition of limestone were taken into account in the model.
The expression of these reaction rates was rather simple and not enough
to fIt wide variations in the conditions encountered in a blast furnace.
However, it is noteworthy the rate constants were measured in the
laboratory for the burden materials fed to the blast furnace. The
longitudinal distributions for temperatures of gas and solid particles
and those for molar fractions of CO and CO 2 were estimated in terms of
the model but unfortunately the combination of the heat balance
equations with reaction rate was not complete.
Koump et al. 17 presented an idealized physical model of the blast
furnace process as shown in Figure 3.1.8, considering a blast furnace

process as a series of chemical reactors in the steady state involving gas,
solid and liquid phases. The model consists of three reactors and one
accumulator. The reactors correspond approximately to the region of a
blast furnace illustrated in Fig. 3.1.9. Reactor (1) comprises the shaft
region of the blast furnace where the heat exchange between gas and
solid occurs together with the chemical reactions of indirect reduction
of iron oxide and solution-loss reaction. Reactor (2) comprises the
cohesive zone and deadman zone in which phase transformation from
solid to liquid phases occurs, and molten iron and slag are dripping
with some chemical reactions. The principal characteristic of the region
is the coexistence of gas, liquid and solid in one reactor. Reactor (3)
corresponds to the raceway region and reactor (4) corresponds to the
hearth region which is a vessel for storage of hot metal and slag.
In order to give a global formulation of the multiple reactor system, it
is necessary to combine the specific mathematical models of each
reactor. Koump et af. 17 proposed a mathematical formulation for reactor
Fe,03 13CO-2Fe+3CO,
III C 1 CO,-2CO
MnO+CO-Mn+CO,
SiOH2CO-Si 12CO,
P,Os -I 5CO-2P + 5CO,
121 C+CO,-2CO
MElTING OF IRON
FUSION OF SLAG
REDUCTION OF REMAINING
IRON OXIDES
YS;O, Ws WI' YC
yeoQ YS,
YMgO YMn
VAI 20, yp
Fig. 3.1.8. Idealized reactor model of the blast fumace. 17

REACTOR (]I
~~~~-- ACCUMUlATOR 141
Fig. 3.1.9. Corresponding part of the blast furnace to the reactors and
accumulator shown in Fig. 3.1.8Y
(1), i.e. the shaft region of the blast furnace, by considering the major
chemical and physical phenomena taking place in the region. To be
more specific, the model was derived for a steady-state one-dimensional
heterogeneous moving bed system in which heat exchange and
chemical reactions occurred between the counter-current gas stream
and the solid flow of two components. Reaction rates of indirect
reduction of iron oxide and of solution-loss reaction were taken into
account. A system of six ordinary differential equations was consequently
obtained for representing the longitudinal distributions of CO and CO2,
mass flow rates of ore and carbon, and the temperatures of gas and solid
phases
dGg.co/dz = RC02 (3.1.16)
dGg.co/dz = Reo (3.1.17)
-dGs.cldz Rc (3.1.18)
-dGs.Fe2o/dz (3.1.19)
-d(GgCgTg)/dz = 6(1 - £)hgs(Tg - Ts)/dpc/J (3.1.20)
d(GsCsTs)/dz = 6(1 - £)hgs(Tg - Ts)/dpc/J + 'i:.Ri(-~H)i (3.1.21)

where Ri and "LR i( - ~H)i are the rates of reaction producing the i-th
species and total heat of reaction. It should be noted that the downward
direction is taken to be positive z for the above description.
The six differential equations were solved simultaneously by

applying the Runge-Kutta-Gill method for the fixed boundary
conditions given at the top of the furnace. A computed result obtained
by Koump et al. 17 is shown in Fig. 3.1.10, which represents the
longitudinal distribution for the temperatures of gas and solid and for
the reaction rates of indirect reduction and solution loss. Since the result
shows typical progress of heat exchange and reduction of iron oxide
observed in the blast furnace, the model proposed was essentially
proved to simulate the blast furnace process. Other computed results 17
are shown in Fig. 3.1.11, representing the transition from case (A) to case
(C) which was accomplished by decreasing the mass flow rate of
nitrogen at the top of the furnace as the boundary condition. This
transition was characterized by decreasing the reduction rate and
increasing the gasification of coke. The three types of behavior show
counter-current reduction in a moving bed (A), the shaft region of a
blast furnace (B) and a moving bed gas producer (C). It was found from
these computations 17 that blast furnace operation may be easily
disturbed by small perturbations in operating conditions.
The model mentioned above was stressed to be the first one in which
the blast furnace process was formulated mathematically by a system of
Tg , T5 I'KI
667 889 1111 1333 1556
3.1
6.1
9.3
]' 12.2
N
15.3
18.3
21.4
24.4
0.48 0.80 1.12

Rr', R; Ikgmoles/hr.m 3 Ibedll
Fig. 3.1.10. Temperature distribution and rates of indirect reduction and

solution loss reactionY
z=Or-------~ ~------~
E
N
Fig. 3.1.11. Three different types of behavior of the reactor (1).17
differential equations. The system gives deep insight into the essential
characteristics of blast furnace operation because it can simulate
principally the behavior of thermal and oxygen exchanges as the
superimposition of several rate processes. Unfortunately this model was
developed only for the shaft region and it cannot therefore evaluate the
whole performance of the blast furnace.
Independently, a complete one-dimensional mathematical model
was developed by Muchi et al. 18- 20 which consisted of overall heat and
material balance equations giving the solid temperature at tuyere level
and the theoretical flame temperature together with nine first-order
ordinary differential equations and two algebraic equations for
computing the internal distribution of process variables. This model is
attractive because it can estimate operational results such as productivity
and fuel ratio and also longitudinal distribution of every process
variable taken into account. A detailed description ofthis model will be
given in the next section.
The earliest attempt at two-dimensional analysis of a blast furnace
was made by Lahiri and Seshadri.21 The fundamental equations were

derived as follows:
oGs/iJz + R j =0 (3.1.22)
-Mi(l/r)o(rN;,J/or + oGgi/oz + Ri =0 (3.1.23)
-(l/r)o(rqs)/or - o(GsCsTs)/oz + 'E.iRi(-tlH;)

+ 6(1 - s)hgs(Tg - Ts)/dp<p = 0 (3.1.24)
-(l/r)o(rqg)/or + o(GgCgTg)/oz - 6(1 - s)hgs(Tg - T.)/dp<p =0
(3.1.25)
oP/OZ 7·61 X 1O-11{[1·75 + l50(1-s)]lRepl[(l-s)!c3]Gi/pgdp<p

(3.1.26)
where
N~ (-Eri/RTg)opjor
qs -kesoTJor
qg -kegoTgior
In the above equations, downward direction is assumed as positive z.
The computed results obtained by Lahiri et al. 21 are shown in
Fig. 3.1.12 for four cases of different boundary conditions at the top of
the bed. In cases (1) and (2), the radial distribution ofTg was fixed, with
uniform Pi and Ggi at the top of the bed and different values of GgN2 • In
cases (3) and (4), the radial distribution of Tg was fixed and those for Pi
and Ggi were assumed as a k ± b k sin(2lTr/Do). Although there were some
oversimplifications in the model, it should be noted that the model
represented a method for estimating the two-dimensional internal state
of a blast furnace from the data measured at the top of an operating blast
furnace.
A simplified approach was made by Chon and Tate 22 to represent
radial nonuniformity of the process variables by dividing the blast
furnace into three annular independent reactors which had different
gas flow rates according to the permeability. One of the computed
results is shown in Fig. 3.1.13.
An outstanding method was proposed for analyzing the nonuniform
gas flow by Radestock and Jeschar.23 The fundamental idea was to use
the vectorial form of Ergun's equation as described below:
(3.1.27)
Case 1 - - Case 3
IAI IBI
Case 2 ---- Case 4
rs;;a
Wall Center Wall Center
~:: z;md
,,ook==1'd
1200
L '-------.
1250~ i I Z·~8 c-" 1300 ,..---,-----,--"
t 1050 i
c-" 1400 ,-;.......,-----,----, 1100

/' , /
"
900
I 200 '--_...L-_--'-_---' 1600
1750 ,---,-----,----,
,,"'- .... '\
, /
\ /
1000
1150 '-----'-----''----' 3
3 rim!
rim)
- Case 3
---- Case 1 IDI ---- Case 4
V
ICI - Case 2 Wall Center
Wall Center
015c=
0.14
I Z~m~ 018 ~z~m~
0.14 "-
_ ---'
_ __ _
.L......_...>l
0.12F=======l Z~4 0.15 ,---,---:=---,----,

0.11 '-----'----'----' /." ... '-- .......... "
D
'" Z= 4
E
.§ 0.09 '----'-----'----'
"
6
~
UO.
12 - - " ........ ,
""" Z~8
0.06
0.12~Z~12
rim)
OO~ 3 2 I 0
rim)
Fig. 3.1.12. Radial distribution of gas temperature [(A) and (B)] and CO2
content of the gas [(C) and (D)] computed from two-dimensional model. 21
2.8 ,......=~:::-----=-----------,
~ 2.0
c
Intermedi a te zone
.~
"g --- Ts
] 1. 0
~ Peripheral zo ne
.s
o L-J-~ __L--L~__~-C~__~~
300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300
Tempera ture lO KI
Fig. 3.1.13. Longitudinal distribution of temperature in three zones of blast

furnace (Ole = 0' 6, 0'99, 1'10 for c.l.p.).22
This proposal was very attractive because it showed the possibility for
the two-dimensional process analysis of a packed bed in which a gas
stream reacted with solid particles. One of the computed results on the
gas flow obtained by Radestock and Jeschar 3 is shown in Fig. 3.1.14.
Another important characteristic of the blast furnace is the alternating
layered structure of coke and iron ore. Kuwabara and Muchi24. 25
presented a mathematical model considering the layer by layer
structure. In the model, nonuniform gas flow was approximately
analyzed from the permeability of the bed on the basis of Ergun's
equation. This model will be fully described in Section 3.3.
Mter recognition of the existence of the cohesive zone by the dissection
of commercial blast furnaces some attempts have and are being made to
Pressure roloo Pt Pz = 1.25
14 67~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 14
12
~~+-++-H-tttt1
~~~~T-++~41+H10
~~~-rr++rHt1 08
0.6
04
02
Fig. 3.1.14. Two-dimensional bed structure and corresponding profiles of

streamline and pressure for gas?3
develop an advanced mathematical model which can simulate two-

dimensional profiles of temperature and fractional reduction of iron
ore by using the vectorial form of Ergun's equation for layered structure
of the bed together with heat and material balance equation~.
One such two-dimensional model was proposed by Hatano and
Kurita. 26 The model consisted of transport equations concerning
momentum, heat and mass with non-catalytic chemical reactions. The
construction of the model and the numerical technique for the solution
are given in detail in Section 3.4.
Another attempt to develop the same kind of model is now being
undertaken by Kuwabara et al.,27 in which a different numerical
technique is applied to the simultaneous analysis of gas flow, liquid
flow and heat transfer. This model will be fully described in Section 3.3.
The finite element method is now being developed for use in the two-
dimensional analysis of a blast furnace?8 However, at the present time it
is not fully developed, although nonuniform gas flow and heat transfer
in the blast furnace have been analyzed. Since some attractive results
have already been obtained, the principal derivation of the governing
equations and some numerical results will be shown in Section 3.5.
3.1.4. Control Models

Early attempts at the automatic control of a blast furnace were made to
regulate the thermal state indicated by silicon content in pig iron, except
for some statistical and empirical models. Among the models, an
overall heat balance was used for the purpose of stable operation by
Tsuboi. 29 A theory on Wu was developed by Staib et al. 9 , to which
represented available heat for the fusion of iron and slag, for the
reduction ofthe dissolved elements in pig iron and for the compensation
of heat loss in the lower part of the blast furnace. This model was
constructed according to the fundamental theory of the ideal blast
furnace which had thermal and chemical reserve zones. Using this
theory, the value of Wu can be calculated by subtracting the heat
consumed by the direct reduction of iron oxide from the instantaneous
heat input into the lower part of the blast furnace which are obtained
from the observed flow rate and composition of top gas and hot blast,
respectively. Figure 3.1.15 gives a typical example showing good
correspondence between the parameter Wu and the observed silicon
content in hot metal.
A somewhat different model for automatic control of the thermal
state was developed at CRM30 on the basis of the same theory. In the
600
550
Wu
500
Ir\ ....,
I~
V
~
\
450
0]
0.6
0.5
-- " IL
"-
........
%Si
0.4 "-
0.3
0.2
21-5-63 22-5-63
Fig. 3.1.15. Correspondence of thermal index Wu and % Si in hot meta1. 9
model, the heat required for the reduction of silicon and for the
overheating of the iron and slag, which was calledEe , was calculated on
the assumption that the silicon in pig iron was in an equilibrium state
with slag, although the use of this assumption might have some
restrictions. This concept is illustrated schematically in Fig. 3.1.16. One
of the comparisons is given in Fig. 3.1.17 between calculated and
observed relationships of Ee vs. %Si. The result obtained by CRM
showed one of the possibilities for profitable control.
In the Sakai works ofNSC,31 successful computer control of the blast
furnace was achieved on the basis of not only the thermal state in the
lower part of the furnace but also the permeability in the furnace for
stable and high performance operation.
dJ
I... -s Blast Moisture
wQ.-----
II -" Hot Metal
Coke 1000"(
_Burden_1000
C_'
0
Fig. 3.1.16. Fundamental concept for calculating thermal index Ee. 3o

Ec
SlAG VOlUME
- - Experimental curve
422 - - - Theoretical curve
635kgNTHM
::2 / =0075
I
f-
/ as~;
Z 315 SlAG VOlUME
~,
5;2
~/ /~/=O.IOO 658kg .NTHM
°SiO
211
V
~
~ IV
105
.-£-
-'
o
o 0.2 0.4 0.6
9b Si
Fig. 3.1.17. Comparison between theoretical and eXPoerimental curves for the
relationship of Ec and % Si. 0
The models mentioned above were formulated for a steady-state

process. This means that the control by the models is effective only for
smooth operation.
Fielden and Wood32 proposed a dynamic model at BISRA in order to
obtain more feasible control over a wide range of operating conditions.
A mathematical model was constructed by taking heat and material
balances for the dynamic simulation of the practical operation. In the
model, the blast furnace was divided into five zones according to the
temperature, and the chemical reactions occurring in the individual
zones were specified as shown in Fig. 3.1.18. The working volume was
sub-divided into a number of horizontal zones which had a thickness of
1 m. The amount and composition of the material and the temperature
of gas and solid within the zone were assumed to be expressed by the
average values. In the zones, actual gas and solid streams moved
continuously in opposite directions. However, for simplicity, both
streams were approximated in the model by the movement of the solid
and gaseous contents to the zone immediately below (for solid) and
above (for gas) after some retention time in a stepwise manner. The
retention times were estimated as 0·2 s for gas and 15 min for solid in
each zone.
Although the mathematical model proposed by Fielden and Wood 32
is not reproduced here, the dynamic behavior obtained from the model
is shown in Fig. 3.1.19, representing the response curves for the step
changes in blast temperature, ore/coke ratio and injected oil. The
authors noted that the responses compared favorably with the trends
observed in the actual furnace. For example, the silicon content
response curve to the step change of blast temperature had a similar
Charged
Top gas materials
t t
Drying of the charge Shaft region
Indirect reduction
950·C
I
Indirect reduction Uppe r bosh
Solution-loss reaction regia
Water gas shift
reaction
1250·C
I
Direct reduction lower

Reduction of
Water gas shift bosh
metalloids
reaction region
Tuyere I I
region Reduction of
Combustion of coke
Hot biast metalloids Hearth
-----
Decomposition of
Transfer of sulfur region
blast additives
from metal to slag
+
Cast materials
Fig. 3.1.18. Chemical reactions occurring in the blast furnace. 32
trend to that of metal temperature and was approximately first-order

with a time constant of 4 h. The response of silicon content to the step
change in ore/coke ratio was again first-order with a time delay of 8 h
and a time constant of8 h. However, a second-order response curve was
found for the response of silicon content and metal temperature to the
step change in oil rate. For the behavior of gas, a higher order response
curve was obtained as is also shown in Fig. 3.1.19.
Tuchiya33 developed a dynamic mathematical model which considered
the rates of heat exchange and chemical reaction. In the model, a blast
furnace was divided into five zones and process variables were assumed
to be constant within each zone. Although this assumption seemed to be
an oversimplification, the computed temperature change at tuyere level
with lapse of time showed a similar trend to the measured change in
'·00 1 Silicon 11575 0·90 084 tv
501;<on ~ 1530~ o
080
u 080
1565:'"
1580 u
M&tcl
-
070 1560~. ..;
'" 0<
il/ 11555 ~ t060 1540;::*072 '":l

q; • 1520'<
* 1545 ~ .n"O.SO 1520 ~ Vi 0.68 ~
. Q. til
1535~
040 1500~ 064
IOoy 1.5 ~ 1525 .... .... lDoy 1.5 ~
I . 030 1480 060 §
10 12 14 0 2 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 6 8 10 12 14 1510
CAST CAST
167 245 180 23.9" .........-,...~~,--...-~016 20
,
24 I 16.6 24 ° 175 I
if 24 0 165#.#235 IS80if ..,tTl
: co 170~Nif 23.5
ci 23.9
u 164 230 165
::r:
88 80 o ~
238 163 22S 160 u 154QV
2370
100y 1.5
162 220
~
~ 155
23.0 o
~
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
CAST CAST 22.7
0 2 6 8 10 12 14 15.00 ~
CAST
900,r-"'---'~----'~~"--"""""" 31 220 45
~
tJ
y y y Oil 51 ep
U
810$1 remperoture 36
w
240 :.., ~
~ 225~ ~ Z o
:l :lO '":l 027 ~op 905 tempera1ufO 230 :; tJ
fop 90$ temperorUfe ~ U 3 00 210'< .... ....
<8D tTl
'"
w o<w
wO< ~ 0 18. - 220~ t""'
Q. Q.. t""'
~ 22O~O '" 2102
w 0 100y 1.5 w lDay 1.5 ~ 0 lDoy 1.5 Z
. . roo .. 2W o 2OO~ Cl
o 2 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 200 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
CAST CAST CAST
Fig. 3.1.19. Computed response curves of process variables to step changes in blast temperature, ore/coke ratio, and
injected oil. 32
silicon content. Hatano et al. 34. 35 applied the model to the dynamic
control of real blast furnace operation thereby stabilizing the temperature
of hot metal.
Another dynamic model was proposed by Hatano et al. 36• 37 for
simulation and forecasting of behavior due to change in operating
conditions. This model is described in detail in Section 3.7.
Horio and Muchi38. 39 reported a mathematical model for analyzing
the dynamic characteristics of a blast furnace in the region between the
melting and tuyere levels, by using the conservation equations of heat
and mass together with heat exchange and chemical reactions. The
response curves were computed for the location of the melting zone and
temperature of molten materials at tuyere level to step changes in
operating conditions. It has been found that the movement of the
melting zone markedly affected the dynamic behavior because the time
constant for this process was as long as several hours.
3.1.5. Models for Estimating Internal Situations based on Observed Data

Modem blast furnaces are equipped with many measuring devices for
detecting the internal state. Some attempts 40 -42 have been made to
simulate and to forecast the change in the internal state by using the
observed data from continuous measurements. A typical model in this
category was reported by Togino et al. 40 for estimating the shape and
location of the cohesive zone. This model will be fully described in
Section 3.6.
3.2. ONE-DIMENSIONAL STATIC MODEL
In this section, an outline of the mathematical model of a blast furnace

which was developed by Muchi and his coworkers 18-20 is described.
3.2.1. Overall Reaction Rates

Numerous chemical reactions occur in a blast furnace, and examples of
these are: the indirect reduction of iron ore by CO, the solution-loss
reaction, the direct reduction of molten Wllstite, the decomposition of
limestone, the indirect reduction of iron ore by H 2 , the water gas
reaction, the water gas shift reaction, and the reduction of silica in
molten slag. In the section below, kinetic studies reported in the
previous literature are summarized in order to obtain the effective rate
expressions for the kinetic model of a blast furnace.
3.2.1.1. Indirect reduction of iron ore by CO

Reduction of iron oxide by CO is assumed to proceed topochemically
with one interface in accordance with the following equation:
(3.2.1)
The overall reaction rate R fper unit volume of the bed in a blast furnace
is defined as:
Rf = -dnco/Vsdt (3.2.2)
using the assumption that the three steps are (i) diffusion through the
gas film surrounding the particle, (ii) intra particle diffusion and
(iii) chemical reaction at one reaction interface, and that these steps take
place steadily and successively; R tis derived as eqn (3.2.6) through the
rates for the individual steps given by eqns (3.2.3)-(3.2.5):
Rate of gas film diffusion
= TTd~<p;;Wokfl . 273P'(Yeo - yeo.o)/22·4Ts (3.2.3)
Rate of intra particle diffusion
= TTd~<p;;INoDsl . 273P'(yco.o - Yeo. JrJ[22·4T sro(r o - rJJ (3.2.4)
Rate of chemical reaction
= TTd~<p;;INokl(l + lIKd(rJrol· 273P'(YeO.i - y~o)/22-4Ts (3.2.5)
giving:
Rf = _____TTd~<p;;INo . 273P'(Yeo - y~o)/22-4Ts

--....::c~----"~--:::...c::=---------"---=-~---"------__o
lIkfl + (do /2)[(l - !sr /3 - l]1Dsl + [(1 - !sf3k l (l + lIK IW I
l
(3.2.6)
The three terms in the denominator of the right-hand side of the
equation represent the resistances of the three processes. The rate
constants included in eqn (3.2.6) are determined as follows.
The mass transfer coefficient k n can be evaluated from Frossling's
equation: 43
(3.2.7)
where
Sh = kndolD eo , Rep = doVg/Jg/fJg, Sc = fJg/pgD eo
The viscosity fJ gand density Pgare calculated for the gas mixture from
the addition of the values for the component gases. The viscosity for the
pure gas is obtained by using the Licht-Stechert equation,44 and Dca is

determined from Wilke's equation,45 given by eqn (3.2.8) for the
CO-C0 2-N2 system. The diffusivities for the two-component system
included in eqn (3.2.8) can be obtained by Andrussow's equation.46
Dco = (1 - Yco)/P' [yca/Dco~ca2 + YN/Dca-N2 ]
~ 2·592 X 1O-6T~78/P' (m2/h) (3.2.8)
The intraparticle diffusion coefficient D s ] through the metallic shell
may be defined approximately as follows, using solid temperatures for
the calculation:
(3.2.9)
where
= 0·53 + 0·47cpi
Cv (3.2.10)
~pi = 0·238cpi + 0·04 (0·15 < Cpi < 0·5) (3.2.11)
The value of Dca in eqn (3.2.7) can be estimated from eqn (3.2.8) for
temperatures under 848 °K whereas the following equation is better for
temperatures over 848°K:
Dca = 2·592 X 1O-6T~o/P' (m 2/h) (3.2.8)'
Reaction rate constants can be estimated by an Arrhenius type
equation which has been obtained by plotting the observed data from
previous literature: 47-5]
k] = 347exp(-3460/Ts) (m/h) (3.2.12)
The activation energy in this equation is approximately equal to
6·9 kcallmol (CO). The equilibrium constant K, in eqn (3.2.6), is
obtained thermodynamically from the equations described below.
For temperatures under 848 oK:
K] exp(4·91 + 6235/Ts) for is < 0·111 (3.2.13)
K] exp(-0·7625 + 543·3/Ts) for is > 0·111 (3.2.14)
For temperatures over 848 oK:
K] exp(4·91 + 6235/Ts) for is < O· 111 (3.2.15)
K] exp(2·13 - 2050/Ts) for 0·111 < is < 0·333 (3.2.16)
K] exp( -2·642 + 2164/Ts) for is > o· 333 (3.2.17)
The theoretical reduction curves obtained by integrating eqn (3.2.6)

compare favorably with observed data, as shown in Fig. 3.2.1, and it may
therefore be reasonably concluded that the expressions for k fl, D 51, k 1
and K 1 detailed above satisfactorily predict the reduction behavior of
ferrous burden.
J. 1.0 o 100 0
~
773 07S 025
" 0.8 1173 8SA 047
.2
U 0.072
is 0.6
e
g 0.4
Q
] 0.2
00 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Time t (mini
Fig. 3.2.1. Comparison between calculated and observed indirect reduction

curves. I8
The iron ore containing FeZ03 and Fe304 is actually reduced to

metallic iron through the intermediate Fe30 4 and FeO. Therefore the
one-interface model mentioned above is only a first approximation for
the rate expression. A two-interface unreacted core model was
developed for a better description of the reaction rate and this method is
used in the mathematical models of a blast furnace by Chon and Tate,Z2
Hatano and KuritaZ6 and Hatano and Yamaoka. 36,37 The first model
mentioned above appeared in Section 3.1 and the second and the third
models will be described in Sections 3.4 and 3.7. The overall rate
expressions based on the two-interface unreacted core model are given
below: 53
(3.2,18)
- (Dw + F)(Yeo,Q - Yeo, 1)] (3.2.19)

where
RH [kHW(l + l/KHw )(1 - isHW)213 r 1 (3.2.20)
Rw [kWF(l + l/KWF)(1 - isWF) 213 r 1 (3.2.21 )
DH [do/(2DsM)][(l - isHWr 1l3 - (1 - isWFr 1l3 ] (3.2.22)
Dw [do/(2DsF)][(l - isWFr l/3 - 1] (3.2.23)
F l/kn (3.2.24)
W2 = Rw(RM + DH + Dw + F) + (RH + DH)(Dw+ F) (3.2.25)
Spitzer et al. 52 proposed a three-interface unreacted core model for the
general analysis of the reduction kinetics of iron oxide, as shown in
Fig. 3.2.2. Hara et al. 53 modified the model thereby resulting in a series of
useful rate expressions for application to process analysis and this
method was used for analysis of a moving bed reactor4- 56 for hydrogen
reduction of iron oxide pellets. Murayama et al. 57 and Takahashi et at. 58
.-/
.------
/"
/
/
I
/
/
/
I ro
yeo
Fe
yeo.o
.
yeO,3
YeO,3
.
yeO.2
yeO.2
yeo. J
yeo. J
Fig. 3.2.2. Sketch of three-interface unreacted core mode1. 58

measured rate constants for the reduction of iron oxide by CO applying

the stepwise reduction technique 57 and a parameter fitting technique. 58
The rate expressions on the basis of the three-interface unreacted core
model are written below:
lTd 2(P-W 273P'
R~M = Ow 0 22.4T /[Rw(RM
3 s
+ DM + Dw + F)
+ (RM + DM)(Dw + F)] (yeo. 0 - Y~O.I)
+ [Rw(DM + Dw + F) + Dw(Dw + F)] (yeo. 0 - Y~O.2)
- RM(Dw + F)(yco.o - Y~o.3)1 (3.2.26)
R* lTd~</>;;INo 273P'I[(R +D +D )(R + D + F)

MW W 22.4T H H M W W
3 s
+ Rw(Dw + F) (yeo. 0 - Y~O.2)
- [Dw(Rw + Dw + F) + Rw(Dw + F)] (yeo. 0 - Y~O.I)
- (RH + DH)(Dw + F)(yeo.o - Y~o.3)1 (3.2.27)
R* lTd~</>;;Wo 273P' I[(R + D )(R + D + D + F)

WF = W3 22.4Ts H H M M W
+ RM(D M + Dw + F)] (yeo. 0 - Y~O.3)
- RM(Dw + F)(yeo.o - Y~O.I)

- (RH + DH)(Dw + F)(yeo.o - Y~o.2)1 (3.2.28)
where
RH [kHM(l + 1/KHM )(l - isHMf/3 r 1 (3.2.29)
RM [kMW(l + 1/KMW )(1 - isMW)2I3 r 1 (3.2.30)
Rw [kWF(1 + 1/KWF )(1 - isWF)213 r 1 (3.2.31)
DH [do/(2DsM)][(1 - isHMr '/3 - (1 - isMW)-1/3] (3.2.32)
DM [do/(2Dsw)][(l - isMWr Il3 - (1 - isWF)-I13] (3.2.33)
Dw = [do/(2DsF)][(1 - isWFr '/3 - 1] (3.2.34)

F = 1/kn (3.2.35)
W3 = (RH+ DH)[Rw(RM + DM + Dw + F) + (RM + DM)(Dw + F)]
+ RM[Rw(DM + Dw + F) + DM(Dw + F)] (3.2.36)
In summary, the three-interface model mentioned above may be used

for the analysis of a blast furnace to provide a better evaluation of not
only the reduction rate but also the heat of reaction for the wide range of
conditions which iron ore encounters in a blast furnace.
3.2.1.2. Solution-loss reaction

The solution-loss reaction described by the following equation
proceeds in the lower part of a blast furnace:
C + CO2 = 2CO (3.2.37)
The overall reaction rate Rrper unit volume of the bed is defined as:
(3.2.38)
Assuming that the diffusion through gaseous film takes place steadily
and successively with the simultaneous processes of diffusion with the
pores and chemical reaction at the internal surface of lump coke, one
can derive the overall reaction rate given by eqn (3.2.41) from the rates
for both processes expressed by eqns (3.2.39) and (3.2.40).
Diffusion rate through gas film
= lTd;,Nccp~lkf2 . 273P'(Yeo - Yeo.o)/22-4Ts (3.2.39)
Diffusion rate in pore with chemical reaction
= EfmcNcCP;lk2 · 273P'Yeo.o/22·4Ts (3.2.40)
where irreversible first-order reaction is assumed:
R* _ lTd~cp~INc· 273P'Yeo/22·4Ts
(3.2.41 )
2 - (l/kf2) + (6/dcPc E rk 2)
Numerical values for kfl may be obtained by substituting

Sh = k f2 djD eoz ' Rep = dcVgpg/f.lg. and Sc = f.lg/pgD eoZ into eqn (3.2.7),
where Dcoz is defined as the diffusion coefficient of CO2 in a ternary
system of CO-C0 2-N2• Deoz may be calculated using the same
procedure as eqn (3.2.8) which results in the following equation:
Deoz = 2·236 X 1O- 6T I78/P' (m 2/h) (3.2.42)
The reaction rate constant k 2 can be determined from the following

equation which was proposed by Heynert et al. :59
k2 = 2·99 X 1013 exp( -80 OOO/RTs) (m3/kg· h) (3.2.43)
The effectiveness factor E r, which appeared in eqn (3.2.41), can be

calculated for an irreversible first-order reaction by eqn (3.2.44) in terms
of the Thiele modulus m as defined below:
Er = 3(m coth m - 1)/m 2 (3.2.44)
m = (de/2) J Pe k 2IDs2 (3.2.45)
where Ds2 is estimated from:
Ds2 = DcoleEe (3.2.46)
Another formulation for the reaction rate was reported by Miyasaka
et at.:&:!
(3.2.47)
where
k21 = exp(27·20l - 35 900/Ts) (l/atm· h) (3.2.48)
k22 exp(l4·240 - 18 350/Ts) (l/atm) (3.2.49)
k23 10·3 (l/atm) (3.2.50)
k25 = exp(29·588 - 36 760/Ts) (l/atm) (3.2.51)
Er = exp [(In 0·15)(Ts - 1073)/300] (3.2.52)
This rate equation simulates the advancement of reaction for a wide

variation of reaction conditions and it is noteworthy that the equation
considers the inhibiting effect of CO gas on the reaction rate. It is,
however, not easy to incorporate into this equation the film diffusion
process which may playa major role in the high temperature region of
the blast furnace.
Extensive studies have been presented for the solution-loss reaction
by Kobayashi and Omori6 1. 62 for determining both diffusion coefficient
through the coke pores and the chemical reaction rate.
3.2.1.3. Direct reduction of molten wustite

The wustite formed by indirect reduction of iron ore in the shaft region
of a blast furnace melts and the molten wustite falls through the packed
bed of lump coke. The wustite may be reduced by solid coke or by
dissolved carbon in molten iron during this molten slag flow according
to the reactions described below:
FeO(l) + C(s) Fe(l) + CO(g) (3.2.53)

FeO(l) + C Fe(l) + CO(g) (3.2.54)
Only eqn (3.2.53) is considered here because of the very meagre
information on the kinetics for the reaction given by eqn (3.2.54).
Shabrin et al. 63 and Philbrook et al. 64 reported that the reaction given by
eqn (3.2.53) was second-order with respect to the concentration of
wustite in slag. Under these conditions, the expression for the overall
reaction rate per unit volume of the bed is:
Rt = -dnFeo/VBdt = k3(AclVB)C~eO (3.2.55)
where the reaction rate constant k3 is expressed by eqn (3.2.56) which
has been obtained by analyzing the experimental data reported by
Shabrin et al. 63 and Philbrook et al.: 64
k3 = 4·66 X let exp( - 53 300/RTs ) (m4/h . kmol(FeO)) (3.2.56)
The concentration of wustite is expressed by the following equation
by assuming that all the iron oxides exist as molten wustite which is
dissolved homogeneously in slag:
C FeO = 3Fms.Fe20p -Is) (3.2.57)

(WJps) + 71·85 [3FmS.Fe203(1 - J.)]Ipw
The effective surface area for the reduction of molten wustite per unit
surface of lump coke is calculated approximately from the following
equation which is obtained by applying the empirical equation65 for gas
absorption in a packed bed:
f3a = f3~(FSL + FW)/(FSL + Fw + F M )
where
Although surface tension, density and superficial velocity of molten

materials may change with changes in the composition and temperature
of slag, the fractional reduction of wustite, the driving rate of the
furnace, and the cross-sectional area, an approximate calculation gives
0·078 as the value of f3~. The specific surface area available for the
reaction can be described approximately as follows:
(3.2.58)
Another formulation on the direct reduction rate of molten wustite

was attempted by Miyasaka et al. 60 on the basis of experimental results
reported by Sugata et al. 66 These results showed that the reduction rate of
molten wustite is proportional to the activity of FeO in slag and to the
reaction surface, with the rate equation:
Rt = k;(AjVB)aFeO (3.2.59)
The activity of molten wustite must be expressed by the concentration of
FeO for convenient practical use. For this purpose, the experimental
result obtained by Samarinet at. 67 at l600°C is assumed to be applicable
at any arbitrary temperature. The activity ofFeO is thereby expressed by
eqn (3.2.60) and the rate constant is obtained as eqn (3.2.61) from the
experimental result: 66
(3.2.60)
k; = exp(l1'SS4 - 19980/Ts ) (kmol(FeO)/m2. h) (3.2.61)
3.2.1.4. Decomposition of limestone

The overall reaction rate R;
for the decomposition of limestone
expressed by eqn (3.2.62) was derived by Muchi 18 from consideration of
mass transfer of CO2 and chemical reaction as described below:
CaC03 = CaO + CO2 (3.2.62)
lTdVI>"LINL • 273(P~02 - Yco2P')/22'4Ts
(l/k f4 ) + dd(l - fl)-1I3 - 1]/2Ds4
+ [(1 - fl)-2/3k4R'T/K4]-1
(3.2.63)
The transport coefficients k f4 ,D s4 and k4 included in eqn (3.2.63) may
be determined as follows. The value of kfL is calculated by substituting
Sh = kf4dL/Dc02' Rep = dLVgPg//lg, and Sc = /lg/p gD C02 into eqn (3.2.7).
In the calculation, Dco2 is obtained from eqn (3.2.42) for temperatures
under 1I73°K. However, for temperatures over 1173 oK, DC02 may be
estimated by making use of(Tg + Ts)/2 instead ofTg because of the high
endothermic reaction. The coefficient Ds4 is defined as:
(3.2.64)
where
cvL 0'702cpL+ 0·298
~L = (cv d0 41
The equation for ~L is obtained on the basis of Curie's report68 and the
reaction rate constant k4 is obtained as follows:
k4 = 5-47 X 106exp ( -40 OOO/RTs ) (kmol(C0 2 )/m2 • h) (3.2.65)
In this relationship, the activation energy is estimated according to
the reports of Slonin69 and Hutting et al./o and the frequency factor is
obtained from the data observed by Britton et al. 71
The equilibrium constant K4 is represented as follows according to
data on the decomposition pressure by Perry et al.: 72
logK4 = -8202·5/Ts + 7·0099 (atm) (3.2.66)
Another expression of overall reaction rate for the decomposition of
limestone was presented by Miyasaka et al. 6O by considering heat
transfer and chemical reaction processes as the mixed rate control
steps:
R 4* --
(-ll.H4 )[J.- + ~ [(1 - Ji)-1I3 -
hgs 2keL
1]]
+ (1 - Ji)-2/3 ~[l + K 4(PCO/Pd)] (3.2.67)

k4 1 - (PCO/Pd)
where T: and P d designate the starting temperature of decomposition
and the decomposition pressure. The values required to calculate the
overall reaction rate were given as follows:
(Rt = 0 for Ts « T:)
(-ll.H4 ) = 45400 - 4·50Ts (kcal/kmol(C0 2 ))
Pd = exp[20·3 X 103 (1/1170 - 1/Ts)] (atm)
k4 = 2·25 X 10-3 (1/atm . h), ke = 0·680 (kcal/m . h . DC), K4 = 4·0
Equation (3.2.67) was recommended by Miyasaka et al. 6O for the
condition of low partial pressure of CO 2 , as in a blast furnace, because
the rate equation contains not only the heat transfer process but also the
chemical reaction process.
A comprehensive study of the kinetics of the decomposition of
limestone was made by Hills 73 who proposed a more rigorous rate
expression to adequately simulate the observed decomposition curve
even if the reaction conditions change widely. The form of Hills's

equation is, however, quite complicated.
3.2.1.5. Indirect reduction of iron ore by H2

Iron ore is also reduced by H2 in a blast furnace in accordance with the
equation:
(3.2.68)
The reduction is assumed to proceed topochemically with one interface,
with the overall reduction rate represented, in the same way as R r,
by:
*_ 1Td~</>;lNo • 273P'(YH2 - y~y22-4Ts
R5 - l/k fS + (do /2)[(1 -Is) 1/3 - 1]/D s5 + [(1 -1s)2/3k 5(1 + l/K 5)] 1
The transport coefficients k f5 , Ds5 and k5 are obtained by following a
similar procedure to that for the indirect reduction of iron ore by co. In
this case, the diffusion coefficient of hydrogen is used for the
computation of kfS and Ds5 instead of that for CO. The reaction rate
constant k5 and the equilibrium constant K5 for this reaction are
obtained as shown below from the observed data by McKewan 74 and
from thermodynamic data respectively.
For Ts < 848 oK
k5 = 102·78Ts exp( -14 900/RTs) (m/h) (3.2.70)
exp(8·883 - 8475/Ts) (3.2.71)
For Ts > 848 oK
k5 = 82·50Ts exp(-15300/RTs) (m/h) (3.2.72)
K5 exp(1·0837 - 1737·2/Ts) (3.2.73)
The discontinuity at the boundary between two temperature regions is
caused by the instability of the wustite phase in the lower temperature
region.
In some cases75 - 77 the effect of water vapor adsorption on the
reduction rate has been reported. However, in the shaft region of a blast
furnace, the reduction does not proceed so rapidly due to the low H2
concentration. The effect of water vapor adsorption is therefore
neglected here.
As described previously in connection with the indirect reduction of
iron ore by CO, rate equations for the reaction have been proposed on
the basis of the three-interface unreacted core modeUz,53 This model is

also useful for counter-current reduction systems containing Hz like the
shaft region of a blast furnace. The rate constants for each reduction
step by Hz were measured by Yanagiya et al. 55 and Hara et al. 54 for the
reduction of iron oxide pellets. These relationships can be applied
favorably to mathematical models of a blast furnace.
It should be emphasized that some transport coefficients given here
were obtained for specific solid particles and therefore the coefficients
may change with changes in the physical and chemical properties of the
particle. This is particularly true for the reaction rate constant
parameters, but it is also believed to apply for the other rate
equations.
3.2.1.6. Water gas reaction

For the water gas reaction given by eqn (3.2.74) below, the overall
reaction rate is derived by assuming that the diffusion process through a
gas film around lump coke takes place in series with the parallel
processes of intra particle diffusion and chemical reaction. The
chemical reaction is also assumed to be irreversible first-order. The
overall reaction rate Rt is thus obtained per unit bed volume as
described in eqn (3.2.75):
C + HzO = CO + Hz (3.2.74)
Rt = rrd~<p;;Wc' 273P'YH/22'4Ts
(3.2.75)
l/kf6 + 6/dcPcE ;k6
The transport coefficients included in this equation can be obtained
using the same procedure as that for the solution-loss reaction.
However, the diffusion coefficient required for the calculation of k f6 and
E;is that for water vapor in the CO-COz-Nz-HzO system instead ofCO z
in the CO-COz-N zsystem for the solution-loss reaction. The temperature
and pressure dependences of the diffusion coefficient of HzO are
expressed as:
(3.2.76)
The reaction rate constant k6 is derived by making a slight
modification of the equation presented by Kunugi et al. 78 according to
the reaction-interface model:
k6 = 4·83 X I04Ts exp( -17 31l/Ts) (m 3/kg . h) (3.2.77)
Miyasaka et al. 60 recommended the following rate expression for the

same reason for the solution-loss reaction:
Rt = E,(\ m~Ne)[
Me
k24P'YH20
I + P'(k22YC02 + k yCO + k2SYH20)
] 3
( .2.78)
23
where
k24 = exp(22·355 - 26360/T,) (l/atm . h) (3.2.79)
The other parameters are given by eqns (3.2.48)-(3.2.52). We again have
to note that in this rate equation it may be difficult to include the film
diffusion process.
3.2.1.7. Water gas shift reaction

The water gas shift reaction given by eqn (3.2.80) may take place in a
blast furnace because the gas ascending in the furnace consists of CO,
CO 2 , H 2 , H 20 and N 2 :
(3.2.80)
Although some kinds of metallic oxides act as a catalyst for the
reaction the net reaction rate can be estimated to a first approximation
from the following equation which is derived on the basis of the
experiment by Graven et al. 79 in the temperature range 800-1100 o e
using a quartz vessel:
R7* = 7·29 X 10 11 (y )1/2(y )(P'/T )3/26 exp(-67300/RTg)
co H20 g JI + 14· I 58y H2 P' /Tg
10 1/2 3/2 exp( - 57 OOO/RTg)
- 1·386 X 10 (YCO)(YH) (P'/Tg) 6 (l + 4'24YcoP'/Tg)
kmOl(H 2
(m 3 (bed)h
») (3.2.81)
On the other hand, Miyasaka et al. 60 recommended the use of an

overall reaction rate obtained by Moe80 for the reaction:
Rf = k 7(VoIV;)(l - 6)( O':S;TJ(YCOYH~ - YC~~H2) (3.2.82)
In this relationship, the reaction rate constantk 7 and the equilibrium

constant K7 are calculated from the equations:
k7 = exp(23'81 - 4890/T,) (m 3/kmol . h) (3.2.83)
K7 exp(-3'7176 + 4302'9/T,) (3.2.84)
3.2.1.8. Reduction of silica in slag

Reduction of silica in slag is assumed to proceed in accordance with the
equations:
SiOil) + 2C(s) Si + 2CO(g) (3.2.85)
Si02 (l) + 2~ Si + 2CO(g) (3.2.86)
It has been established that these reactions proceed in the high

temperature region and their rates are extremely low and that the overall
reaction rate 81 may be expressed approximately by eqn (3.2.87) on the
assumption that the reaction is of irreversible first order with respect to
the concentration of silica in slag:
(3.2.87)
The following expression is obtained for the rate constant k8 according
to the analysis of experimental data measured by Yoshii et al. 82
k8 = 7·59 X 104exp (-62870/RTs ) (m/h) (3.2.88)
Extensive studies have recently been made on the mechanisms of

silica reduction in a blast furnace and of silicon transfer, with the result
that the major part of the silica reduction in a blast furnace has been
found to proceed through SiO gas. This suggests that a different rate
equation based on a gas-phase SiO transfer mechanism should be
formulated. A detailed description will be given on this topic in a later
chapter.
3.2.2. Overall Material Balance

The flow rate and the composition of the top gas, production rate of hot
metal and discharge rate of slag are estimated by taking overall material
balances as follows.
Material balance on Fe:
(3.2.89)
Material balance on C:
F mc. c + W oi1 f3jl2 + F mL. c = W pa c /12 + Fo(yco.o + YCQz.o)/22-4 + F mD. c
(3.2.90)
Material balance on N 2 :
FOYN2.0 (3.2.91)
Material balance on H 2 :
(3.2.92)
Material balance on 02:
1·5Fms.Fe203 + 2Fms.Fe304 + Fms.caC03 + (0'21 + xo)(60Fb )/22'4

+ 60Fb w st /(2)(18 000) + F mAO + Wp[asJ28 + a Mn /(2)(54'9)]
= Fo(yco.o/2 + YC02.0 + YH20.o/2)/22-4 + Fmo.o (3.2.93)
Summation of molar fractions of component gas at the top:
YCO.o + YC02.0 + YN2.0 + YH2.0 + YH20.0 = 1 (3.2.94)
Total material balance on molten phases:
W; = 60·lFms.sio2 + 56·lFms.cao + 102·OFms.Al203 + 40·3Fms.MgO

+ 70·9Fms.MnO + 79·9Fms.Ti02 - W p(60'las;/28 + 70·9aMn/54·9)
(3.2.95)
In order to solve these equations, the discharge rate and composition

of dust (Wo,Fmo. c>FmO. 0, rFe) are estimated through statistical analysis of
operational data, and the composition of hot metal (aSi, aMn) is
postulated to be constant for fixed operating conditions. With these
assumptions, Wp and Ws can be calculated from eqns (3.2.89) and
(3.2.90) independently. Fo, Yco.o, YC02.0, YN2.0 and YH2.0 can then be
determined by solving eqns (3.2.90)-(3.2.94) simultaneously for the
given operating conditions (charging rate of raw materials and their
constituents, blast volume, oxygen enrichment, oil injection, and
addition of water vapor).
Some computed results and observed data are listed in Table 3.2.1.
The very good agreement between calculated and observed data
indicates high reliability of the above overall material balance.
3.2.3. Temperatures of Gas and Solid at the Top of the Furnace

An overall heat balance for the whole blast furnace provides the
following equation:
+ Qs - Qw + I:,Msi -l1HO)j - :Emi(Lad/(FocgOpo + Woco)

(3.2.96)
TABLE 3.2.1
Comparisons of the Results Computed from Overall Material Balances with Observed Data 20
Yco,o Yc~.o YN2,O YH2,O

1O- 3 w:p 1O- 3 Ws 1O- 5F o Fo/(60Fb) 0
Value t'"
(-) (-) (-) (-) (kg/h) (kg/h) (Nm 3/h) (-) 0
calculated 0·238 () 185 {}522 0'055 145·8 4{}8 2'747 1'51 ~

A
observed 0'236 0·184 0'536 0·044 145·6 41'7 ~
calculated 0·254 () 169 0'552 0'026 65'6 18'0 1·237 1'42 ~
B 0,027 c:::
observed 0·234 0·186 0'553 62·5 20'0
calculated 0'228 0'194 0'521 0'057 131·8 32·8 2-381 1'52
s:
::l
C 131·8 31·9
observed 0'238 0'182 0'555 0'025
~
calculated 0'231 0'191 0'548 0'027 124'3 43'2 2'453 1'42
D
observed 0·236 0·186 0'550 0·029 124·8 42·9
Vol
-..J
-
where the heat of fusion and heat of reaction are calculated as follows:
~mi(Lf)i = (3'7Fms,Fe + 3'6Fms,Si02 + 19'OFms,CaO + 26'OFmS ,Al20 3
+ 18'5Fms,Mgo + nOFms ,MnO) X 103 (3.2.97)
~Msj(-!:1HO)j = [5-45Fms,wus,i - 2·12Fms ,Fe203 - 7· 12Fms ,Fe304
- 31'13Fms ,wus,d - 42'6Fms ,CacOj + 29'2(0'21 + Xo)
X 60Fb/ll·2 - 28-4(60Fb)wsJI8 000
(3.2.98)
In the derivation of eqn (3.2.97), it is assumed that all the iron ore
charged melts as metallic iron after complete reduction, the CaC0 3
charged melts as CaO, and the other oxides melt in the same form as
charged, and that the total heat of fusion is calculated by adding the
heats of fusion for each component. For the derivation of eqn (3.2.98), it
is assumed that the heat of direct reduction comprises both indirect
reduction and the solution-loss reaction. Solution loss by water vapor is
included in solution loss by CO2 because of the small quantity of the
reaction, and the heat of indirect reduction by H2 is neglected because
the amount of reaction and the heat of reaction are both negligibly
small.
The heat of slag formation Qs and heat loss through the wall Qw
included in eqn (3.2.96) can be obtained from eqns (3.2.99)83 and
(3.2.100):84
Qs = 314(56'lFm,cao) - 17Ws(kcal/h) (3.2.99)
Qs = (4000Db + 1000Dh + 100) X 103 (kcal/h) (3.2.100)

To obtain the solid temperature at the top of a blast furnace, a
simplified analysis based on unsteady heat transfer is presented. Thus,
the particles fed to a blast furnace actually encounter two main heating
processes: firstly, heat conduction through the bed on a large bell and,
secondly, convective heat transfer at the top of the bed during the
charging interval. These processes are thought to be nonuniform in
both the radial and circumferential directions. To simplify, however, the
simulation has been reduced to a one-dimensional heat conduction
problem through the bed for the former process, and a one-dimensional
convective heat transfer problem in a packed bed for the latter
process.
The temperature change of solid particles on a large bell within the

specified residence time may be represented by:
(3.2.101)
where the thermal diffusivity r = ke/PbCsO and to is the time interval for
the charging operation. Thus, the mean temperature Tsmo for the solid
particles which fall from a large bell to the top of the bed at successive
time intervals to can be expressed by:
(3.2.102)
where
r [5erf(0·112710/2~) + 8erf(0· 510/2M)
+ 5erf(0·887310/2M)]l18
= V,/A B
10
AB = lTl [(D~ - lcot ab)cosec ab + (D~ + lcot {Jb)cosec {Jbl
I is determined as a real root of the following equation which must
satisfy the condition 0 < 1 <: D~ tan ab/2:
lTz2(cotab + cot{Jb)[D~/2 -l(cotab - cot{Jb)/31 - Vs = 0 (3.2.103)
Mter falling, the solid particle is heated up at the top level of the bed
during the charging interval. This temperature rise can be expressed as
follows:
(3.2.104)
where
er' = 6hgsldpppcso
From eqn (3.2.104), the average temperature of solid particles at the top
of the bed during the time intervals between charging operations is:
(3.2.105)
where
A = [5exp( -0·1l27toer') + 8exp( -0·5toer') + 5exp( -0·8873toer')]l18
By combining eqns (3.2.102) and (3.2.105), the expression of solid
temperature at the top of the bed is obtained:
(3.2.106)
The temperatures of gas and solid at the top of the bed are thereby
obtained by solving eqns (3.2.96) and (3.2.106) simultaneously for a
fixed operating condition.
3.2.4. Flow Rate and Composition of Gas at Tuyere Level

By considering the complete progress of the following four reactions
which may take place in the combustion zone in front of the tuyeres, the
flow rates of N 2, CO and H2 at tuyere level are expressed as eqns
(3.2.111 )-(3.2.113):
= 2H 20(Tst )
2H 2(oil, T l ) + 02(Tb ) (3.2.107)
2C(oil, T l ) + 02(Tb ) = 2CO(Tt) (3.2.108)
2C(coke, Tc) + 02(Tb ) = 2CO(Tt) (3.2.109)
H 20(Tst ) + C(coke, Tc) = H 2(Tt) + CO(Tt) (3.2.110)
FN2 = (60)(0'790)Fb = 47-4Fb (3.2.111)
FeD = (60)(0-420 + 2x~ + 1·244 X 1O- 3 wst )Fb (3.2.112)
FH2 = (60)(1·244wst + 11·2,BHYd X 10- 3Fb (3.2.113)
The flow rates of H 20 CO2 and O 2 are equal to zero because of the
completion of the above reactions, and we thus have the following
expression as the total flow rate of gas at tuyere level:
Fl FN2 + FeD + FH2
(60)[1·210 + 2xo2 + (11·2,BHYl + 2-488wst ) X 1O- 3]Fb (3.2.114)
The molar fractions of N 2, CO and H2 are represented as follows:
YN2,l = FN/F], YH2.l = FH/F b YeO,l = FeolFl (3.2.115)
3.2.5. Theoretical Flame Temperature

In the combustion zone in front of the tuyeres, the four reactions given
by eqns (3.2.107)-(3.2.110) proceed as mentioned previously. The
temperatures of each reactant and product are specified in the reaction
equation. The parameters a, b, c and d are introduced to designate the
molar amount of O 2 consumed by the reactions of eqns (3.2.107)-
(3.2.109) and the molar amount of water vapor consumed by eqn
(3.2.110) per mole ofN2:
a = (5'6 X 1O- 3,BHY lFb)/(0'79)Fb = 7,089 X 1O-3,BHYl (3.2.116)
b (0'9333 X 1O-3,BcYlFb)/(0'79)Fb = 1·181 X 1O- 3,BcYl (3.2.117)
c = (1·266)[0·21 + X0 2 - (5·6{3H + 0·9333{3d X 1O- 3yd (3.2.118)

d (3.2.119)
The standard enthalpy changes for the reactions given by eqns
(3.2.107)-(3.2.110) and the enthalpy change from the temperature
change of N2 given by N 2(Tb ) - N 2 (TT), which are designated by
(-dH;) (i = 1 to 5, in the order of equation), are expressed as below with
the aid of Fig. 3.2.3:
dHf = b]h - db 2 = a2g2 + g2h - a 2 b] - db 2
/
~<o6~ ~
h~
oE
9 --.....--
g, 92 9" g4 go,
f V
e ~ e,
d i<e ~d,
-
d,
b
c ~ C?- CJ
0
~ ib,-b, - b 3r - - b4
0, 02 03 °4 O:J
Te t[ T~l Tb t, Tt
Temperoture T ['K]
Fig. 3.2.3. Enthalpy change accompanied by chemical reaction. 2o

(3.2.124)
By postulating an adiabatic system for the combustion zone, the

following equation can be written:
a(~H0 + b(~H~) + c(~Hf) + d(~H':) + ~H~ = 0 (3.2.125)
Substituting eqns (3.2.116)-(3.2.119) and eqns (3.2.120)-(3.2.124) into
eqn (3.2.125) and replacing the standard enthalpy changes in eqns
(3.2.120)-(3.2.123) by (~H~98)1 = -115596 (cal/mol(Oz)), (~H~98)Z =
(~~8)3 = - 52832 (cal/mol (Oz)), and (~~8)4 = 31 382 (cal/mol (HzO)),
one can obtain the following equation for the calculation of the
theoretical flame temperature:
(3.2.126)
Integration of the equation gives the following expression for the

theoretical flame temperature:
Tt = [JB 2 + A(e - D) - BlIA (3.2.127)
where
A = [0·50 + 1'20(b + c) + 1·005d] X 10- 3
B = 3·25 + 6·60(b + c) + 6·61d
C = (2c + d)(2·93Te + 1·0 X 1O-3T~)

D = E-F+G-H+J
E = -115 596a - 52 832(b + c) + 31 382d
F = (6·50 + 8·27Fa )Tb + (0·50 + 0·129Fa ) X 1O- 3Tt
+ 1·877 X 105Fa/Tb
Fa = a +b+c
G = (2a - d)(7·16Tst + 1·29 X 1O- 3T st )
H = (13-24a + 5·86b)T, + (0·81a + 2b) X 1O- 3Ti + 2·2 X 105 b/T,
J = 298J, + 88·804J2 + 3·3557J3
J, = 7·19a + 0·93b - 2·00c - 3·13d
J2 = -1·641a + 0·929b - 0·071c + 1·285d
J3 = 187·7a + 407·7b - 297·7c + 110d
The equation for coke temperature, Te, in the expression for C above
is formulated in the following section and data for the specific heat
required for the integration of eqn (3.2.126) are listed in Table 3.2.2.85
TABLE 3.2.2
Specific Heat of Materia1s 85 cp = a + bT - cT- 2 + dT2 (cal/mol· 0c)
Material a b X J03 CX JO- 5 dx J05 Temperature (K)
N2 6·65 1·00 300-3 000

CO 6·60 1·20 273-2500
H2 6·62 0·81 273-2500
CO2 10·50 2·40 2·00 273-1873
H 2O 8·22 0·15 0·134 300-2500
C 2·93 2·00 1·10 273-1873
Fe203 24·72 16·04 4·23 273-1097
Fe(l) 8·15 1803-1873
Si0 2 lO·87 8·712 2·412 273-848
Si02 17·09 0·454 8·972 523-1973
CaO lO·OO 4·84 1·08 273-1 173
Al20 3 22·08 8·971 5·225 273-1973
MgO lO·86 1-197 2·087 273-2073
3.2.6. Temperature of Gas and Coke at Tuyere Level

In order to obtain the average temperature of gas at tuyere level, heat
and material balances are taken for the annular control volume at
tuyere level shown in Fig. 3.2.4. From this balance we obtain the
following two equations:
dTgldr = 6(1 - Gl)hgs1(Tg - Tc)/<PcCglGgrdcl (3.2.128)
dGgJdr = Ggz/Lt - GgJr (3.2.129)
Tuyere
1
-+--+-J
Level
TgC-.d-C
>----------D>--------1.1
Fig. 3.2.4. Control volume at tuyere leve1. 20
where Ggr and Ggz designate radial and axial mass velocities of gas. For
simplicity, Ggz/G gr is assumed to be proportional to LJr and a is
introduced as an arbitrary constant:
(3.2.130)
Solving the eqns (3.2.128)-(3.2.130) with the assumption that T = TT
and Vgr = F 1/2lTL tR c are satisfied at r = Reo the following relationships
can be obtained:
Tg = Tc + f3 exp(8r 1- a ) (3.2.131 )
Vgr = Flra/nOOlTLtR~+a (3.2.132)
Vgz = (1 + a)F 1ra-1/nOOlTR c1+a (3.2.133)
where
f3 (TT - TJexp( -8~-a)
8 1]/(l-a)
1] 1·2lTL(l - Gl)hgslR~+a /<PccgldclPglFl
Assuming that the gas temperature is expressed by eqn (3.2.131) for
r = 0 to Rc and is given by TT for r = Rc to Dh/2, we can obtain the
average temperature of gas over the whole cross-sectional area as

follows:
(3.2.134)
where
'l' (l - cf»(2RjDh)2
cf> 4[R~ - 3R;/¢ + 6RJq/ - 6(1 - exp(-<jJRr»1<jJ3]1<jJR;
<jJ 247TL(l - £1)hgSIR~/<jJcCgldclFIPgl
Rr VR:
In the derivation of eqn (3.2.134), a is assumed to be 1/2 since this value
has been found to give reasonable values of U z in the range 7-10 (m/s)
after many trials.
An overall heat balance between the top and tuyere levels in a blast
furnace, using the assumption that coke is at the same temperature as
molten materials at tuyere level, gives:
AoGsocsoTso = + cgOpgOFoTgO
A I GsI CsI Tc
- CgIPgIFITgml + Qw - Qs + I:.mi(Lr)i - I:.Msj (-IlHO)j
(3.2.135)
where
PgO = 1·2507 + O·726IYeo2.o - 1·l608YH2o.o - 0-447lYH2o.0
Fo = 47-4Fb /(l - Yeo. 0 - Ye02.0 - YH20.0 - YH2.0)
The procedures to calculate the values of I:.mi(Lr)i, I:.Mi( - IlHO)j' Qs
and Qw have already been given in Section 3.2.3. In order to eliminate
TgO, Tso , Tgml and F" eqns (3.2.96), (3.2.106), (3.2.114) and (3.2.134) are
therefore substituted into eqn (3.2.135), resulting in the following
expression for the coke temperature at tuyere level:
(3.2.136)
where
PI = n i - n4 X 10-\
nl = A(ml - 'l'N)I(l - 'l')N, n2 = B + A(M - moTso)/(l - 'l')N,
n4 = A(2c + d),
The parametersA, B, C, D, c and d in the above equations are the same as

those given in Section 3.2.5.
3.2.7. One-dimensional Mathematical Formulation for Internal State

of Blast Furnace
In order to formulate a model for one-dimensional counter-current flow
of gas and solid in a blast furnace, the following assumptions are
made:
(l) Steady-state operation
(2) The heats of reaction are released to the solid particles
(3) Axial dispersion of gas and solid is neglected
(4) Radial distribution of process variables is not considered
(5) Voidage is unchanged
(6) The volume flow rate of solid particles is unchanged
(7) The temperature of molten material is equal to that of the solid
phase
Within the framework of these assumptions, a mathematical model
describing the internal state of a blast furnace is derived by taking heat,
material and force balances for gas and solid particles around the
differential height of the bed at an arbitrary position from the top level
of the bed as illustrated in Fig. 3.2.5. The model consists often first-order
ordinary differential equations and three algebraic equations expressed
as follows:
dTg/dz [Az(qj + 22-4c gT gq2 + q3) + lTDzU(Tg - Twe)]
(3.2.137)
where
L (l - aj)(~HDRj·
8
qj
j =j
q2 (l·2507~+ O·726I-r)R; + O·5246R; + 1·9768R: + O·7143R~
+ O·5364R~ + 2·5014R;
q3 = 6(1 - t:)hg.(Tg - Ts)/<Pdp
(3.2.138)
P'F,O, Fo,
egO, G gO , TgO
Stock Line
Cso,Gso, tm
Tsz,G sz G!{ll Tgz
L,
dZ
L,b
H
Tgz+dz
GszI·dz Ggz+dz
Db
Pgj, FJ
Tuyere Level
Fig. 3.2.5. Schematic representation of blast furnace for the derivation of

mathematical model. 18
where
L a;(-~Ht)Rj'
8
q4 =
qs (16 + 12~)R~ + + 44R; + 16R; + 12R; + 56R;

12R;
dls/dz = Az(R~ + R;)/3FsC hO (3.2.139)
dj;/dz = AzR;/FsClO (3.2.140)
d!c/dz = Az(~R; + R; + R~ + 2R;)/FsC eo (3.2.141)
dYco/ dz = 22-4Azl(~ + ~Yeo)R~ + (yeo - 2)R; + YeaR:
+ (yeo - 1)R~ + R; + (yeo - 2)R;)/Fg (3.2.142)
dYco/dz = 22-4A z [(?YcOz - r)R~ + (Y C02 + I)R; + (Y C02 - I)R;

+ YCOzR~ - R; + 2YC02R;]IFg (3.2.143)
dYH/dz 22·4A z [yHlR~ + YH2R; + YH2R~ + R~ + (YH2 - I)R~
- R; + 2YH2R;]IFg (3.2.144)
dpb/dz -A z [(l6 + 12?)R~ + 12R; + 44R; + 16R; + 12R~ + 56R;]IFs
(3.2.145)
(3.2.146)
where
fk = 1·75 + 150(1 - 8)/Rep
Rep = d pGg/f.1g
f.1g = 4·960 X 1O-3T~!2/(Tg + 103)
Pg = 1·2507 + 0'7261ycOz - 1· 1614YH2 - 0'4471YH2o (3.2.147)
Fg 47-4Fb/(1 - Yco - YC02 - YH2 - YH20) (3.2.148)
YH20 = FO(YH2,O + YH20,o)/Fg - YH2 (3.2.149)
Do for o < z < Lso

Do + 2z/tan WI for Lso < z < Ls
Dz
Db for Ls < z < Lsb
Db + 2(Lsb - z)/tan(JT - ( 2) for Lsb < z < H
1, { = 1, ? = 0, and r = for o <: Ts <: 1673°K
3, { = -1, ? = 1, and r = 0 for o <: Ts > 1673°K
The heat transfer coefficient between gas and particle streams, hg5' the
mean diameter of particle, dp , and the overall heat transfer coefficient
through the wall are all important parameters in the above differential
equation system, These parameters are determined by using the
following relationships.
The heat transfer coefficient, h g" is estimated by Ranz's equation: 86
Nu = 2,0 + 0·6(Rep y!2(Pry/3 (3.2.150)
where
Nu = hgsdp/kg, Rep = d p Gg/f.1g, Pr = cgf.1g/kg
The mean diameter of solid particles, dp , is evaluated from the
harmonic mean diameter:
(3.2.151 )
The overall heat transfer coefficient through the wall can be obtained
as follows:
u (3.2.152)
where
TTDb(Ljsin WI + Lb/sin W 2 + La)
- TT[L;/(sin WI • tan WI) + LV(sin W2 . tan (2)] (3.2.153)
Since blast furnace gas is considered to be a gas mixture of CO, COb
H 2, H 20 and N 2, the average heat content may be expressed as follows,
by component addition:
cg = LI(Cp)iY;!LIMYi (3.2.154)
The average heat content of the solid stream is also defined in the
same way:
(3.2.155)
where the specific heat for each component has been given in previous
literature. 20, 81
The longitudinal distribution of process variables can thus be
estimated from the above kinetic model together with boundary
conditions which have been determined previously in Sections 3.2.2 to
3.2.6.
To illustrate the procedure for estimating the situation in a blast
furnace, a schematic profile of the furnace is shown in Fig. 3.2.6. It is
assumed that the rate of dust elutriation from the furnace throat and its
composition (4) remain unchanged, and that the ratios of steam injection
and of oxygen enrichment per unit volume-flow rate of blast are held
constant.
Suitable values for the temperatures of hot metal and of slag (5) and
for the concentrations of C, Mn and Si in hot metal (6) are selected on
the basis of the results of practical operations. The operating variables
Vl
o
-
Volume rate of flow and temperature of blast, oil ratio, 1:1:1
CD
steam ratio and enrichment of oxygen in blost
Pressure of top gas

~...,
w
I W Composition and diameter of charge materials ~
£:\ Discharge rote of dust and its composilion
I & Temperature of pig iron and slag
&, Composition of pig iron

~
m
l,b "I:l
(]) Mass rate of flows of pig iron and slag
::I:
® Mass rate of flow of charge materiols
H ~
(]) Volume role of flow and composition of lop gas o
@ Temperature of gas at top level of the burden bed s::
@ Temperature of solid particles at top level of the burden bed
1t @ Volume rate of flow of gas and its composition ot tuyere level
~
Temperature of gas and coke or molten materials at tuyere level ~
© o
@ longitudinal distribution of process variables
D Operating condition. o Calculated value 8o

L::, : Assumed value m
~
o
Fig. 3.2.6. Schematic profile of blast furnace to illustrate the computation procedure. 19
contained in the model are top pressure (2), blast volume, temperature
of blast, oil ratio, steam ratio, oxygen enrichment (1), compositions of
solid particles fed into the furnace, and the diameter and fractional
pre reduction of iron ore (3). Boundary conditions at the top level of
burden bed (8, 11) and those at tuyere level (12, 13) can be determined as
shown in the previous section, and the values of mass-flow rates of iron
ore, coke and limestone in the charge materials (8) (We, We> Wj) are
given arbitrarily.
Under the boundary conditions at the top level of burden bed (2, 3, 8,
9, 10, 11), ten ordinary differential equations, (3.2.137)-(3.2.146), and
three algebraic equations, (3.2.147)-(3.2.149), are solved simultaneously
on a digital computer. The Runge-Kutta-Gill method is employed in
obtaining the numerical solutions for the model. In this way, the
longitudinal distribution in process variables (14) can be determined.
If the values of Tg , T" Fg , Yeo and YH2 at tuyere level thus obtained in
(14) agree with those obtained in (12) and (13) within the limit of
allowable errors, and the conditions offs = 1,j; = 1, andYeo2 = YH20 = 0
are satisfied, then the given values of WQ) We and WI in (8) and the
longitudinal distributions of process variables obtained as (14) can be
considered to be valid. But, if satisfactory agreement between them is
not obtained, then the preceding values of We, We and Wj are modified
and the same computation is carried out repeatedly until good
agreement is found.
3.2.8. Effect of Various Operating Conditions on Productivity and

Situation in Blast Furnace
In order to promote the production rate of pig iron and to decrease the
carbon ratio, various operating techniques such as elevating the top
pressure, charging small diameter of iron ore, using high-temperature
blast, and enriching the oxygen in the blast have been applied. In
addition, prereduction of the iron ore as charge materials has attracted
attention for high productivity.
In order to illustrate some model predictions for these cases,
computed results on the production rate of pig iron, the carbon ratio,
and the internal situation in a blast furnace under a wide range of
operating conditions are presented.
3.2.8.1. High-pressure operation

Calculated results for the longitudinal distributions of process variables
for the case of high-pressure operation are shown in Fig. 3.2.7. In this
...-
VI
N
1.14 P Ikg/Nm:ll 1.?? 1.26 130 134

0[, ~ 1/\ V 1 I
I:C
Po kg/m 2
2.033)( 10' §
---- 5033x1O'
.§
trl
i
"tI
:I:
400 SOO 1200 1600 2000

!
1000
Til' Ts l O K I !
, ! 1100 ! ,
!
l~OO! Pb Ikg/m3lbedll 1300
!
1400
,
~
~
t:l
0.2 f" f, I 0j4 0.6 O.S I 0 I V, 1m secl
~
t:l
I ! P/l04(kg'm~) I
trl
oI 02 yco, Yco, [_I 0.3 04
2~3 21,4 2.15 2'.6 2 '7 ~
FI( / 10 5lNm 3 /minJ o
Fig. 3.2.7. Longitudinal distribution of process variables in blast furnace (A) for the case of high-pressure operation
(do = 19·35 mm, F b = 2942·2 N m 3/m in, T
b = 1366° v w = 23·2 g/Nm3,x0 2
"'''''st = 0)· 19
figure, top pressure is the only parameter changed and predictions for
the two pressures under consideration are shown as either solid or
dashed lines.
From Fig. 3.2.7 it is clear that the variations in the distributions of
temperatures for gas and solids are not large, although the distributions
shown by the dashed lines in the shaft and belly are lower than those
shown by solid lines. That is, an increase in the feed rate of solid
particles caused by an elevation in gas pressure in the furnace brings
about a decrease in the temperatures of the gas and the solid
particles.
As the top pressure becomes higher, the molar fraction ofC02 ,Yeo2,
increases and that of CO,Yeo, decreases. It is especially noteworthy that
in the case of the dashed line, i.e. high top pressure Y C02 shows a larger
value than that of Yeo at the furnace top.
The fractional reduction of iron ore in the case of higher pressure is
lower than in that of lower pressure, but the former proceeds more
rapidly as the solids approach tuyere level. Furthermore, the elevation
of top pressure leads to lower linear velocity of gas and to less pressure
drop.
Variations in the production rate of pig iron, Wp , and the carbon
ratio, Cn accompanying the change in top pressure are illustrated in
Fig. 3.2.8. This figure shows that the increase in Wp and the decrease in
Cr caused by the elevation of top pressure are comparatively large in the
range of top pressure below about 4 atm within the range 3000-
3500 Nm3/min in blast volume.
Generally, the driving force for indirect reduction of iron ore
increases with increase in top pressure, and this increase in reduction
rate of ore leads to better productivity. However, if the top pressure
exceeds about 4 atm, then the value of CO/C02 comes to thermodynamic
equilibrium with the reduction of iron oxide, so that improvements in
productivity cannot be expected from elevating the top pressure more
than about 4 atm.
3.2.8.2. Diameter of iron are

Decreasing the diameter of iron ore fed to the furnace shortens the time
for complete reduction and hence an increase in Wp and a decrease in Cr
may be expected. But a very small diameter of iron ore exerts a bad
influence on the pressure drop through the burden bed. Neglecting this
effect on pressure drop, and only considering the reduction rate
influence, the changes in Wp and Cr caused by the change in diameter of
200
,
\
470
-- ---
\ Wp
190
I
\
\
\ /
,- ""
--
,..
460
180
\ ,/
Fb Nm 3/min
450 ~
~ .z
-'= \ 2942.2 Q
~ \
0. 170 \ 3500 440 =
Ol
S \
\
U
160
"" 430
150 420
140 410
1 2 3 4 5 6
Po X 10- 4 Ikg/m')
Fig. 3.2.8. Effect of the top gas pressure, Po, on the production rate of pig iron,
Wand carbon ratio, e p in blast furnace (A) (do = 19·35 mm, Tb = 1366°K,
P'
W st = 23·2 g/Nm ,x~ = .
3 0) 19
iron ore have been estimated under steady-state operations. These

results are shown in Fig. 3.2.9, where a considerable increase in Wp and a
remarkable decrease in Cr caused by the decrease in iron ore diameter
can be found. The diameter of iron ore which is used commonly in the
practical operation of a blast furnace is about 20 mm on average, but if
the diameter were to be decreased down to about 15 mm, then better
productivity could be expected.
3.2.8.3. Volume-jlow rate of blast

It is well known from the results of practical operations that Wp is
increased with increasing blast volume. However, blast volume cannot
be increased indefinitely, because very high blast volumes sometimes
cause unfavorable conditions in the furnace, such as extreme increase
in pressure drop, by-passing of the furnace gas and flooding. Neglecting
the effect of blast volume on these phenomena, the variations in Wp and
Cr caused by increasing the blast volume have been evaluated and the
calculated results are shown in Fig. 3.2.10.
From Fig. 3.2.10, it is clear that both Wp and Cr increase as a linear
function of volume-flow rate of blast. Since the heat input is intensified
and the reducing capacity of gas is increased by increasing the blast

volume, Wp increases. However, the utilization of CO maybe decreased
by a decrease in the residence time of gas in the furnace under these
conditions, and consequently the carbon ratio, Co also increases.
Comparing the calculated results shown by the solid lines with those
indicated by the lines in Fig. 3.2.10, the rate of increase in Wp is slightly
larger in the case of higher pressure operation than that of lower
pressure operation, but, conversely, the rate of increase in Cr for high
pressures is somewhat lower. From these results it is clear that elevation
of the top pressure is favorable when blast volume is increased.
200 480
- - Po = 2033 xl 0' kg/m'
--- Po=4.033x 10'
180 460
OJ
~ E-
?
160 440 g
~
U
/
,/
140 420
-- --
/"
/"
...- /"
120 400
10 15 20 25 30
do Imml
Fig. 3.2.9. Effect of the diameter of iron ore, do, on the values of Wp and Cr in
blast furnace (A) (Fb = 2942·2 Nm 3/min.j Tb = 1366°K, wst = 23·2 glNm 3,
x0 2 = 0).1
300 500
-'=
? 200
?;~
100 ~-----L------L-----~----~400
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Fb IN m3/ minl
Fig. 3.2.10. Effect of the blast volume, F b , on the values of Wp and C r in blast
furnace (A) (do = 19·35 mm, Tb = 1366°K, wst = 23·2 g/Nm 3, x0 2 = 0).19
3.2.8.4. Temperature of blast

For operation with high blast temperatures, an increase in Wp and a
decrease in Cr are also expected, since intensification of capacity for
melting the iron ore and an increase in the rate of indirect reduction of
the ore are caused by an increase in blast temperature. Figure 3.2.11
gives a computed result for the condition where blast temperature is
elevated but the other operating variables remain unchanged. As is
shown in the figure, the rate of increase of Wp is significant and Cr
decreases markedly for blast temperatures below about l430 0 K
However, for temperatures over 1430°K, the rate of increase in Wp
becomes small and the decrease in Cr remains slight. These results may
be explained qualitatively as follows. In these calculations, the blast
temperature is elevated, but the molar flow rates of CO and H2 supplied
to the furnace (the reducing capacity of the gas) do not change. In
addition to this, the utilization of CO increases with temperature rise in
the range under 1430 0 K but in the range above l430 0 K the value of
CO/C02 approaches thermodynamic equilibrium in coexistence with
iron and iron oxide.
It was reported by Flierman et al. 16 that decrease in coke ratio caused
by a blast temperature increase of lOO°C was 26 kg(coke)/t(pig) at
800°C, while Agarwal et al. 8? reported values of 26 kg/t between blast
temperatures of 540°C and 760°C and 20 kg/t between 760°C and
980°C. Yamada et al. 88 used a corrected value of 18 kg/t for estimating a
coke ratio within the blast temperature range 700-1040°C. For the case
where blast temperature is changed from 1366°K to l466°K, a
calculated value of 26·1 kg/t is obtained as the decrease in Cn and the
increase in Wp from Fig. 3.2.11 is evaluated as 8·48%.
160
(J)
155 C, 450 E-
.<: ~,
g
£
:;
; 150 425
0
145 400
1366 1416 1466
Tb lOKI
Fig. 3.2.11. Effect of the blast temperature, T b , on the values of Jfj, and C r in
blastfumace(A)(Po = 1·433 X l(f kg/m2,do = 19·35 mm,Fb = 2942·2 Nm3/min,
w st = 23·2 g/Nm 3, XC>:! = 0).19
3.2.8.5. Oxygen enrichment

In oxygen enrichment operations, the amount of coke which bums in
front of the tuyere increases on account of the increase in the
concentration of oxygen in the blast. Thus the generation of heat and of
CO gas may be promoted according to the following reaction:
2C + O2 = 2CO
dB -52·85 kcal/mol(02) (3.2.156)
Therefore an increase in production rate of pig iron may be expected,

but it may also be considered that the carbon ratio value is affected by
the fractional utilization of CO generated by the combustion of coke.
The situation in a blast furnace estimated for 7% oxygen enrichment of
the blast is shown by the solid lines in Fig. 3.2.12. In this figure, the
longitudinal distribution of process variables for no oxygen enrichment
is also illustrated using dashed lines.
Comparing these results, the concentration of CO in the case of
oxygen enrichment is much higher than that in the case of non-
enrichment at any level in the furnace. Consequently, at the top of
burden bed, the fractional utilization of CO for oxygen enrichment
becomes much lower than that for no enrichment. Although the
distribution of temperatures expressed by solid lines is comparatively
lower than that for dashed lines, the reduction of iron ore in the former
proceeds at a greater rate owing to the high concentration of CO gas.
However, the fractional decomposition of limestone expressed by the
solid line holds a lower position than that by the dashed line due to the
lower temperature. The fractional reduction of iron ore expressed by the
solid line is slightly lower. This may be caused by the overall effects of
an increase in the charging rate of iron ore, a change in the value of
CO/C02 due to enriching oxygen and a decrease in temperature. As a
consequence, heat is utilized sufficiently but the fractional utilization of
CO in the top gas becomes worse during oxygen enrichment.
Calculated values of Wp and Cr are shown againstxo)n Fig. 3.2.13. As
can be seen, Wp increases markedly with increase inxo2' and Crchanges
only slightly in the range of oxygen enrichments below about 5% but
increases considerably in the range over 5%. The rate of increase in Wp
has been observed in practical operations, and 5·4% and 5·6% per 1% of
oxygen enrichment were reported by Hasegawa et al. 89 and Kitagawa et
al. 90 respectively. The result calculated here indicates 5·45%, which is
clearly in good agreement with the observed data.
V1
00
1,14 P [kg Nm 3 ].18 1 ?? 1 26 1.30 1.34
-
01 i ..................... -___ III ....... Ii III
X 0,
\
\ 007
\
\
I:tI
\
\
\ ~
>-3
] vI \\ \ f, ~
I, "
121- --\-_':;-!{ . . . . .
..... ~
"
~
t'rl
"tI
16 ::r:
B F IAI ~
20
o
~
IUUU ,
500 Tg L, [OKI
~
90U 10uU 1100 fJ b [kg m 3 (bed)) 1200 1300 ~
tJ
05 I" I, I " 1.0 P /10 4 [kg m 2 )
U,U4 U,05 Y r-, I I 0,06 V'1. 1m 'secl

6tJ
I ! I
t'rl
o1 0.2 Y (', I , 0.3 0.4
o1 02 03 Y CO I I 04 05 ~
2Y 3U 3.1 32 3.3
P
F~ / 10 51Nm 3 hrl
Fig. 3.2.12. Longitudinal distributions of process variables in blast furnace (A) for the case of oxygen-enriched operation
(Po = 1'433 X 104 kg/m2, do = 19·35 mm, Fb = 2942'2 Nm3/min, Tb = 1366°K, W st = 23'2 glNm3, x0 2 = 0'07).19
200r-------------,
190
, 500
C, ",,,,,,, " "" ~

E-
'" '-
Q
--'"
","
g
;'
U
450
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
xOz 1%1
Fig. 3.2.13. Variations of the values of Wp and C r caused by the change in the
ratio of oxygen enrichment, xo)~ in blast furnace (A) (Po = 1·433 X 104 kgfm 2,
do = 19·35 mm, Fb = 2942·2 Nm3/min, Tb = 1366°K, Wst = 23·2 g/Nm3).19
3.2.8.6. Pre-reduction of iron ore

Pre-reduction of iron ore may be expected to significantly improve the
operating results of a blast furnace. This was mathematically modeled
by assuming that pre-reduced iron ore fed into the furnace consists only
of hematite and metallic iron, and that the fractional pre-reduction can
be determined according to the mass ratio of metallic iron to the
charged iron ore. The quantity of iron ore which must be reduced in the
furnace decreases with an increase in fractional pre-reduction, and the
CO2 gas generated by the indirect reduction of iron ore also decreases.
Thus the progress of the solution-loss reaction may be suppressed by a
decrease in the rate of CO2 generation and, thereby, the heat of reaction
which would be consumed by this reaction may be also reduced. The
heat thus saved is utilized in melting the iron ore or in elevating the
temperature of solid coke. Consequently it may be considered that the
descent rate of solid particles in the furnace increases, and as a result,
Wp may increase and C r may decrease.
The situations in the furnace for the cases where the fractional pre-
reduction!.o equals 0·9 and zero are illustrated in Fig. 3.2.14 by solid and
dashed lines respectively. Comparing the results calculated under the
two conditions for!.o, great differences exist in the distribution ofTg, T"
!.,Jc, Yeo, and YC02·
g;
-
-':::.~-:::.':::., Tg I
5 ......
' I Ij;1
f
~
en
'\ ;:
I f
...,
/ II
/ 2
] /
N
~
tTl
'1:l
:r:
tTl
BJ.[A[ Z
o
~
~
Tg, T,I"K[ 400 [600 800 1O~0 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
>
Yeo, Yeo,[' 0.1 0.2 0.3 04 ~
I ! ! ! tl
02 f" f,'. f, [. [0.6 0.8 1.0 P T 10 '[kg, m 2[ ~
I I I ! ,
2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 fg /10 5[Nm3/hcl 2.7

o
tl
~--------------~------------~~! ! tTl
0.1 02 05 1.0 t"'"
fe [ [ HTR [ [
c:
Z
Fig. 3.2.14. Longitudinal distributions of process variables in blast furnace (A) for the case of pre-reduction of iron ore o
(standard operating conditions: Po = 2'033 X \0 4 kg/m 2, do = 19'35 mm,Fb = 2942,2 Nm 3/min, Tb = 1366°K, Wst = 23-2 g/
N m 3 ,Xo2 = 0) ,19
Meysson et al. 91 indicated qualitatively that the temperature in the

case of high fractional pre-reduction of iron ore decreases in the shaft,
but increases in the belly and bosh. The distributions of Tg and Ts in
Fig. 3.2.14 are in good agreement with these trends but, unfortunately,
relationships between the other process variables andiso have not been
reported.
Rates of increase in Wp and of decrease in Cr are shown againstiso in
Fig. 3.2.15. The dashed lines have been obtained on the basis of the
results estimated by Meysson et al. 91 From these results, it is found that
both ~p and t;c (the rates of increase in Wp and Cr respectively) in the
range of low fractional pre-reduction below O' 3 are represented as a
linear function, but they show only slight changes in the range of
fractional pre-reduction between O' 3 and O' 8 and they then increase
again in the range of high/50 above 0·8.
Calculated results obtained byYagi and Muchi l9. 20 are also shown in
Fig. 3.2.15 using solid lines. Comparing the curves estimated by the
authors with those by Meysson et al.,91 a different trend is found in the
r
.; p t:'
o • Woolf IS-1 Pelletl '"

tl. • Pecrt el 01 !I ..I
o t Fine el 01 III
o • Woolf IWabano orel '"

80 r-----------------------------4
Meysson et 01. Ql
o
Yogi end Mu::rll 14
60
.;: 40
20
0.2 04 06 0_8
Fig. 3.2.15. Rate of increase in the production of pig iron, ~p, and that in the
coke saving, (c, caused by the pre-reduction of iron ore (standard operating
conditions). 19
range ofIso above 0·3. Data observed by Woolf,92 Peart et al. 93 and Fine
et al. 94 in experimental or commercial blast furnaces are also plotted in
the figure. Comparing these observed data with the calculated curves
obtained by the experimental work, the theoretical result is slightly
larger than the experimental data in both';p and Sc. It seems that these
deviations are caused by the differences in operating conditions and in
the profiles of the blast furnace. However, the curves determined in the
work show similar variational trends with the data observed by other
investigators.
3.2.9. Some Applications of the Model

Mter development of the model, some attempts were made to analyze
further specific problems on the blast furnace.
In order to increase the productivity of a blast furnace, Wakabayashi
et al. 95 analyzed high top pressure and oxygen enrichment by
considering some limiting factors such as channeling and flooding. As a
result, 2% oxygen enrichment was found to be effective for blast furnace
operation from the economical point of view.
Regarding energy savings, Yatsuzuka et al. 96 investigated the
injection of reducing gas into a blast furnace shaft. In the analysis of this
CD Dead-man zone @) Direct reduction zone

(2) Indirect reduction zone (5::1 Tuyere zone
i3) Smelting zone ® Raceway zone
Fig. 3.2.16. Schematic representation of functions in blast fumace. 99

problem, the effect of flow rate and temperature of the injected gas and
the injection level were examined through the mathematical model,
thereby clarifying their effect on the production rate and fuel ratio. A
similar analysis was also carried out by Kobayashi et al. 97 on the
injection of reducing gas produced by nuclear energy into a blast
furnace.
An estimation on the lowest fuel ratio of the blast furnace was
attempted under specified operation conditions by Togino et al. 98 by
means of the mathematical model. 396· 5 kg( coke )/t(pig) was reported as
the lowest limit for the operation of the blast furnace under the specified
conditions.
A slight modification of the model was made by Miyasaka et al. 99
whereby an effective cross-sectional area for gas flow was introduced in
the lower part of the furnace. As shown in Fig. 3.2.16, this modification
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Yco' yco" f, f, f I I-I
0.020.04 1""Y",01-11.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 Pllotml
I I I i
2004006008001000120014001600180020002200 Tg , T, I'KI
'0 Tg
Q
o
r-
Blast vol 33041Nm 3 'mlnl

Production 3441 It/day!
Coke ratiO 534 Ikgtl
T g: Gas temperature (OK)
T5 : Solid and 'or liquid temperature lOKI
YI : Mol. fraction of gas i (-I
fs Fractional reduction of ores (-J
fc Fractional gasification of coke 1-)
f/ Fractional decomposition of limestone (--I
P Pressure lotm)
Fig. 3.2.17. Comparison between computed and obsetved distribution of

process variables.99
meant that the gas was assumed not to flow through the dead zone, and
that the molten materials formed in the melting zone, dropped only into
the dead zone. The computed distributions of pressure and temperature
under these conditions were reported to agree well with those measured
in an actual blast furnace as shown in Fig. 3.2.17. Abnormal increase in
blast pressure sometimes occurs in actual operations and this may
cause a serious decline in the state of the operation. As a result of
analyzing this abnormal situation, the increase in blast pressure was
found to be predicted by the mathematical model about 3 hours in
advance of the actual problem.
The dissection of commercial blast furnaces, of which recent
advancements are summarized in Chapter 1, has shown significant
nonuniformity of conditions in the radial direction. An attempt was
Wal l Cenler Wa ll
3 Iml
Belly
Bosh
Tuyere
Tuyere
H,rohala I BF
I~ Compuled cohesive zone. Cohesive zone o blained by d,sseclionl
Fig. 3.2.18. Estimated temperature profile in the blast furnace.'oo

made by Ono et al. 100 to analyze this nonuniformity. In the analysis, the
blast furnace was divided into 20 annular elements in the radial
direction. The one-dimensional mathematical model was applied to
each annular element and numerical computation was conducted
according to the boundary conditions specified at the top from
measurements taken during actual operation. This computation gave
the radial distributions of temperature and fractional reduction as in
Figs 3.2.18 and 3.2.19. It is possible to obtain the upper shape of the
cohesive zone based on the isotherms as shown in the figures, and the
very good agreement between the calculated and observed shapes ofthe
cohesive zone shown means that the mathematical model can predict
the approximate shape and position of the cohesive zone for stationary
operation of the blast furnace.
Cenler Wall
20
Kukloko 4Bf H'rohala 1BF
Fig. 3.2.19. Estimated profile of fractional reduction ( - - computed;

- - -, obtained by dissection). JO()
3.3. LAYERED STRUCTURE MODEL
In the steady-state operation of a blast furnace, layered ore and coke

burdens descend continuously and contact the counter-current flow of
gas in the region between the furnace top and the melting level. The
physical properties of the ore and coke layers and moreover the kind of
reactions taking place in these separate layers are substantially
different. It follows from this that at any level in the furnace the process
variables, such as temperatures of gas and solid particles, gas velocity
and composition of gas, would fluctuate periodically with the alternate
passage of the layers. This section is partly devoted to clarification of
this cyclic unsteady behavior.
Because the process variables in the blast furnace are distributed in
the radial direction, it is also important to reveal the relationship
between the operating conditions and the radial variation ofthe process
variables.
In the present section, two attempts will be made to describe the
nonuniform distributions of process variables caused by both the
layered structure of burdens and the nonuniform gas flow. The first
model 24 is based on the quasi-stationary gas flow distribution and time
dependent heat and mass transfer with chemical reactions for each
layer, while the second mode127.123 has been developed for two-
dimensional gas flow and heat transfer. Furthermore, some computed
results are given regarding the longitudinal and radial distributions of
the process variables in a blast furnace operating in Japan.
3.3.1. Radial Distribution of Flow Rate of Gas

Before constructing the first model, the following assumptions are
made.
(1) As shown in Fig. 3.3.1, the layered coke and ore burdens charged
to the top of the furnace descend with V-shaped contours whose
apparent angles of repose are a 1 and a2, respectively.
(2) When the two adjacent layers are considered as one block, the
i-th block is a cylindrically packed bed having an average diameter R i ,
and the resistance to flow at a given dimensionless radial position
(( = r/RJ is the same in any block.
(3) Ore and coke burdens are prepared through sufficient screening,
and consequently there exist no radial distributions of the particle size
d pj and the voidage Gj in each layer.
Taking account of the radial distribution of the longitudinally
Fig. 3.3.1. Schematic diagram of blast furnace with radially distributed

burdens.
averaged particle size dp and the voidage &", the Ergun equation
expressing the pressure drop of gas may be rewritten as follows:
aPiaz = (Pg/gc)[l - n01 . '1'(0 . u g (0 2/ [(j)(0 . d p (0 . &"(01 (3.3.1)
where the drag coefficient '1'(0 is defined by:
'1'(0 == 150[1 - n;)]lRep(0 + 1·75 (3.3.2)
Rep(0 == (j)(0· d p(0 . &"(0· ug(;)/v
Because the value of Rep is very large in a blast furnace, the radial
change in '1'(;) is slight even if there existed radial changes in d pj and Gj
in each layer. Consequently, it may be assumed as '1'(0 = const. == '1'.
Moreover, itis assumed that the shapefactor(j)(0 = ¢I = ¢2 == ¢ = 0·64.
Let each volume of ore and coke burdens in a block enclosed between
the radial position ; and (; + d;) be designated by VI; and V2;,
respectively. Then, n0 can be readily expressed as:
&(0 = (GI VI; + G2 V2;)/(VI; + V2;) = A + B; (3.3.3)
where the dimensionless factors, A and B, are related to the charging
conditions through the following expressions:
A 8 1VI + G2 V2 + (2/3)7TR~A(81 - 8 2)
B == -7TR~A(81 - 82)/(VI + V2), A == tan a2 - tan a I (3.3.4)
The mean particle size dp(~) should be determined so as to meet the

stipulation that the pressure drop of the gas through a certain block
having£(O anddp(O must be equated to the sum of that through each
layer in the block. This implies that ~J[2<Pdp& /3(1 - &)] is expressed as
the sum of ~/[2<Pjdpjc/3 (1 - Cj)] in each layer. Rearrangement of this
expression consequently gives:
(3.3.5)
where ~i' Ci and Di are represented by:
~i = ~l.i + ~2.i
~I.i == [VI + lTRjA(2/3 - O]/lTRr
~2.i == [V2 - lTRjA(2/3 - O]llTR~
C i == [V,/D pl + V2 /Dp2 - (2/3)lTRjf A]/lTRl
Di == fARi!Rr
f == l/DP2 - l/Dp,
Dpj == dpj ' c/(l - Cj) (j = 1,2) (3.3.6)
Substituting eqn (3.3.5) into eqn (3.3.1), we have:

ap/az = [Pg'l'/(gc<P~;)](Ci + Dl) . Ug(~)2 (3.3.7)
If the pressure gradient expressed by eqn (3.3.7) is approximately the

same at any radial position, there follows:
a(ap/az)a~ =0 (3.3.8)
On the other hand, the mass balance regarding gas gives:
= 2lTR~ fa ~. c(O . ug(O d~

I
Fg (3.3.9)
Combination of eqn (3.3.7) through eqn (3.3.9) yields the expression

for the radial velocity profile:
U --_.
Fg A +B~ (3.3.10)
N - 2lTR;Ei ICi + Di~
where Ei is a dimensionless factor defined as:
Ej 21JC + D j j [B(Cj + D j)2/5 + (DjA - 2BCj)

X (Cj + DJ/3 - Cj(DjA - BCJI - JC;[BCTl5
+ C(DjA - 2BCJ/3 - Cj(DjA - BCJIIIDf (3.3.11 )
Equation (3.3.11) gives the resultant radial distribution of the flow
rate of gas, when the changes in the apparent angles of repose, O/C and
coke base are caused by a different charging method.
3.3.2. Mathematical-kinetic Model of Blast Furnace

Because the apparent angles of repose of ore and coke differ from each
other, the vertical depth of each layer varies radially. Thus radial
distributions would be expected concerning not only the flow rate of gas
but also the longitudinally averaged properties such as O/C, specific
heat of solid particles, heat transfer coefficient between gas and solid,
and specific surface area.
Heat, mass, and momentum balances are considered here for the
region from; to (; + d;) where gas and solid particles are assumed to be
in piston flow. To describe mathematically the periodical changes of
process variables at any level, two adjacent layers of ore and coke are
assumed as one block which has the thickness ~j as shown in Fig. 3.3.2
S.L ~--t----\
B.F.ID III
Do Iml 7.50
D.11ml 11.20
Db Iml 10.30.
Z, Iml 17.30
Z, Iml 2.80
Z:l Iml 3.20
Z, Iml 0.61
Fig. 3.3.2. Profile of blast furnace (DII).

and moves down instantaneously after a lapse of residence time tr

(= ~JV,.i)' That is to say, a block of burdens descends periodically at
intervals of tr by distance ~i'
The chemical reactions to be considered here are the indirect
reduction of iron ore and the decomposition of limestone which take
place in an ore layer, and the Boudourd reaction in the coke layer. These
reactions may be described as follows:
(l/3)Pe20 3 + CO = (2/3)Pe + CO2 (3.3.12)
CaC0 3 = CaO + CO 2 (3.3.13)
CO2 + C = 2CO (3.3.14)
3.3.2.1. Unsteady-state heat transfer in ore and coke layers

By taking account of heat-in-mass transfer, the heat of reaction and the
heat exchanges between gas and solid particles, the heat balance
equation for the ore layer in the i-th block can be expressed as
follows:
d(c,2Pb2T,2)
dt = a2 hg,2(Tg2 - T,2) + Co.o(dfo/dt)[Mco(cp)co - MCOz(Cp)C02]
X T,2 - Cl,o(d./i/dt)Mco2(cp)co2T,2 + Co. o(dfo/dt)( -~Ho)

+ Cl,o(d./i/dt)(-~Hl) (3.3.15)
The change in the bulk density of the ore layer caused by the progress
of the reactions can be expressed by:
Pb2 = Pb2.0 - (16Co.ofo + 44Cl,o./i) (3.3.16)
Substituting eqn (3.3.16) into eqn (3.3.15), and assuming that the gas
temperature in the ore layer maybe kept at Tg2• i during the period t" the
resultant heat transfer equation can be obtained:
dT,/dt = K 2(Tg2.i - T,2) + Ho(-~Ho) + Hl(-~Hl) + IH o[28(cp)co
- 44(c p)cOz + 16c,2] + 44Hl [C,2 - (cp)coJ I . T,2 (3.3.17)
where K2 and Hk (k = 0, 1) are defined as follows:
K2 == a2hg,2,JPb2[c,2 + Tddc,2/ dT,2)]
Hk == Ck.o(dfk/dt)/pdc,2 + T,idc'2/dTd] (k = 0,1) (3.3.18)
In an analogous manner, the heat balance equation for the coke layer
and the bulk density of its layer can be represented by eqns (3.3.19) and
(3.3.21), respectively.
dTsddt = K,(Tgl.i - T s') + He(-AHe)
+ Hcl44(cp)co2 - 56(cp)co + l2csdTs' (3.3.19)
where K, and He are defined as follows:
K, == a,hgs1.Jpbdcs' + Ts,(dcs,/dTs' )]
He == Ce.o(dfcldt)/Pb, [cs! + Ts,(dcs,/dTs' )] (3.3.20)
Pb' = Pb'.O - l2Ce.ofe (3.3.21)
3.3.2.2. Overall heat balance in ore and coke layers

Integration of eqn (3.3.15) from 0 to tr with respect to t will give the
overall heat balance equation in its layer in the form of eqn (3.3.25)
described later. In carrying out the integration, the following relations
have been taken into account.
The overall heat balance on the gas side can be expressed as:
- (GgcgTg2)out] dt - 2;r(R i A 2• i«(U) fr (Tg2 - Tew) dt (3.3.22)
where the first and the second terms of the integrals in the left-hand side
of eqn (3.3.22) represent the heat amounts transferred by the heat
exchange between gas and solid particles and by the heat-in-mass
transfer, respectively. Each integral term on the right-hand side shows
the change in the heat content of the gas and the heat transferred in the
radial direction, respectively.
To estimate the value of (, an effective thermal conductivity102 has
been applied for analyzing the observed temperature distribution in a
cylindrical bed. 103 As a result, the following simple correlation has been
obtained:
(3.3.23)
For the sake of further simplification, the terms involved in each

integral in the right-hand side of eqn (3.3.22) and the heats of reaction
-Il..Hk (k = 0,1), are assumed to be kept constant throughout the period
of t" namely:
-Il..Hk = -Il..Hk.i (k = 0,1)
(G gcgTg2)in - (G gcgTg2)out
Tg2 = Tg2.i (3.3.24)
Equation (3.3.22) subject to eqn (3.3.24) ultimately yields the
expression for the temperature of gas entering into the ore layer of the
i-th block as follows:
Tg1. i L2.iTg2.i + hi(1l.. 2./ Il..J(Ts2.i - M2.iTs2.i-l - Il..To.i - Il..Tl.J
+ N 2• i(Tg2.i - Tcw) (3.3.25)
where
Y2.i == FsPb2.iCS2.J(FgI.iPgl.iCgl.i)
L 2.i - Fg2.iPg2.iCg2.J(FgI.iPgl.iCgl.J
M 2• i - Pb2.i-l CS2.i-d(Pb2.i Cs2.J
N 2.i - 21TSRiIl..2.lU/Fgl.iPgl.iCgl,i
Il..Tk . i Ck.o(fk.i - fk.i-d(-Il..Hk.J/(Pb2.iCS2.J (k = 0,2) (3.3.26)
In eqns (3.3.25) and (3.3.26), the variables T s2 ,fb Pb2 and Cs2, with suffix
i, are defined as those values at t = t r •
The temperature of gas entering the coke layer can be likewise written
as follows:
T g2.i+l = Ll.iTgl.i + Yl.i(Il..l.i/ll..i)(Tsl. i - MuTsl.i-l - Il..Tc.J
(3.3.27)
where
Yu - F sPbI.i CSl'/(Fg2.i+lPg2.i+l Cg2.i+l)
Ll.i - Fgl.iPgl.iCgI.J(Fg2.i+lPg2.i+lCg2.i+l)
Mu == Pbl.i-lCsl.i-l/(PbI.iCsU)
Nu - 21TSRill..I.i~U/Fg2.i+lPg2.i+lCg2.i+l
Il..Tc.i - Cc.O(fc.i - fc.i-l)(-Il..Hc.J/(PblfSI.J (3.3.28)
In eqns (3.3.27) and (3.3.28), the variables Ts1,je,Pbl and Csl' with suffix
i, are defined as those respective values at t = t f •
It is to be noted in eqns (3.3.25) and (3.3.27) that the gas temperature in
the layered burdens case is governed by three thermal flow ratios (y, L,
M) instead of y alone for a homogeneously mixed burden.
3.3.2.3. Overall mass balances in ore and coke layers

Taking the mass balance with respect to total gas during the period t"
the average flow rates of gas entering ore and coke layers of the i-th
block can be represented algebraically by, respectively:
FgJ.i = Fg2. i(l - ~ Yi. J (3.3.29)
(3.3.30)
where ~Yi.i and ~Ye.i' denoting the dimensionless volume changes of
carbon dioxide, are defined according to:
~Yk.i == 22-4Ck. o(fk.i - fk.i-l)(FJFg2.i)(~2j~J (k = 0,1)
~Yc.i == 22-4Ce.O(fe.i - fe.i-l)(FslFgI.J(~I./~J (3.3.31)
The compositions of CO gas entering into the ore and coke layers
can be obtained from the mass balances on CO, for each layer:
YCO.l.i = (YCO.2.i + ~Yo.J/(l - ~YI.J (3.3.32)
YCO.2.i+l = (Yco.J.i - 2~Ye.i)/(l- ~Ye.J (3.3.33)
Similarly, from CO 2 balances, we have:

YC02.1.i = (YC02.2.i - ~Yo.i - ~Yi.i)/(l - ~Yi.J (3.3.34)
YC02.2.i (YC02.I.i + ~Ye.i)/(l- ~Ye.J (3.3.35)

Also, from H 2 , H 20 and N2 balances, we have:
hJ.i = h 2.i(l - ~Yl.i) (h = YH2,YH20,YN2) (3.3.36)
h 2• i+ 1 = hI.i(l - ~Ye.J (h = YH2,YH20,YN) (3.3.37)
Summing up the products of density of each component of gas and its
composition represented by eqns (3.3.32)-(3.3.37), the average densities
of gas entering each layer can be expressed as follows:
PgI.i = (Pg2.i - 0·727~Yo.i - 1·977~Yl.J/(l - ~Yl.i) (3.3.38)
Pg2.i+l = (Pgl.i - 0·523~Ye.J/(1 - ~Ye.i) (3.3.39)
3.3.2.4. Pressure drop of gas flowing through ore and coke layers
The pressure drop of gas passing through each layer of burden with
thickness ~j. i, and ~Pj. i, can be evaluated on the basis of the Ergun
formula described by eqn (3.3.1). Then the gas pressure at the lowest end
of each layer is given as follows:
PI.i = P 2. i + M 2. i (3.3.40)
P2. i + 1 = Pl.i + Ml.i (3.3.41)
3.3.3. Numerical Analysis of Blast Furnace Operation
3.3.3.1. Calculation procedure

The longitudinal variations of the process variables along each radial
position of the blast furnace OIl have been numerically analyzed, based
on the mathematical model developed above and the initial conditions
given at the top of the bed. B.F.(OIl) had the dimensions shown in
Fig. 3.3.2 and was used under the operating conditions listed in Table
3.3.1. Numerical data for computation are given in Table 3.3.2. The
program flowchart is shown in Fig. 3.3.3. The computation was
terminated by considering the melting positions of the ore burden to be
equal to the locations of the 1400°C isotherm.
3.3.3.2. Determination of initial conditions

The initial conditions at the top of the bed are given by the radial
distributions of burden, the flow rate of gas, the gas temperature and the
gas compositions.
When the values are given for the volumes of each layer (fj), the
apparent angle of repose (aj) and the furnace diameter at the top of the
bed (R 1), the radial distribution of burden can be evaluated from eqn
(3.3.6) as the radial change in the thickness of each layer, ~j.
Furthermore, after the volume flow rate of gas flowing through the shaft
is determined from the overall mass balances over the whole furnace,
eqn (3.3.10) gives its radial distribution under given charging conditions.
Figure 3.3.4 shows the calculated radial profiles ofe, d p and UN in the
first block atthe top ofB.F.(OIl) havinga 1 = 25° anda2 = 28°. It can be
found from Fig. 3.3.4 that the respective ratios ofthe values on the center
axis to those on the peripheral wall amount to 1·07 fore, 1·22 for d p and
1·26 for UN' Accordingly, the ascending gas tends to flow through the
central zone more than the peripheral zone in the furnace.
The radial distributions of temperature and top gas composition in
an operating furnace are difficult to measure during the charging period

of each burden component (t = O-tr ). However, their values averaged
with respect to the total flow rate of gas can be measured without
difficulty and this is often done on industrial furnaces.
Thus the following procedures have been used to determine their
radial profiles at the top of the bed. First, let their mean values averaged
with respect to the total flow rate of gas be represented by eqn (3.3.42)
during the period t r • Second, typical radial profiles measured at any
moment in the blast furnace (in this case, B.F.(DII)) are applied to the
term Ao(~) in eqn (3.3.42). Third, if the value ofXo calculated from eqn
(3.3.42) differs to some extent from that observed, successive modifi-
TABLE 3.3.1
Data for numerical analysis of blast furnace (DII)
W1 (kg/ch) 38950
WI (kg/ch) 11900
V1 (m3(bed)/ch) 21'68
VI (m\bed)/ch) 17-25
d po (m) 0'0196
d pl (m) 0'0152
d pc (m) 0'0519
Fs (m3(bed)/ch) 272-5
e (h) 0·1429
Co. 0 (katm(O)/m3(bed» 26'86
Cl. O (kmol(CaCONm 3(bed» 0·1387
Cc. o (katom(C)/m3(bed» 49-44
T s1. O CC) 30a
TsI.o (0C) 30a
T g2.1 CC) 203
P2.1 (kg/m2) 14300
Yeo. 0 (-) 0'241
Ye02.0 (-) 0'190
YH20.0 (-) 0'013
YH2.0 (-) 0'036
YN2.0 (-) 0'520
Fg (Nm 3/h) 311600
U (kcal/m 2 • h· 0C) 15
aEstimated value.
Setting up initial conditions
and z
Calculation of unsteady state heat

transfer eq. (j-th layer, t=0v8)
~Ts,fk>Pb, and C s
Calculation of overall mass balance eq.

(j-th layer)
~ YCO'YC0 2 'YH 2 0'YH 2 'YN 2 ,F g' and Pg
Calculation of overall heat balance eq.

(j-th layer)
~Tg' cg
WRITE
Results of i,z,T s ,T g ,fk,Pb'YCO'YC0 2 ,F g,u,
and p ____------------------~----
YES
YES
Fig. 3.3.3. Flow chart for computing the longitudinal distributions of process
variables.
TABLE 3.3.2
Numerical Data for Computation Based on Two-dimensional Model
Furnace geometry (m) L = 25'0, Rbe = 10'0

Volume per charge (m3(bed)) VI = 17'0, V2 = 22-0
Apparent angle of repose (-) al = 25°, a2 = 25° and 28°
Voidage of layer (-) ec = 0'45,e o = 0'4O,es = 0'35,
eM = 0'30, eR = 0'70
Particle diameter (m) d pc = 0'40
d po = dps = dpM = dpR = 0'02
Angles of internal and wall
friction of coke (-) <Pi = 40°, <Pw = 25°
Inlet mass velocity (kg/m2(bed)· s) Gc. o = 0'5 (at top)
Go. o = 1-8 (at top)
Gg. o = 1'0 (at belly)
Inlet temperature (oq Ts.o = 50, Tg.o = 1800
cations to the pattern of Ao(O are repeated until the final pattern is
obtained, neglecting the radial change in YH2.0 and YH20.0:
X-o = [27TRi f ~. uN(O . Ao(~) d~ }Fg (3.3.42)
where
0.6 3.2 ~.-----------, 2.4
0.5 2.2 .: "

E ""
I
.D
.:-!
E
I" 1-0 ~,
ME
0.4 r--~~::::::::""",----_l2.0 ;;
z
::0
0.3 2.0 1.8

o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10
\" I-I
Fig. 3.3.4. Radial distributions ofe, d p and UN at the top of blast furnace (DII).
Figure 3.3.5 shows the radial profiles of the temperature and the
compositions of CO and CO2 of the top gas in B.F.(DII), determined by
the procedures mentioned above.
500 r - - - - - - - - - - - . , 0.4
400 0.3
- 300 ----..,j 0.2 ;::
.'00 0.1
I 00 '---_--'-_--L-_--'-_--"'------' 0
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10
, I-I
Fig. 3.3.5. Radial distributions of Yeo, Yeo, and Tgl. I at the top of blast
furnace (DII).
3.3.4. Computed Results

Figure 3.3.6 shows the longitudinal distributions of the process
variables computed within the region from the furnace top to the
melting level in B.F.(DII) which presumably has horizontally layered
burden. In this figure, each value of the process variables given at every
layer outlet is successively connected by a broken line for a clear
understanding of their longitudinal variations. Some of the charac-
teristic features of the results are described below. More detailed
discussions are available elsewhere. 24. 101
3.3.4.1. Longitudinal variation of Fg , Pg , Yeo and Y eo2

In the upper part of the furnace, Fg is kept constant because only the
indirect reduction of iron ore by CO gas takes place. However, in every
ore layer,Yeo decreases and bothYeo2 and Pg increase with ascent of the
gas, and consequently they distribute stepwise in the longitudinal
direction. In the part lower than the middle level of the shaft, the
Boudouard reaction as well as the decomposition oflimestone begin to
proceed, and as a result an appreciable change in Fg appears.
1.20 P , Ikg Nm"1 1 28 1.32 1 36
0 400 T• . T, I'CI 1000 P ,I P", Ikg m'lbed)) 1600 2000

1 1 1 I I I
1
0.3 0 .4 0. 5
0 01
, y"" Yt'o, I )
1
1 I I 1 I I
0 02 0 .4 ) 10 0 1m seel 12
I", I,. f, I t: j,!
1 I I I I
05 1.0 20 2.5 3.0
I 1 I I I
2.8 29 3.1 3.2 3.3
Fig. 3.3.6. Longitudinal distributions of process variables in blast furnace (DII).
Furthermore, longitudinally oscillating patterns of Yeo, Yeo2 and Pg

emerge because the consumption of CO and the generation of CO 2 in an
ore layer are replaced by the generation of CO and the consumption of
CO 2 in the adjacent coke layer.
Because the progress of the Boudouard reaction in the lower part of
the shaft may be temporarily retarded as Yeoo approaches zero, the
amplitudes of these oscillations are suppressed. However, when the
burdens reach further downward, both the Boudouard reaction and the
indirect reduction of the iron ore become extremely fast due to
increased temperature. It follows from this that the CO 2 generated in the
ore layer may be immediately converted into CO in the following coke
layer, which again results in enlarged oscillations of Yeo, YeQz and Pg •
3.3.4.2. Longitudinal variation of Tg and Tsi

In Fig. 3.3.6, the zigzag patterns of both Tg and Ts are found in the
longitudinal direction and large amplitudes of oscillations both in the
upper shaft and in the lower part of the shaft can be seen. This suggests
that the rates of heat transfer and the heat of reactions generated in the
ore layer differ from those in the adjacent coke layer.
As described above, process variables in the blast furnace oscillate in

the longitudinal direction. Amplitudes of the oscillations at any fixed
level of the furnace may also be interpreted to be caused by the layered
burdens passing through the level. Therefore it may be presumed that
the process variables oscillate periodically with comparatively large
amplitudes both in the upper shaft and in the lower part from the
bottom of the shaft.
3.3.4.3. Radial distribution of temperature and melting level

Figure 3.3.7 shows the radial distribution of the time-averaged
temperature of solid particles for the case where a, = 25 ° and a2 = 28 0.
It may be found from Fig. 3.3.7 that two thermal reserve zones are
formed in the upper and lower zones of the furnace at all radial
positions except the central region. The isotherms of solid particles are
shown in Fig. 3.3.8 at intervals of 100 °C (obtained after recasting
Fig. 3.3.7).
When we assume the melting point of ore burdens as l400°C,
locations of melting down are given by the l400°C isotherm. Kanbara
Sl. 0 ~-------------,
10
T.l. !:-=~=-=-=~ - ---- - ---

25L-~L-~-~--L-~-~~
o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Ts lOCI
Fig. 3.3.7. Longitudinal distributions of temperature of solid particles in blast
furnace (011).
0 51
10
12
]
N 14
16
18
Fig. 3.3.8. Distributions of isotherms in blast furnace (011).
et al. 104 observed the inner features of Hirohata No. 1 blast furnace
quenched by water. A number of annular layers, in which the iron ores
had been softened and partly molten, were detected over the zone from
the tuyere to the middle level of the shaft. These softening layers would
be located in the range surrounded by the isotherms of 1200°C and
1400°C in Fig. 3.3.8. The pattern of the cohesive zone illustrated in
Fig. 3.3.8 is similar to the findingsl04 in the dissected furnace and it
should be noted that the inversely V-shaped cohesive zone has resulted
from the operation with a strongly centralized gas flow both in this
calculation and in Hirohata No.1 furnace.
3.3.4.4. Radial distribution of fractional reduction

Figure 3.3.9 shows the distributions of the equi-fractional reduction of
iron ore. The dashed line in this figure represents the melting level. This
figure indicates that the progress of chemical reaction as well as the
temperature field varies remarkably in the radial direction.
10
12
E
N 14
16·
18
20
22
24
26 B.F. ID III fo
2B
Fig. 3.3.9. Distributions of equi-fractional reduction in blast furnace (DII).
3.3.5. Steady-state Two-dimensional Modelling
3.3.5.1. Overall continuity

From differential mass balances for reactive flows of gas (g), solid (s)
and liquid (1) phases, we obtain:
-
(mass flow) (reaction)
N n
divG j - Dj L"kR~ 0, L(xikMi)g,

k=t i= 1
- -
(j = g, s, 1), Dg = 1, Ds = Dt = -1 (3.3.43)
where G j = Pj Vj is the mass velocity of the j-phase. IXikl is the

stoichiometric coefficient for species i appearing in the k-th reaction,
andXik;;;' 0 for generation of species i whereas Xik < 0 for its dissipation.
3.3.5.2. Heat balance

For brevity we shall assume that the solid materials and the coexisting
liquid melt would have the same temperature and the same specific
heat. Let us call these condensed phases burden (b) in the gross bed.
Then the conservation of thermal energy of gaslburden has the form:
(mass flow) (conduction) (heat exchange) (reaction)
N
div(Cj1jGj) + divqj + Djhgba(Tg -Tb) -1JjL Rt(-I:1Hd = 0,

k =1
(j = g,b(= s+l», Dg = 1, Db = -1, 1Jg+1Jb = 1 (3.3.44)
where qj refers to the conductive heat flux vector with the following
component in the n direction:
qjn = -Kjn· aT/an (3.3.45)
-
and Kjn is the effective thermal conductivity. As for fluid flow in porous
media, this dispersion of heat stems from hydrodynamic fluctuations of
G j. Parameter 1Jj is the fractional acquisition of heat of reaction
including the extent of heat-in-mass transfer.
3.3.5.3. Momentum balance

A large number of nonlinear motion equations for gas flow through
porous media appear in the literature. The Ergun equation 105 is a typical
formula for one-dimensional flow, and its vectorial form 23 described
--
below seems to apply successfully to the nonuniform flow of gas in the
blast furnace: 23. 28. 106-113
gradP = -(j; +hIGgl)Gg (3.3.46)
where
150(1 - f:)2f.lg/gcpg(tjJd p )2f:3
1·75(1 - f:)/gcPg(tjJd p )f:3 (3.3.47)
On the other hand, we have less understanding of the equation of
motion of burden materials in the furnace. A simple and probable
principle which simulates the burden flow is given by potential flow
theorf? which prescribes the irrotational movement of fluid particles
- -
and is expressed as:
ill = rot V sj = 0 (j = 0, c) (3.3.48)
This equation may be utilized whether the burden is in the form of a
solid or a liquid.
3.3.6. Governing Equations for Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

The present concern is to obtain simultaneous numerical solutions of
the differential equations which have been derived in the preceding
section. We now proceed to transform the conservation equations in
terms of an axisymmetric cylindrical coordinate system for ease of
handling.
An alternative form of the overall continuity equation, eqn (3.3.43), is
as follows:
L f3k R:
N
o (rGjr)/or + o(rGjz)/oz - Dj = 0,
k~1
(j = g, s, 1), Dg = 1, D5 = DI = -1 (3.3.49)
which can be satisfied by working in terms of the stream function ljIj
defined as:
Sg == f( ik~1
f3k R : ) r dr (3.3.50)
Thus, if the terms involving velocity are displaced by the stream

function, there will be no need to make any explicit expression of the
mass conservation principle.
3.3. 6.1. Gas flow

The directional components of the Ergun equation, eqn (3.3.46), can be
written as:
oP/or
oP/oz
--
-(j; + 12lG g l)Ggr
-Cil + 121 Ggl)Ggz
(3.3.51 )
Gas pressure P can be entirely removed from eqn (3.3.51) by using a

mathematical relationship described as:
(3.3.52)
The resultant equation in terms of stream function ljIg (simply ljI) is as
follows:
[ 011 oljl + 011 (Oljl + S )

or or OZ OZ g
+ ![O12 Olfl + 012 (Olfl + S )

r or or OZ oz g
(021f1
+h:1" _! Olfl 021f1 OSg)][(OIfl
:1 +:12+:1
S)2 (OIfl)2]
:1 + g + ur
:1
ur r ur uZ uZ uZ
(3.3.53)
Equation (3.3.53), together with the appropriate boundary conditions,

gives the value for IfI for any point in the field, provided that the spatially
distributed flow resistance has been specified. Once the solution for IfI
has been obtained, velocity can be evaluated by eqn (3.3.50). Pressure
recovers basically through the appropriate integration of eqn (3.3.51).
However, the following numerical scheme may be advantageously
applied to avoid the accompanying integration error. That is, the
divergence of eqn (3.3.46), combined with eqn (3.3.43), yields:
02p loP 02p oW oW N

~+-~+~ = -Ggr~-Ggz~-W'f3kR:
-
(3.3.54)
ur r ur uZ- ur uZ L....
k =1
where W == 11 + 121G g l.
The iterative solution of eqn (3.3.54) also gives the pressure at all
points in the furnace. We usually need to know the pressure and the
temperature during the course of the solution for IfI because their
variations may affect gas density which in turn requires recasting of the
flow resistance.
3.3.6.2. Burden flow

Equation (3.3.48) for irrotational field of flow can be developed as:
o~rloz - o~jor = 0 (j = 0, c) (3.3.55)
Substitution from eqn (3.3.10), noting J.j = GjPj' now yields:

02lf/j
or
+ 02lf/j _
OZ2
(! +r
oln pj ) Olf/j _ olnpj Olf/j
or or OZ OZ
+ (s g
olnpj _ OSg)
oz oz = 0 (j = o,c) (3.3.56)
which gives the stream function for ore or coke flow in the domain of
interest. Domain borders on which boundary conditions should be
stipulated may comprise not only the furnace geometry but also the
contours of the stagnant coke cone and the raceway for coke flow, and
the so-called 'dry zone' in front of the tuyeres for ore flow. The velocity
field of each material can be determined also by inserting the converged
value of the stream function into eqn (3.3.50). Superimposition of the
two velocity fields obtained approximately accounts for the global flow
field of burden.
3.3.6.3. Temperature
The expression of eqn (3.3.44) in angular symmetry may be derived to
yield:
(02Tj 1 OTj) o2Tj oKfr oTj oKfz oTj
+ Tr a; + ----a;- a;
e e
K jr or + -;:a;: + K jz OZ2
L R:(-!:l.Hd = 0
N
- f>jhgba(Tg - T b) + 1/j
k =1
(j = g, b), 1 (3.3.57)
3.3.7. Some Auxiliary Relations

In order that the mathematical problem should be completely specified,
we need some additional relations which must supplement the
governing equations. Some selected relations will be given here.
3.3.7.1. Transport and thermodynamic properties

(aJ Effective thermal conductivity offluid (Kjn). This can be evaluated
from the particle Peclet number, Pejn, defined as follows:
P ejn = d p Vjz I(Kjne Ic jPj) (j = g, 1,' n = r, z) (3.3.58)
where Tjz designates the axial linear velocity of fluid. The observed
relationship I 14 between Pejn and particle Reynolds number,
Repj( = d p Tjp/J1j)' normally gives the following constant over the Repj
range possible in the blast furnace:
Peg, = 10, Pe gz = 2; Pel, = 50, Pelz = 0·5 (3.3.59)
(b) Effective thermal conductivity of burden (KD. This may be
approximated to the effective thermal conductivity of solids (K~)
because of a small hold-up in the dropping zone. Since the solid-solid
thermal conduction through the point of contact is relatively slight, K~ is
governed by the indirect and direct radiation whose mechanism was
formulated by Shotte l15 as follows:
K~ (l - 8)/(l/ks + l/k,) + 8k"
k, = 1·97 X 10- 7 dp(Ts + 273)3 (kcallm· h· 0c) (3.3.60)
(c) Interphase heat transfer coefficient (h gb). When we define hgb based on
eqn (3.3.44), we may tacitly assume Tb as representing the mean
temperature of solid particles with and without the surrounding melt.
Thus hgb should be an overall parameter involving the true gas/burden
film heat transfer coefficient (h~b) and the burden conductivity (kb). The
expression for spheres was given by Stuke l16 in the form:
l/hgb = l/h~b + (dp /lO)k b
(3.3.61)
where Bi = h~bdp/kb is the Biot number. Thermal conductivities of solids
take the values of 0·5 for coke and 1·4 for ore materials, in
kcal· m· h· °e ll7 The true heat transfer coefficient, h~b' is well
correlated by Shirai l18 according to:
8(h~bdp/kg) = 2·0 + 0·75 P r l/3 Re~!2 (3.3.62)
where 8 is the void fraction of the packed bed and Pr (= cg J1g1k g ) refers to
the Prandtl number.
(d) Specific heat ofgaslburden (Cj). The specific heat of multicomponent
gas/ore-burden can be evaluated by:
n n
(j = g,b) (3.3.63)
i =I i =I
where Ci is the specific heat of each component i, and it is expressed as a
temperature function.
3.3. 7.2. Profile of stagnant coke cone

There may exist a stagnant coke cone in the lower central part of the
furnace since coke combustion proceeds within a limited peripheral
space. The outer surface of this 'deadman' is considered to act as a wall
for coke flow. Model experimentsl19.120 indicated that the stresses
around the deadman would be passive ones. The contour of the
deadman under this passive state can be expressed by: 120
-dr/dz = cot8d
45° - A/2 + (l/2)tan-1 f.lw(r/R)
'1'1 sec ¢i [tan2¢i - f.l~(r/R)2](J.5 - tan 2¢i
f.l w == sin ¢i . sin 2(8 w+ 80)/[1 + sin ¢i . cos 2(8 w+ 80)]
80 == 45° + ¢w/2 - (l/2)cos- 1(sin ¢w/sin ¢J (3.3.64)
where 8w < 0 for shaft and 8w> 0 for bosh.
3.3. 7.3. Boundary conditions
For gas or burden (ore, coke) flow, two pairs of apertures exist. Fluid
inlets are at the tuyere nose for gas flow and the top of the bed for burden
flow. Outlets for gas, coke and ore flow are located at the top surfaces of
the bed, raceway and liquid pool respectively. In terms of the unit
-+ -+
directional vectors nand m which are respectively parallel and perpen-
dicular to the borders of interest, boundary conditions can be specified
as follows:
-+ -+
At inlets: n ·Gj = n . gradP = 0, Tj = Tj •o (3.3.65)
-+ -+ -+
At outlets: n ·Gj = n . gradP = m . gradTj = 0 (3.3.66)
-+ -+ -+
At wall: m ·Gj = m . gradP = m . gradTb = 0,
U(Tg - Tcw)
(3.3.67)
-+ -+ -+
At the others: m . Gj = m . gradP = m . gradTj o (3.3.68)
3.3.8. Numerical Solution of Two-dimensional Model
3.3.8.1. Calculation procedure

The present method of solution is a finite difference one. Mter reduction
of the differential equations to a set of simultaneous, algebraic
equations, these are solved by an iterative procedure. When we compute

the values of a quantity ./\, at any nodal point in the k-th iteration, it is
successful to work with a successive substitution technique in the
form:
(3.3.69)
where (VR is the relaxation parameter. Except for the stream function (Vj
and the gas pressure P as ./\" under-relaxation ((VR < 1) must be
utilized.
A selection of computed results to be given later concerns the
simultaneous solutions of heat, gas and burden flows. A flow chart for
the computation is shown in Fig. 3.3.10. The contour of the cohesive
Input data:
1) Furnace geometries
2) Operating conditions
3) Burden distribution
4) Physical and thermal properties
of cohesive zone
Compute: Raceway size and

gas temperature in raceway
Compute: Burden flow
Preset: Cohesive zone shape
Compute Gas flow
Compute Gas and burden temperatures
Renew: Cohesive zone shape ranging from

1200°C to 1400°C isotherms of burden
NO
Fig. 3.3.10. Flow chart for seeking the shape of the cohesive zone.
zone which may range between the isotherms of 1200°C and 1400°C
would strongly affect the gas flow patterns and temperature distribution
in the course of the iterative step. Thus a convergence criterion should
be specified with respect to the shape of the cohesive zone. The
computational grid in this calculation contained 30 X 120 points.
3.3.8.2. Computed results

Numerical computation was performed for the data listed in Table 3.3.2.
In the lumpy zone, the apparent angle of repose was assumed to be
unchanged throughout. Thus the layer thickness of charged materials
varied only with the furnace geometry. In the course of computation, the
shape of the cohesive zone which separates the lumpy zone from the
dropping zone was renewed after every step of the temperature
calculation. The cohesive zone was composed of two parts having
different permeabilities. One is the softening zone (designated by suffix
S) which, in this calculation, was located between isotherms of 1200°C
and 1300°C. In another part (suffix M) having the largest resistance to
flow, temperature may vary say from 1300°C to 1400°C. The perme-
ability of the dropping zone was considered to be nearly the same as that
of the coke layer in the lumpy zone.
Figure 3.3.11 shows the calculated patterns of streamlines and mass
velocity of burdens. Before the calculation, the contour of the stagnant
coke cone was predicted by eqn (3.3.64), and this is shown in Fig. 3.3.11
by the conical shape of a dashed line in front of the raceway. It should be
noted that the apparent angle of repose ofthe 'deadman', ed, is obviously
less than that predictedl21.122 assuming an active stress state. The value of
e d in Fig. 3.3.11 varies from nearly 50 ° at the raceway depth to 25 ° on the
central axis. Coke burden descends along this deadman toward the
ceiling of the raceway. In the vicinity of a raceway, ore burden would be
molten and subsequently transported into the inner furnace regions by
the jet stream of gas to form a 'dry zone' around the raceway. Figure
3.3.11 shows that ore burden flows to the hearth, avoiding the dry zone
which is drawn by a dashed line enclosing the raceway. The existence of
such a liquid-impermeable area consequently causes an abrupt radial
change in the mass velocity of burden in the lower part of the
furnace.
Figure 3.3.12 shows the computed streamlines, isobars and radial
distribution of mass velocity of gas for the case where al = 25 ° and
a2 = 28 0. Temperature fields simultaneously computed with the gas
flow field of Fig.3.3.12 are represented in Fig.3.3.13 in terms of
,-..
()
I I
I (l)
I
(/)
a
4.0 ,-..
2 '"0
I (l)
I
I
I
t9
I
I ""a
3.0
I
I
a "-tD
2
I
I
I
C
I
I
I III
CJ
a
+--~--f-O
1.0
0.0
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
~=rJRb(-)
Fig. 3.3.11. Calculated patterns of streamlines and mass velocity of burden

together with predicted contour of deadman.
isotherms of gas and burden and radial distribution of burden

temperature. The thickness of the ore layer, which is illustrated by the
dotted area in both figures, increases gradually from the central axis to
the periphery. Accordingly, the relative resistance to gas flow and the
ore/coke ratio also increase in the same direction. The former enhances
the central gas flow and the latter reduces the thermal load in the central
region. Radial variation of the thermal flow ratio due to both effects acts
to establish an inverse V-shaped cohesive zone, and it would be this type
of situation that Hirohata No. 1 furnace experienced before its
dissection. 104
It is of interest to note from Figs 3.3.12 and 3.3.13 that the distorted
dome associated with the inner shape of the cohesive zone corresponds
to the developed outflow of gas through the coke slits in that region. This
fact underlines the important role of the slit gas flow in the construction
of the inner shape of the cohesive zone.
Figures 3.3.14 and 3.3.15 show the computed results for the case where
al = a2 = 25°. In this case, the gas flow path which minimizes the total
pressure loss between the tuyere and the top is towards the peripheral
~ (-)
4
,....,
()
Q)
OJ
.......
....;::J ,....,
4 '"0
0..0 Q)
Ie:: 8
e; e...
s
"- 0.4 "-t.:J
0: CJ
1e:: 0 •3 2 110
~- C)
0
0.2
0.1
+-----+0
0.0
0.0
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
~ (-J
Fig. 3.3.12. Calculated streamlines, isobars and radial distribution of mass

velocity of gas (al = 25°, a2 = 28°).
wall because the global flow resistance of the lumpy zone distributes
uniformly in the radial direction. Consequently, hot blast inject from
the side wall flows towards the peripheral region of the furnace and ore
burden at that location is increasingly fused until a steady state is
attained.
Thus, an even distribution of ore/coke ratio, in contrast to the former
case, cannot suppress a preferential fusion at the peripheral part. As a
result, a V-shaped cohesive zone appears, as in Fig. 3.3.15. This must be
g (-)
P 600
0)
r
..
C)
r
tIC
"'''!I1od~----'-0
~O)
BOO
1000
+-----+0
1200
1800
0.0
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 t.O
~ (-)
Fig. 3.3.13. Calculated isotherms of gas and burden together with radial
distribution of burden temperature (aj = 25°, a2 = 28°).
~ (-)
I I
2 U
(I)
I
,
I (/)
,--., 0.7 a
+-'
,--.,
0...0" 0.6 4 "0
(I)
Ie .D
2 '-'
e=- 0.5
, C'J
El
"-txl
I
"- 0.4 ,a
I
4
5: C
Ie 0.3 2
e=- 0
QD
0.2 a
'OF==--- - - +, O
0.0 ,,
I
I
I
I
0.0
\.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 \.0
~ (-)
Fig. 3.3.14. Calculated streamlines, isobars and radial distribution of mass

velocity of gas (al = 25°, az = 25°).
the situation experienced by Kawasaki No.3 furnace based on the

dissected furnace information. 124
As is clarified in these two examples, the radial distribution of the
thermal flow ratio drastically affects the configuration of the cohesive
zone. Thus careful attention should be paid to burden distribution at
the top of the furnace in order to control the cohesive zone.
Furthermore, it may be also necessary to proceed with more detailed
investigation regarding burden movement, particularly in the lower
part of the furnace.
~ (-)
,...., ~
$-J
OJ
r- 0
X In
0 r-
2
K:~~----I-O
1800
0 .0
1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
~ (-)
Fig. 3.3.15. Calculated isotherms of gas and burden together with radial
distribution of burden temperature (al = 25°, a2 = 25°).
3.4. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MODEL FOR GAS FLOW,

HEAT TRANSFER AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS
This model is based on three fundamental equations, i.e. transfer of
momentum, conservation of mass and conservation of energy, and can
analyze flows, reactions and heat transfer for the three phases, gas,
liquid and solid. It is notable that the numerical solution in this model is
obtained by the method of characteristics.
This section will describe the general view of the model and the
simulation results concerning the axial and radial distribution of state
variables in the blast furnace.
3.4.1. General Concept of the Radial Distribution Model

Three phases exist in the blast furnace and the fundamental equations
concerning material flows, reactions and heat transfer.
3.4.1.1. Equation of motion

For liquid and solid phases, the streamlines are assumed, as described
later. With respect to gas flow, a two-dimensionally expanded Ergun's
formula can be employed:\05
(3.4.1)
where a xy and /3XY are tensors which represent the permeability.
3.4.1.2. Conservation of mass

Material balances are considered for each species by taking account of
the reaction rates, resulting in the following expression:
~/EjCJ + C div Vj - D e V
j 2C j = Rj(CI>"" Cn ) (3.4.2)
where subscript i denotes the chemical species and subscript j denotes
the phase, i.e. gas, liquid, or solid. Assuming steady state conditions:
D
-Dt =
3.4.1.3. Conservation of energy

Heat balances are considered for each phase by taking account of the
heats of reaction and heat exchange, giving the following equation:
D
D/CjpjEj1j) . -Vj
+ CjPj1j div - ke V 2 Tj h kj (Tj
= - ,L. --g- -
Tk ) + Qj
k (3.4.3)
where k denotes the phase other than the phase j. For instance, when j
denotes gas phase, k denotes liquid or solid phase.
The material flow, reactions and heat transfer can be analyzed for the
three phases by the use of the three fundamental equations mentioned
above.
3.4.2. Momentum Transfer
3.4.2.1. Motion of gas

The behavior of gas in the blast furnace may be obtained by solving
Ergun's pressure drop equation and the mass conservation equation
simultaneously. The equation of mass conservation is written as follows

by the summation of mass fractions of each phase:
D
-(Ep·)
Dt J J
. -V =
+ p.J dlV J
LR.M·1 1
(3.4.4)
where the diffusion term in eqn (3.4.2) was neglected for the reason
described later.
By assuming steady state conditions, eqn (3.4.4) becomes:
(3.4.5)
The gas velocity in the axial and radial directions is obtained by using
the above equation and the stream function IjI which is defined as
follows: 125
(3.4.6)
Vgz IjI,J(pgr)
Furthermore, by using the equation of state for gas given by p = pgkTg
and (P2)", = (P2),w an elliptic partial differential equation of the second
order is obtained. This equation is solved numerically using finite
differences. The numerical solution of IjI thus obtained gives the
distribution of gas velocity in the furnace by using eqn (3.4.6), and the
pressure distribution by using eqn (3.4.1).
a xy and f3XY in eqn (3.4.1) are the tensors which characterize the
anisotropic permeability introduced for considering cross-flow, namely
the gas flow in the radial direction in the furnace. This cross-flow has
been found in the analysis of the cohesive zone in quenched blast
furnaces.
The tensors are determined as follows. The charged materials in the
blast furnace may be divided into ore and coke layers; by assuming
isotropic permeability in each zone, the following equations may be
obtained.
In the ore layer
where
gradP - -
-(aopg I Vg 1+ f3o) V g (3.4.7)
f30
In the coke layer
(3.4.8)
where
By the use of am Po, a e and Pc, the permeability vertical to the layer
(aJ..,p-L) and the permeability parallel to the layer (all,PII) are
approximately obtained as follows by assuming vertical flow to the layer
(VJJ or parallel flow to the layer (V;I)'
(aJ Permeability vertical to the layer. The pressure drop in the vertical
direction at the ore layer or the coke layer can be presented as
follows:
(P,i..)o = -(aOpgVJ. + Po) Vi.. (3.4.9)
(P, -t.)e = -(aePg Vi.. + PC> Vi..
Therefore, by assuming that the thicknesses of the ore layer and coke
layer are AXo and AXe, respectively, the total pressure drop vertical to
the layer at both layers is given by the following equation:
(3.4.10)
where
AX=AX+M
o. e (3.4.11 )
By substituting eqn (3.4.9) into eqn (3.4.10), the following equation is
obtained:
AX (ai..pgVi +Pi..Vd = AXo(aopgVi +PoVJJ+Me(aePgVi +PeV-t.)
Comparison of the coefficients of Vi.. and vi leads to the following
equations respectively:
Mai.. = Moao + Meae
MPi.. = MaPa + MePe
Thus the permeabilities vertical to the layers are represented as
follows:
a..L = (Moa o + Meae}!AX (3.4.12)
P..L = (MaPa + MePe)!M
(b) Permeability parallel to the layer. Similarly the pressure drop in the
parallel direction at the ore layer and the coke layer may be given as
follows:
(P,")o = - [a opiVII)o + fio](V;I)o (3.4.13)
(P,II)c = -[acpg(V;I)c + fic](V;I)c
Moreover, by assuming both the same pressure drop and the

conservation of gas flow rate at each layer, the following relations are
obtained:
(P,")o = (P,II)C = -(aIlPgV;1 + fill) V;I (3.4.14)
MV;I = Mo(V;I)o + Mc(V;I)C (3.4.15)
By substituting eqn (3.4.13) into eqn (3.4.14), the following equations

are given:
aopg(V;I)~ + fio(V;I)o = acpg(V;I)~ + fic(V;I)c = allPgV~ + fill V;I
Comparison of the coefficient of the first-order term with respect to the
gas velocity leads to the following relationship:
fio(V;I)o = fic(V;I)c = fill V;I
Substituting eqn (3.4.15) into the above equation results in the following
relation:
By elimination of (V;I)o/(V;I)c from the above equations, the following

equation is obtained:
(3.4.16)
Comparison of the coefficient of the second-order term with respect to

the gas velocity leads to the following relationship:
allV~ = ao(V;I)~ = ac(VII)~
The square root of the above equation is written as follows:
~ V;I = vIao( V;I)O = Vac( V;I)C

By substituting eqn (3.4.15) for the above equation and eliminating

(V;IV(V;I)O the following equation is obtained:
M Mo Me
- - =- -+-- (3.4.17)
~ Va: viae
By considering the effect of the layered structure and the anisotropic
characteristics of the permeability as described in the procedure
mentioned above, the burden bed can thus be treated as a continuous
medium.
3.4.2.2. Motion of solid

As the theoretical equation of motion for the solid has not been fully
developed yet, the streamline of the solid is decided here as shown in
Fig. 3.4.1, under the following two assumptions:
(a) Coke which burns in the raceway flows downwards in the region
enclosed by the furnace wall and the stagnant region which has a
60° deposit angle in the central region of the furnace. In this
region coke to be consumed has a uniform velocity in the radial
direction.
(b) Ore, coke and the other auxiliary materials which diminish by
direct reduction, solution-loss reaction or melting move down-
wards as a plug flow along the furnace profile (dashed lines in
Fig. 3.4.1).
From the above assumptions the streamline of the solid is decided by
the sum of the vectors of these two velocities.
3.4.2.3. Motion of liquid

According to a water model, the streamlines of the liquid near the
raceway are pushed towards the center of the furnace due to the
horizontal component of the gas flow. 126 Excluding this local
phenomenon, however, the liquid is considered to drop vertically
against the upward gas flow. In this model the liquid was assumed to
drop approximately vertically as a plug flow down the furnace profile.
3.4.3. Mass Transfer with Chemical Reactions
-
The diffusion term was neglected in the mass conservation law shown
by eqn (3.4.2) because of the following reason. The convection term
D(EjCJ/Dt = Vj . grad C has a value of about 3 X 10- 3 kmol/(m3 • s)
because the gas velocity in the actual furnace is about 1 mls and grad Ci
Fig. 3.4.1. Assumed streamline of solids: (__) streamline of coke consumed

in the raceway; (- _) streamline of burden consumed by reactions; (_._)
boundary line between moving and stagnant zones.
is about 3 X 10- 3 kmollm4 • On the other hand, the diffusion term

D e V 2C i has the value of about 2 X 10- 7 kmoll(m 3 • s) because the
diffusion coefficientU is about O· 74 X 10- 4 m 2/s for hydrogen and V 2 Ci
is about 3 X 10-3 kmollm 5 . This means that the diffusion term is much
smaller than the convection term by about 104 • Therefore it is not
usually necessary to consider the diffusion term unless the gas velocity
is extremely low. Thus, in this model, the analysis was carried out by
neglecting the diffusion term as a first-order approximation.
The fundamental equation for reactions is represented as follows,
using the equation of conservation of mass (3.4.2):
D (Epli)
Dt + ~iPj div --
Vj = RiM, (3.4.18)
By applying eqn (3.4.4) to eqn (3.4.18), the mass conservation

equation for each species at each phase is given as follows:
D RiMi - ?:i"TRiMi
-D ?:i = E I (3.4.19)
t jPj
This is a partial differential equation of the first order concerning ?:i.

Therefore this can be solved numerically by the so-called method of
characteristics, described later, in which integration is carried out along
the streamline of the material of each phase.
3.4.4. Heat Transfer

Strictly speaking the fundamental equation of heat transfer should
include a conduction term. However, heat transfer by conduction k e V 2Tg
has a value of about 4 X 10- 3 kcall(m 3 • s), because the thermal
-
conductivity k e of gas at 1000°C is 1·9 X 10- 5 kcallm 2 • s . °C and the
-
average value of V 2Tg is about 200°C/m2. On the other hand, heat
transfer by the gas flow CgpgV g . gradTg becomes about 12 kcall(m 3 • s)
because V g is about 1 mis, CgP g is about 0·0755 kcallm 3 and the average
gradTg at the top of the furnace is about 160°C/m. Therefore heat
transfer by conduction is much smaller than heat transfer by gas flow,
by a factor of 103, and for this reason, in this model, the following heat
transfer equation is adopted as a first-order approximation:
By applying eqn (3.4.4) to eqn (3.4.20) by the same method as in the

case of reactions, the heat transfer for each phase is given as
follows:
(3.4.21)
This equation is the partial differential equation of the first order

concerning cJj which is of the same type as the mass conservation
equation given by eqn (3.4.19). Therefore the temperature distribution
in the furnace can be calculated by integration along the streamline of
each phase.
3.4.5. Input Conditions
3.4.5.1. Reaction rate equations

The following reactions are considered in this model:
(a) Indirect reduction of the iron ore by H2 and CO is assumed to be
expressed by the topochemical progress of two interfaces
(FeP3 - FeO _ Fe) which is introduced by Chon et al. 22
Therefore four kinds of reaction rate equations are employed.
(b) Direct reduction of molten wustite by solid coke. 127
(c) Decomposition of limestone.127
(d) Solution-loss reaction.127
(e) Reaction between coke and steam.127
(f) Water gas shift reaction.127
It is worth notice that the number of reactions could be easily
increased if the method of characteristics were applied in the numerical
analysis.
3.4.5.2. Heat transfer coefficients

For the calculation of heat transfer it is necessary to use three kinds of
heat transfer coefficients, i.e. between solid and gas, solid and liquid,
and liquid and solid. However, empirical formulae have been
established only for a solid-gas case and simple fundamental equations
are developed below for the other systems.
(a) Heat transfer coefficient between solid and gas. The heat transfer
coefficient between solid and gas in the furnace is basically obtained by
Ranz's formula which is shown by eqn (3.4.22):
Nu = 2·0 + 0·6(Prg )I/3(9Re g )1/2 (3.4.22)
hgs = yhgso , hgso = Nu kgld (3.4.23)
The hgso calculated by this equation, however, has to be modified in
order to agree with measured results obtained from quenched or
operating furnaces. For this purpose the introduction of a modification
coefficient y is necessary as shown in Fig. 3.4.2.
The intrinsic reason for needing the modification is not clear and is
left for future study. However, it may be considered difficult for gas to
pass through the cohesive ore layer, and this maldistribution of the gas
may cause the heat transfer coefficient between solid and gas to
decrease.
0.21-----"""'\
y
0.1
o~--------~--------~--~
o 1000 2000
Solid temperature lOCI
Fig. 3.4.2. Temperature dependence of heat exchange coefficient between gas

and solid; hgs = rhgso, where hgso is the heat exchange coefficient derived from
eqn (3.4.23).
(b) Heat transfer coefficient between solid and liquid Heat exchange
between the dripping liquid and the solid surface can be basically
divided into two portions: heat transfer in the liquid and conduction in
the solid.
The heat transfer coefficient for the solid is obtained by averaging the
integrated results of unsteady state heat conduction in the solid when
the liquid is in contact with the surface of the solid:
hs = 2 (ksCcPs Vi) 1/2 (3.4.24)
TTds l
The heat transfer coefficient for the liquid is obtained by modifying
the forced convection heat transfer equation: 128
hI = 0·664 kl l/3 l
d PrI Re I !2 (3.4.25)
Therefore the overall heat transfer coefficient becomes:

1
(3.4.26)
hsl = l/hs + l/hl
(c) Heat transfer corifficient between gas and liquid. Similarly the overall
heat transfer coefficient between the gas and the liquid may be given by
the following equation:
1
(3.4.27)
It should be noted that these overall heat transfer coefficients will be

refined in accuracy hereafter by using operational results. By using
them the ratio of the liquid volume to the void volume was determined
to be about 1 X 10- 4 when the actual hot metal temperature was in good
agreement with the calculated results.
3.4.5.3. Conditions at the raceway

Since the focus in Section 3.4 is on the overall behavior of the blast
furnace, O 2, H 20 and heavy fuel oil are assumed to decompose
immediately into CO and H2 in the raceway region which is based on
the observed results by Inatani et al. 129 Gas composition, gas temperature,
and flow rate after combustion were the input data.
3.4.6. Method of Analysis

As mentioned above, both reactions and heat transfer can be
represented by partial differential equations of the first order and can be
easily solved numerically by using the method of characteristics, that is,
for steady state conditions, the characteristic curve is given by the
following equation:
(3.4.28)
Therefore, as a partial differential equation of the first order becomes an

ordinary differential equation on this characteristic curve, the results
may be obtained by solving the ordinary differential equations
concerning reactions and heat transfer along the streamline given by
eqn (3.4.28).
The conservation of mass for each specific species can be represented
as follows:
-RiMi + ~i~RiMi
1
(3.4.29)
or
-RiMi + ~i~RiMi
1
(3.4.30)
Also, the conservation of energy can be represented as follows:
(3.4.31)
or
d -~hdT
k J J
- Tk)/f> + Q.J - c.r.~R·M
J J ill
dz (CjIj) = E (3.4.32)
jPj%
Here the denominators in eqns (3.4.29)-(3.4.32) represent the mass'flow
rates.
3.4.6.1. Calculation of temperature distribution

In order to decrease the time for the numerical calculation, the mesh
distance is taken to be I m in this model. The following analytical
solution is employed for the calculation of heat transfer to minimize the
error originating from the mesh distance and to obtain good convergence.
That is, as the general form of eqns (3.4.31) and (3.4.32) is given by the
following equation, the solution is obtained by integrating this equation
over the mesh distance, i.e. from x = 0 to x = Ax:
pV~(cT) = -h(T-T')+Q (3.4.33)

dx
where hand T' are given by the following equations when calculating
heat transfer:
(3.4.34)
By assuming that T' is linear with respect tox, T' may be represented by:
(3.4.35)
In addition, by assuming that c is constant over one increment, Ax,
the solution of eqn (3.4.33) may be represented as follows:
Tx ~ I'u = Q/h + T~ ~ I'u - bcp V/h + (Tx ~ 0 - Q/h - T~ ~ 0
+ bcp V/h )e- hl'u/(cpV) (3.4.36)
where
By using this equation, good convergence was obtained even when the
larger mesh distance was employed.
3.4.6.2. Calculation of distribution of mass fractions

The distribution of the mass fractions was obtained by integrating eqn
(3.4.29) or eqn (3.4.30) along the streamline of each phase by the use of
the modified Euler method.
3.4.6.3. Flow chart of calculation

The flow chart of calculation in this model is shown in Fig. 3.4.3. The
furnace profile and the operational conditions, i.e. blast volume, blast
temperature, moisture, o/e and so on, are given as input data. Table
3.4.1 shows the input data used.
First of all, the gas streamline and pressure distribution are

calculated by the gas flow model based on the assumed distribution of
temperature and particle size in the furnace.
Secondly, reactions and heat transfer in the gas phase are calculated
along the gas streamline from the tuyere to the top of the furnace. The
streamline of the solid is assumed and the calculation is carried out
from the top to the lower part of the furnace. At this stage, as the quantity
of dripping liquid is obtained by the previous calculation, the
calculation of reactions and heat transfer of the liquid phase may be
Start
Blast furnace profile
Gas flow model
Gas reaction and temperature
Solid reaction and temperature
Liquid reaction and temperature
End
Fig. 3.4.3. Flow chart of calculation; T is the temperature of gas, solid, and
liquid; IjI is the stream function of gas.
TABLE 3.4.1
Blast Furnace Profile and Operating Conditions
Blast furnace profile Operating conditions
Diameter of throat 9'8m Blast volume 5 l74 N m 3/min

Diameter of belly 14Am Blast temperature I 100°C
Diameter of hearth l3Am Humidity 5'1 g!Nm 3
Height of tuyere 5'2m Oil injection 160 kg/min
Liquid level 3'7 m Top pressure 0'258 MPa
Length of shaft 16'5 m Ore by coke 3-8
Length of belly 3'Om Coke 34 t/charge
Length of bosh 3'4m Fe in ore 0'579
Length of hearth 5'8 m C in coke 0'916
undertaken from the dripping layer to the liquid surface at the

bottom.
The above procedure is iterated for each phase. The gas streamline is
continuously modified by the gas flow model, using the determined
distribution of temperature and compositions of the gas and the solid.
The calculation is iterated until the results satisfy the convergence
criterion.
3.4.7. Simulation Results

On the basis of the input conditions and the calculation procedure
described in Section 3.4.6, the distribution of the temperature, com-
positions and reaction rates of each phase can be obtained. In this
section simulation results will be described.
3.4.7.1. Streamline and pressure distribution of gas

Figure 3.4.4 shows the streamline and the pressure distribution of the
gas calculated by this model. Owing to the introduction of the
anisotropic parameter for permeability described in Section 3.4.2, the
isobar lines do not always cross the streamlines at right-angles and this
tendency is especially noticeable at the cohesive zone near the center of
the furnace.
Also, the isobar lines are close together below the cohesive zone
because the void ratio at the cohesive zone above 1000 DC is assumed to
be 0'1, and it is also reduced to O' 3 at the dripping zone in order that the
calculated pressure distribution agrees with the measured values at the
furnace wall. At the cohesive zone the streamlines show the flow toward
the furnace wall from the center of the furnace.
P- Po
Fig. 3.4.4. Streamline (--) and isobarline (- - -) of gas; (_. -) completion

line of melting down.
3.4.7.2. Velocity distribution of burden descent

Figure 3.4.5 shows the burden descent velocity distribution. The solid
lines and the dashed lines show the mass velocity and the volumetric
velocity, respectively, of the descending burden at various levels. Here,
the volumetric velocity is calculated from the mass velocity using the
void ratio distribution of the charged materials in the furnace. Figure
3.4.5 reveals the following facts:
(a) The descent mass velocity near the top of the furnace closely
depends on the distribution of O/C at the top of the furnace.
(b) By assuming the void ratio in proportion to O/C, the volumetric
velocity distribution varies less than the mass velocity distribution.
This corresponds qualitatively with the fact that a coherent layer
structure remains in the shaft as proved by quenched blast
furnace investigation.
o/c:t:]
T
I
t
0.1 m/min
T
I kg/sec. m2
Fig. 3.4.5. Descending velocity (- - - _) and mass flow rate ( _ ) of solid in

the blast furnace; (_. -) boundary between moving and stagnant zones.
3.4.7.3. Liquid flow rate distribution at dripping zone

Figure 3.4.6 shows the liquid flow distribution below the cohesive zone.
It is shown that the liquid flow distribution is proportional to the mass
velocity distribution of descending solids.
3.4.7.4. Temperature distributions of gas and solid

Figure 3.4.7 shows the temperature distributions of gas and solid in the
furnace, and from this the following conclusions may be drawn:
(a) The temperature distribution at the top of the furnace is almost
the same as that at the actual furnace.
Fig. 3.4.6. Mass flow rate of liquid in the blast furnace.
800~TOP
gas
'c
o
1400·C
1200
1500
1800
2100
Fig. 3.4.7. Temperature distribution of gas (- - -) and solid (--) in the blast
furnace; (_. -) boundary line between moving and stagnant zones.
(b) The temperature distribution at the upper part of the shaft is

influenced by the Ole distribution at the top of the furnace, with
the temperature increase becoming small in the high mass
velocity zone of burden descent.
(c) The isothermal line of 1400 0 e is a so-called inverted V-shape
and this nearly corresponds with the cohesive zone shape which
has been elucidated by the investigation of quenched furnaces.
(d) The factors which determine the shape of the cohesive zone are
considered to be the ole distribution and the corresponding
descent velocity distribution of the burden. Furthermore the
following factors should also be taken into account. As the solid
movement is negligibly small and the temperature is kept at a
high level in the stagnant region, the center of the furnace works
as a kind of heat reservoir. Therefore the temperature of the gas
flowing out of this region is high and this promotes smelting of
the ore. Thus the shape of the cohesive zone is markedly
influenced by the shape of the stagnant region at the center ofthe
furnace and has a tendency to adopt the inverted V-shape.
3.4.7.5. Temperature distribution of dripping liquid

Figure 3.4.8 shows the temperature distribution of the dripping liquid.
As is obvious from the figure, the temperature of the dripping liquid
near the center ofthe furnace is higher than that near the furnace wall.
This is due to the long distance of dripping near the center of the furnace
which has a high temperature as mentioned above.
1400·C
1500
1600
Fig. 3.4.8. Temperature distribution of liquid in the blast furnace.

3.4.7.6. Distribution of Fe2D3' FeD and Fe

Figure 3.4.9 shows the distribution ofFeP3 and Fe and Fig. 3.4.10 shows
that of FeO. The distribution of Fe203 at the upper part of the shaft is
W-shaped owing to the effect of the O/C distribution. However, the
distribution of FeO and Fe becomes inverted V-shaped owing to the
delay of the reduction reaction, because the solid temperature is
relatively low near the furnace wall as is obvious from the temperature
distribution shown in Fig. 3.4.7.
Fig. 3.4.9. Mass fraction of Fe203 and Fe in the blast furnace; (_._)
boundary line between moving and stagnant zones.
3.4.7.7. Distribution of gas components

Figure 3.4.11 shows the distribution of CO and CO 2in the furnace. The
gas distribution is also influenced by the O/C distribution at the top of
the furnace and the fraction of CO 2 tends to become high at the
intermediate part of the furnace where the O/C ratio is high. The
distribution of the CO/C0 2 ratio has almost the same pattern as that
observed for an operating furnace.
\
I '
\ o
Fig. 3.4.10. Mass fraction of FeO in the blast furnace; (_. -) boundary line
between moving and stationary zones.
3.5. TWO-DIMENSIONAL FORMULATION BY FINITE

ELEMENT METHOD
The finite element method is a numerical technique which solves

partial differential equations, and which is attractive for integration
domains having a complicated structure. 130- 132 Therefore the method
seems to be useful for describing the internal situation of a blast furnace
which has a complicated shape and internal structure.
A two-dimensional gas flow analysis will be described, taking into
account the layered structure of coke and iron ore and the existence of
the raceway and the cohesive zone by using the finite element method.
Subsequently, a numerical technique for the simultaneous analysis of
gas flow and heat transfer will be given using the same finite element as
a basis.
co/co,
4tj° pg
as
"- ,,
\
\
\
\ \
\
\
\
\
\
o
Fig. 3.4.11. Mole fractions of CO (--) and CO 2 (- - -) gas in the blast furnace;
average CO/C02 of top gas = 1·02.
3.5.1. Flow Analysis of Gas

The vectorial form of Erg un's equation is given by eqn (3.5.1), which was
obtained by expanding the original one-dimensional Ergun's equation lOS
expressed by eqn (3.5.2) into two dimensions. The two-dimensional
--
form is used as the fundamental equation for computing the pressure
distribution in a blast furnace:
-grad(p) = (f, +f2IG g l)G g (3.5.1 )

~p
150 (l - £)2J1 G + 1.75 (l - £) G2 (3.5.2)
~z gc(¢d p )2£3 pg g gc(¢dp )£3 pg g
-
Equation (3.5.1) is a nonlinear equation with respect to the velocity
vector G g. It is therefore linearized as eqn (3.5.3) for convenience of
G is assumed to be
--
numerical analysis. This means that the change in g
negligible in the small region:
- grad (P) = G glao (3.5.3)

where ao = lI(}; + h IG g i)
-
The equation of continuity is expressed by eqn (3.5.4), and eqn (3.5.5)
is derived by combining eqns (3.5.3) and (3.5.4):
div (G g) = Qrn (3.5.4)
(3.5.5)
The functional for eqn (3.5.5) is written as eqn (3.5.6) in the cylindrical
coordinate system assuming axis symmetry:
x = 2TT JJ [~aol(oPlor)2 + (oPlozfl -

A
QrnPjr dr dz - fs
qrnP ds
(3.5.6)
where q rn denotes mass velocity of gas flowing through the outer surface
into the furnace.
According to the variational principle, the solution of eqn (3.5.5) can
be obtained by minimizing the functional X given by eqn (3.5.6). The
finite element method is the method which finds numerically the
function to make the functional X a minimum. In accordance with the
method, eqn (3.5.6) can be eventually rearranged to a set of linear
algebraic equations with respect to the pressure Pi at the i-th node. That
is, the pressure at the arbitrary point in any local element is given by eqn
(3.5.7), using the area coordinates (natural coordinates) M as the
interpolation function (shape function):
(3.5.7)
where the repeated index, i, in eqn (3.5.6) which is often called a dummy
index, implies summing according to the range of the index. This
notation is used throughout this section. The interpolation function is
defined by eqn (3.5.8) which is the function of nodal coordinates alone:
(3.5.8)
where
A, = r2 z3 - r3z 2, A2 = r3z, - r,z3, A3 = r,z2 - r2 z,
B, = Z2 - Z3, B2 = Z3 - Z" B3 = Z, - Z2
C, = r3 - r2, C 2 = r, - r3, C 3 = r2 - r,
2~ det
and (r" Zj), (r2' Z2), and (r3' Z3) denote the coordinates of the nodes 1,2,
and 3.
In order to derive the global finite element equation on gas flow, eqn
(3.5.6) is integrated after substitution of eqn (3.5.7). Equation (3.5.10) is
derived from the equation thus obtained together with eqn (3.5.9) for
minimizing X:
o (3.5.9)
(3.5.10)
where superscript e indicates a local finite element. The signs [ ] and ( )
designate matrix and vector, respectively. The matrix and the vectors in
eqn (3.5.10) are defined as follows.
Vector for the pressure of nodel points (P)":
(p)e = (Ph P2 , P3 )T
Stiffness matrix [H]e:
BjB j + CjC j B jB 2 + C jC 2 B jB 3 + C jC 3
[H]e aoV B 2B j + C 2 C j B2B2 + C 2C 2 B2B3 + C 2C3
~~+~~ ~~+~~ ~~+~~
Source vector (FbY:
where
(r j - 7)2 + (r2 - 7)2 + (r3 - 7)2
(r j - 7)(Zj - z) + (r2 - r)(z2 - z) + (r3 - r)(zj - z)
=
r = (r j + r2 + r3)/3
=
Z = (Zj + Z2 + z3)/3
V = TTr/2~
Inflow vector (Fs)": suppose that the gas flows in with mass velocity
qrn between the nodes i and j; thus we have:
2rj + rj
o
A set oflinear algebraic equations with respect to the nodal pressure is
obtained as given by eqn (3.5.11) by summing eqn (3.5.10) for the whole
range:
[H](P) - (Fs) - (Fb) = 0 (3.5.11 )
The pressure gradient can be obtained by differentiating eqn (3.5.7)
and substituting it for eqn (3.5.3), which gives the following equation:
IGgrt
Ggz\
e = -a'
0
IOP/ort
op/oz\
e = _ ~IB'
2.6. C,
B2 B3 t (p)e
C2 C3 f
(3.5.12)
This equation gives the distribution for the mass velocity of gas. Since a o
depends on the velocity vector Gg, the same computation is repeated
after the recalculation of a o on the basis of the previously computed
value of Gg • The computation is assumed to be convergent if the
maximum change in the mass velocity before and after the trial
computation becomes smaller than a specified value (10- 4 in relative
error).
TABLE 3.5.1
Operating Conditions of the Blast Furnace28
Top gas pressure 0·275 MPa

Blast volume 93·75 Nm3/s
Blast pressure 0·321 MPa
Weight of sinter per charge 1·152 X 105 kg/charge
Weight of coke per charge 0·277 X lOS kg/charge
Number of charges 1·395 X 10- 3 1/s
Top gas temperature 386 K
Blast temperature 1545 K
Temperature of pig iron 1792 K
Production rate of pig iron 99·97 kg/s
Discharge rate of slag 300 kg/t(pig)
Surface angle of sinter 28-32°
Surface angle of coke 33-37°
In the gas flow analysis, both the computation condition and the
structure of the bed are given on the basis of the operating conditions
listed in Table 3.5.1 and of the profile shown in Fig. 3.5.1 for a large blast
furnace operating in Japan. Characteristic values for the four different
kinds of elements which are used for numerical computation are given
in Table 3.5.2 and the essential conditions for the numerical computation
are summarized in Table 3.5.3.
TABLE 3.5.2
Properties of the Layers28
Layer Particle diameter (m) Shape factor (-) Voidage (-)
Ore layer 0·021 4 0·84 0·36

Coke layer 0·0477 0·90 0·45
Cohesive layer 0·021 4 0·84 0·10
Raceway 0·0477 0·90 0·80
Dead zone for gas 0·047 7 0·90 0·10
35
30
OC 1=
25 73.4°
20
E 15
N
10
o 5 10
r (m)
Fig. 3.5.1. Profile of the blast furnace. 28
tv
TABLE 3.5.3 tv
0
Characteristics of the Case Studies for Gas Flow Analysis28
No. Surface angle Ergun's equation Remarks

t:C
coke 35° _(oP/or) = ~1+/2IGgrl
ore 30°
o )( Ggr ) ~
...,
oP/oz 0 II + 121 Ggz I Ggz
'TI
-+ -+
c:
coke 35°
2 - grad P = (fl + h IG g I) G g ~
ore 30°
1!)
tT1
coke 30° ."
3 _( oPjor) ~I + ~IGgrl o )( G gr ) ::t:
ore 35° oP/oz Ji+hlGgzl Ggz tT1
Z
0
~
coke 30° _( oP/or) ~I +~IGgrl o )( G gr ) tT1
4 Cohesive and raceway zones set up z
ore 35° oP/oz 11+/21Ggzl Ggz >
coke 30°
~
_( oP/or) ~I + ~IGgrl o )( Ggr) tl
5 Roots of cohesive layers do not contact wall
ore 35° oP/oz Ji+hlGgzl Ggz ~
0
tl
tT1
coke 30° _(oP/or) = ~I +hlGgrl t""
6 o )( Ggr ) Gas does not flow into dead zone t""
ore 35° oP/oz 0 II + 121 Ggz I Ggz Z
coke 30° -+ -+ Different shape of cohesive zone 0
7 - grad P = (fl + h IG g I) G g
ore 35°
coke 30° -+ -+ Higher top gas pressure
8 - grad P = (fl + 121 G g I) G g
ore 35°
3.5.2. Computed Results for Gas Flow

Prior to the computation of gas flow and pressure distribution, the bed
structure in the blast furnace is determined by using the surface angle
and the distance between the surface of the bed and the nominal
stockline measured by sounding-rod on the assumption that the volume
of a layer is unchanged with the descent of the bed.
The surface angle of the bed observed in a 1/1 scale model experi-
ment 133 without gas flow is adopted in case (1). Since the inclination
angle of the bed has been found previously to reduce as burden
descends, the larger inclination angles for the iron ore and coke layers
are decreased linearly with burden descent to the middle level of the
shaft (18 m from the bottom) so as to be the same inclination angle as at
that level. In the lower region of the shaft (between 18 and 10 m from the
bottom), the inclination angle of both layers was decreased linearly and
horizontal layers were assumed for the furnace region below the 10 m
level. The dividing boundaries of 10 and 18 m from the bottom mentioned
above were selected by referring to dissection investigations. 134
Figure 3.5.2 illustrates the gas flow pattern computed for case (1). In
this case, alternate layers of iron ore and coke were assumed throughout
the furnace without cohesive zone and raceway regions as part of the
bed structure. In addition, a linear temperature distribution was also
assumed between the top and the bottom without a radial temperature
distribution. Zig-zag flow of gas appeared in the shaft region due to the
different permeability of the iron ore and coke layers, and also to the
inclination angle of the layers. In the top region of the bed, preferential
flow was found in the central portion despite the thicker layer of iron
ore, which has higher flow resistance.
In case (2), a slightly modified form is used for the mul~imensional
Ergun's equations as shown in Table 3.5.3. In this case, 1G g 1was given
by J Gir + G~ instead of the respective values ofl Ggr 1and 1Ggz 1which
were used as the approximation in case (1). Almost the same flow
pattern was obtained for case (1) and case (2), with a slight difference
found in pressure loss (about 10 kPa).
In case (3), the surface angles for ore and coke layers were changed,
thereby giving a layer structure having a large amount of coke in the
central core. This agrees with the dissected results of quenched
furnaces,135. 136 measurement 137 of surface angle for the charged material
with gas flow, and the fluidization mechanism of coke in the central
region. 138
Figure 3.5.3 illustrates the gas flow pattern for such a bed structure.
30
25
20
15
E
N 10
5
-
... . , ....
.::: ;;: -: ~
.....
o
I I I
o 5 10
rIm)
Fig. 3.5.2. Gas flow vector (G, mass velocity of gas) computed for case (1).28
Compared to case (I), case (3) shows significant preferential flow in the
central core at the top of the bed. These results indicate that the
difference in permeability of the layers and the inclination angle of the
burden principally cause nonuniform gas flow in the upper part of a
blast furnace.
For the approach to the real internal state of the working blast
furnace, cohesive and raceway zones were assumed in cases (4), (5) and
(6). Figure 3.5.4 gives the shape and position of the cohesive and
raceway zones for case (4). Case (5) has the same bed structure as case (4)
except that the cohesive layers contact the furnace wall (termed the
cohesive zone 'roof), while case (5) does not have such wall contacts of
cohesive layers. The bed structure for case (6) is also similar to that for
case (4). In case (6), however, the dead zone occurs which has high
resistance to gas flow. Figures 3.5.5 to 3.5.7 show the computed results
for case (4), indicating that the velocity vector is principally governed by
the bed structure. It is easily understood from the figures that the
cohesive layers playa role as gas distributor.
35 ... 5(kg/m Zsl
30
25
20
15
E
N 10
o
I I I
o 5 10
rIm)
35
30
25
20
15
E
N 10
0 5 10
rim)
Fig. 3.5.4. Schematic representation of the bed structure and finite elements for
case (4).28
4- S(kg/m 2.s1
35
III!,
30 II I!\'r'/I\
[","':""',
,!, ',', ~: ",', \.
I': ~'j r ~ ',', \.
25 ,,!~ 'j~: '.'1 \.

j', r \. 'j j ~ ',', ~
'~!~~ !r !j'l~~,
' ~ " ! ~ "~ :,',!
\ j • 'I
20 ~!~~:~~:!,:,
E
15
~l 1r«;\
:13j
N 10
ii!!fifi//
.....
:: ~ :~~:
" ''-
5 ~~~
·
·..··. . , ....
' ,.
.. .,.,, ..
o ·.
I I I
o 5 10
rIm)
Fig. 3.5.5. Contour lines of Gz computed for case (4).28
Figure 3.5.8 shows the pressure distributions along the furnace wall
for cases (4), (5) and (6) as shown in Table 3.5.3. No difference was found
in the upper part of the cohesive zone, but a small deviation was
observed in the lower part of the zone. This means that the change in
bed structure affected the gas flow only upstream of the change.
Figure 3.5.9 shows a different bed structure, where the cohesive layers
were assumed to be wider. Computed results corresponding to this bed
structure are represented in figs 3.5.10 and 3.5.11. Compared to case (4),
this case gave exactly the same flow pattern downstream of the cohesive
layers, but significant influence of the cohesive layers upstream.
Increase in the volume of the cohesive layers may therefore lead to
increase in pressure loss. Figures 3.5.12 and 3.5.13 illustrate computed
results for the case of higher top pressure in the same bed structure.
These results show almost the same flow pattern, but considerable
decrease in pressure loss.
35
30
25
20
15
E
1.0
N 10
5
0.1
0
I
0 5 10
rIm)
35
0.167
30
25
20
15
E
0.226
N 10 0.230
5
0.234
P(M Po)
o
I [ I [
Fig. 3.5.7. Isopressure lines computed for case (4).28

Shaft
0.25
I ~ II a
Cohesive lie,s (Cases 4 and 6)
02
<- Wall ""-;;._~-:-
.:__:-::---<
__
o
c.. 023
::::0: .
.-- .. ~:....,..
!" 0.22 .------ Case 4

;;J
III
- - Case 5
~ 0.21 -._- Case 6
Q:
0.20
~------~--------~--------~--------~
20 30 40 50 60
Number of layer
Fig. 3.5.8. Pressure distribution along the blast furnace wall.28
35
30
25
20
15
E
N 10
0 5 10
r (m)
Fig. 3.5.9. Schematic representation ofthe bed structure and finite elements for
case (7)?8
3S
111:!:\t
30
"~~!! :,:, lL,
l\',',I!I\I,
2S
20
15
E
N 10 J r.- .... ';
5 ,!!HH~
o
o 5 10
r (ml
Fig. 3.5.10. Gas flow vector (G, mass velocity of gas) computed for case
(7).28
o 5 10
r(ml

35
I I I! ~ !'
30 :~~~\~!!/
,,:, I~!!~\
, 't I ~, ~ I : ••
i\~\~I\
25
20
Ir::r:::'
15
.5 N
10
i
~L.
5 l [:;~ :~iti
o 5 10
r i m)
Fig. 3.5.12. Gas flow vector computed for case (8).28
3S
0.275
30
2S
20
.--,_.___, 0.314
IS
E
0.324
N 10
1---_..-< 0.333
0.338
5
PIMPo)
o SID
rim)

3.5.3. Simultaneous Analysis of Gas Flow and Heat Transfer

It is necessary to obtain the temperature distributions of gas and solid
together with the distribution of gas flow in order to estimate the thermal
condition in a blast furnace. Vectorial forms for the heat balance
equations on gas and solid under steady conditions described below are
used to compute the temperature distribution:
-
(3.5.13)
V(csGsTs) + V(-K~V(Ts)) +Ah(Ts - Tg) - Qs =0 (3.5.l4)

where Ah = hgs [6(1 - t:)]!¢dp.
Three different types of boundary conditions are set up for these
governing equations as follows:
Boundary 8 0 : Temperature of gas or solid is given on the boundary 8 0
(gas temperature at tuyere, solid temperature at the top
of the bed).
Boundary 8 1 : Heat flux is specified on the boundary 8 1 (discharged
gas at the top of the bed and imaginary outlet of solid at
Boundary 8 2 :
the tuyere):
q3 -
= -n K~V(Ts)
Heat flux is proportional to the temperature difference
--
(heat loss through the wall):
-n K~ V(Tg - Ta) hg(Tg - Ta)
-n K~V(Ts - Ta) hs(Ts - Ta)
The temperature distributions for gas and solid can be computed by
solving the finite element equations derived from eqns (3.5.l3) and
(3.5.l4) according to the Galerkin method together with the above
boundary conditions. Both the finite elements and the interpolation
function for the temperature equations are the same as for the gas flow
analysis. Accordingly, the temperature distributions in a local finite
element are expressed as follows:
Combining these equations with eqns (3.5.13) and (3.5.14), and also
with the boundary conditions, weighted residuals are obtained
according to the Galerkin method. Equations (3.5.l5) and (3.5.16) are
derived by equating the sum of the weighted residuals for each term in
eqns (3.5.13) and (3.5.14) to zero:
Tgi r[( :iJ G V(NJ~

J cg + Tg g + K~V(Ni)V(~) + AhNi~ ] dv
- Tsi J1AhN.~ dv + f q2Aj ds + f hg(TgiN. - Ta)Aj ds
- JrQgAj dv = 0
v SI ~
(3.5.15)
Tsi Jr[( s + Ts :~J OS V(N.)Aj + K~V(N.)V(Aj) + AhNiAjJ dv

C
- Tgi Jf A hNNj dv + f q 3~ ds + f hs(TsNi -

v SI 52
Ta)Ni ds
(3.5.16)
Mter some mathematical manipulation, eqns (3.5.15) and (3.5.16) are

converted into:
where - (T Je = (Tgj, TsY

The following global finite element equation can be derived by
(3.5.17)
- - -- -
summing eqn (3.5.17) over the whole range:
[Hij](T i) + [F ij](T i) + (b j) =0 (3.5.18)
where i and j are changed from 1 to the number of the nodal points.
Since the terms in regard to physical properties of gas, liquid and
solid are nonlinear with respect to temperature, numerical computation
is conducted iteratively. The computation is considered to be in
convergence if the maximum temperature change before and after one
iterative computation becomes less than a specified value (10- 3 relative
change).
In order to solve the heat balance equations given by eqn (3.5.18), the
solutions not only for gas flow but also for solid flow are required. Here,
potential flow is assumed for the solid movement. Therefore the
equation of motion is expressed by eqn (3.5.19) and the equation of
-
continuity which is also necessary for the flow analysis on solid is
represented by eqn (3.5.20):
-
- grad (c/>s)
div (V s)
= V./a s
= Vsm
where as designates the permeability of the solid.

(3.5.19)
(3.5.20)
Solid flow in the blast furnace was investigated by Nishio et al. 138 on
the basis of the data obtained by dissections. Their results support the
appropriateness of potential flow in the stack region. Further research,
however, is required on solid flow in the lower part of a blast furnace.
3.5.4. Computed Results on the Simultaneous Gas Flow and Heat Transfer
A set of computed results obtained by the simultaneous analysis of gas
flow and heat transfer are shown in Fig. 3.5.14. In the analysis, the same
configuration of finite elements for gas flow analysis was used.
However, a dead zone for solid flow was set up additionally as
illustrated in Fig. 3.5.14(a). It should be noted that allowances have not
been made for the heat sink accompanying the fusion of iron ore and
also the heat generation associated with the combustion of coke in the
raceway region for the case shown in Figs 3.5.14, 3.5.17,142 and 3.5.18. 143
These results, however, show the significant interaction between gas
flow and heat transfer. Figure 3.5.14 gives the computed results for
uniform particle size and uniform voidage in both the ore and coke
layers. The flow vectors for gas and the pressure distribution illustrated
in Fig. 3.5.14(b) and (c) demonstrate essentially similar patterns to the
results obtained by gas flow analysis alone. During computation of
simultaneous heat transfer and gas flow, the temperature distribution
computed successively was used as the temperature distribution
required for the computation of the physical properties such as density,
viscosity, heat capacity and so on. Figure 3.5.14(d) gives the flow vectors
for solid movement showing that the movement is principally governed
by the furnace shape. This is the behavior of solid particles which are
governed by the potential flow assumption without consideration of the
effect of gas flow and temperature distribution, and where the only solid
disappearance is through discharge at the tuyere. Figure 3.5.14 (e) and
(f) illustrate that the temperature distributions of the gas and the solids
are represented by almost uniform profiles in the upper part of the
cohesive zone, while in the lower part the temperature distributions are
governed principally by the shape of the cohesive zone. Accordingly,
35 35 "Slkg/m 2 s) 35
III!~'
30 3D \'\\,1 1, 30
)))/~.",!\
)))\~~(,
25 25
))~M;' 25
II 11\\
1\\\\\
11\\\\
~li~
20 20 20
15 15 15 0.235
E
E E
11/1'mIl' '
NIO :; 10 -;; 10
.... n~,'-~
Irm~m
5 5 5
PIMPal
o 0 0
o 5
rim)
10 0 5 10 0 5
rim)
10
rim)
(a) Fonite element r"presen- Ib) Gas flow vectorlG 'mass Icl isopressure lines
lotIon velOCity of gosl
35 35 35
30 30 30
25 25 25
20 20 20
15 15 15
~ E
N 10 -;; 10
5 5 5
TgIK)
o 0 0
o 5 10 0 5 10 0 5 10
rim) rim) rim)
I d I Sol id ftow vectorlV : lin- Ie) isother ms of go s (I) Isotherms of solid
ear velocity of solId)
Fig. 3.5.14. Results obtained by the simultaneous analysis of gas flow and heat
transfer in the blast furnace (uniform size and voidage in ore and coke layers,
respective! y).
10
IAI Type 139,140
141
E
8 \, IBI Type
0
I
"-,
iii
OJ
E
6
"'- "-, Coke
"
-0
~
4
--------~~----
'\
Average
---
'"
'§
--
CL
2 '-
~--~--=-
Average
--..::::.. - -
---
- ---
OL-____- L____ ~ ______ ~ ____ ~ ____ ~
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Dimensionless radius (~)
Fig. 3.5.15. Radial distribution of particle diameter. 113
IAI Type
\ IBI Type
0.55 '\
'\ ,
'" Coke layer
-'\----~~,~-=- ----.=-
Average
c
Q
u 0.50
g
-0
6
>
. . ___ _
Ore layer
0.45 -=-=- =-=-=.:~

\ Average
---
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Dimensionless radius (-)
Fig. 3.5.16. Radial distribution of voidage. 1I3

35 35 -5IKG/M'S)
_OAE
--COKE
30 30
25 25
_ 20
I:
N 15 N 15
COHESIVE
10
ZONE
10
5 5
DEAD ZONE
fDA SOLID
o o
o 5 10 o 5 10
RIM) RIM)
IA) fINITE ELEMENT (8 ) GAS fLOW VECTOR
REPRESENTRTION (G:MASS VELOCITY
Of GAS)
35 P 35
30 30
25 25
_ 20 _ 20
I: I:
N
15 0196 N 15
0.201
0.206
10 10
5 5
0 0 - 0.1!'
o 5 10 o 5 10
A 1M) A (M)
(C) ISOPRESSURE LINES (0) CONTOUR LINES Of
AVERAGED MASS
VELOCITY Of GAS
35 TG(Kl 35 T5(K)
30 30
25 25
_ 20 _ 20
=
N 15
s:::
N 15
10 10
1600
700
1750
5 1795 5
0 o
o 5 10 o 5 10
R (Ml R (M)
(El ISOTHERMS OF GRS (F) I SOT HERMS OF SOL I 0
Fig. 3.5.17. Results computed from the simultaneous analysis of gas flow and
heat transfer (particle size distribution, type (A)).
the result shows that the shape of the cohesive zone dominates the gas
flow pattern and the gas flow markedly affects the temperature
distribution.
Regarding the radial distribution of temperature, the computed
results show an almost uniform distribution in radial direction in the
shaft region, whereas actual measurements of temperature in operating
blast furnaces and dissection investigations 134 often gave significant
nonuniformity in temperature distribution. Since bed structure exerts a
great influence not only on gas flow but also on the temperature
distribution as already described, radial distribution of the particle size,
as well as the void fraction distribution, may play an important role for
the internal situation of a blast furnace.
According to the paper by Yamada et al., 139 the void fraction depends
on the particle size and its distribution in sinter and coke beds,
respectively. Empirical equations were derived by them representing
the relationship between void fraction and particle size on the basis of
the experimental data. Simplified expressions were obtained from the
35 35 - 5(KG/M' S)
ORE
COKE •\~!!,
30 30 ""I,
~))~~~~'I
)))\))(,
25 25
)))M\
))~)\'\I
\\\\(\1
\\\\\\1
_ 20
-
1\\1\\\
20 11\ \ \ \ \ \ .
III \\ \\\
I: I: lr\\\
IS ~~4~\
l rIW-f!~'
N N
15
10 10
5 EWAY
AD ZONE
SOLI D
5
i!"'!;ffi
o 0
0 5 10 0 5 10
R (M I R ( M)
(A) FI NIT E ELEMEN T (8) GA5 FLOW VEC TOR
REPAESEN TATION (G:MASS VE LOC I TY
OF GAS)
35 P
30
25
_ 20
I:
N
15
0.196
0.201
10 0205
o 5 10 o 5 10
R (M I R (M)
(C ) 150PRESSURE LI NES (0) CONTOUR LI NES OF
AVERAGED MASS
VELOC I TY OF GAS
3S TG(K) 3S TS(K)
30 30
2S 25
~ 20 ~ 20
.-
:E:
~
N IS N IS
10 1600 10
170
175
780
8 160
170
~175
8
5 1795 5 1780
1795
0 0
0 5 10 0 5 10
R (M) R (M)
(E) ISOTHERMS OF GAS IF) ISOTHERMS OF SOLID
Fig. 3.5.18. Results computed from the simultaneous analysis of gas flow and
heat transfer (particle size distribution, type (B)).
equations for estimating the void fraction distribution for the averaged
size of sinter and coke as described below.
For sinter layer:
(3.5.21)
For coke layer:
e = 0·153 log de + 0·724 (3.5.22)
where do and de have the dimension of m.
Regarding the radial distribution of particle size, it is very difficult to
measure the size distribution of particles at the top of an operating blast
furnace. Some observed data were, however, reported by using a full-
scale charging model without gas flow or by sampling from a real blast
furnace, also without gas flow, at the time when it was packed just before
starting up. The two types of observed distribution of particle size are
shown in Fig. 3.5.15. 142 The average diameter for both distributions is
shifted to the value specified in the figure. Figure 3.5.16 143 gives radial
distributions of void fraction computed from eqns (3.5.21) and (3.5.22)
for the particle size distribution shown in Fig. 3.5.15.
Figure 3.5.17 and 3.5.18 demonstrate the internal state of the blast
furnace computed from the mathematical model applying both (A) and
(B) type particle size distributions. In both cases, the same bed structure
and same finite element configuration were used. Each finite element in
the same layer was, however, assigned a different permeability due to
different particle size and void fraction. This gives rise to marked
nonuniform gas flow even in the shaft region as shown in Figs 3.5.17 (B)
and 3.5.18(B). Figures 3.5.l7(D) and 3.5.18(D) provide a clearer
representation on this nonuniformity of gas flow where, in Fig. 3.5.18(D),
preferential flow of gas is found in the central zone in the shaft region
and, in Fig. 3.5.18(D), the intermediate region has higher resistance for
gas flow caused by size distribution. Therefore the main flow of gas is
still in the central region but a considerable gas flow occurs in the
peripheral region. The temperature distributions for gas and solid are
illustrated in Figs 3.5.17 (E) and (F), and Figs 3.5.18 (E) and (F) show
the corresponding gas flow patterns. These results are quite realistic in
terms of real furnace operation compared to the results obtained for the
case of uniform size distribution given in Fig. 3.5.14. It can therefore be
inferred that the temperature profile is governed mainly by the gas flow
distribution and that the bed structure, including size distribution of the
particles, is a predominant factor governing gas flow. It may consequently
be understood that the charging method and the profile of the cohesive
zone are the principal important factors for estimating the static
performance of the blast furnace.
3.6. MODEL FOR ESTIMATING THE PROFILE OF THE

COHESIVE ZONE
As a result of blast furnace dissection studies134-136.144-151 it has been

confirmed that cohesive layers exist in the furnace, and it has
subsequently been made clear that the cohesive zone has a close
connection with the thermal efficiency, permeability and reducibility of
the furnace. In particular, it has been established that coke slits in the
cohesive zone play a role in the distribution of gas, which is an
important factor in determining the radial distribution of gas in the
lumpy zone.
A mathematical model was developed to estimate the gas flow
distribution at each coke slit and the gas pressure distribution at the wall
of the lumpy zone when the profile of the cohesive zone was assumed,
and thereby to make clear the functions of the cohesive zone for blast
furnace operation, and further to investigate the desired profile of the
zone in furnace operation. 40 It has become clear from the results of an
investigation during the test operation of a blast furnace 152 that the
desired profile of the cohesive zone is such that the inside boundary of
the zone (i.e. the starting line of melting down) should be as close as
possible to the dead man of the furnace in order to optimize the furnace
stability, reducibility and thermal efficiency.
For analyzing blast furnace operation in terms of the cohesive zone,
it becomes necessary to estimate the profile of the zone and the gas flow
distribution in operating furnaces. However, at present a mathematical
model for estimating the profile of the whole cohesive zone is
unavailable. Therefore the aforementioned mathematical model will be
modified to obtain a model for estimating the profile of the cohesive
zone and the gas flow distribution at each coke slit with the use of gas
pressures at the wall of the furnace (hereinafter referred to as shaft gas
pressures). The results will be checked against data obtained in blast
furnace operation, and the blast furnace operation will be analyzed
using the estimated results.
3.6.1. General Description of the Mathematical Model
3.6.1.1. Basic concepts

It can generally be guessed, through close technical investigation of the
cohesive zone of dissected blast furnaces, that ores in the cohesive layer
melt together in a deformed condition, thereby producing a large
increase in the flow resistance of gas at the cohesive layer.40 The gas
generated in front of the tuyere is distributed to the lumpy zone from a
coke column (dropping zone) in the radial direction through coke slits
between cohesive layers at the lower portion of the furnace. Therefore
the volume of gas passing through coke slits depends on the cross-
sectional area ofthe slits and their length. In addition to this the gas is so
distributed that the gas flowing through the dropping zone has higher
pressure than the gas going up in the lumpy zone.
When the profile of the cohesive zone is changed (leading to a
difference in the slit length and cross-sectional area), the volume of gas
to be distributed to each coke slit changes accordingly, resulting in
variation of shaft pressure distribution at the furnace wall. In other
words, variation in shaft pressure distribution is a manifestation of
difference in the profile of the cohesive zone. This may mean that the
profile of the cohesive zone can be obtained from the shaft pressure
distribution.
For obtaining the profile of the cohesive zone based on the above
principle, two methods are available:
(1) Method using a mathematical model (static pressure model)
(2) Method using the analogy of gas flow to electrical conductivity
with the use of electrically conductive paper
In these two methods, when the whole profile of the cohesive zone is
given, both the volume of gas distributed to the coke slit layers and the
pressure distribution at the inside and outside boundaries of the
cohesive zone can be obtained.
Methods (1) and (2) differ in the following respects. Using method (I),
the profile can be changed relatively easily, and the error between
calculation results and data acquired by actual measurement can be
verified readily; further, the relevance of the equations available for
estimation can be improved with experience. On the other hand,
method (2) is time-consuming since the profile of the cohesive zone has
to be measured by physically making the zone configuration with
conductive paper. However, it is possible to easily understand the gas
flow and pressure distributions in a locally unusual profile which is
difficult to express by numerical equations, e.g. a profile with no zone
apex or root.
This section takes method (1) as the main subject, and a few remarks
are also made about the principle of method (2).
Figure 3.6.1 shows the principles associated with measurements
made using conductive paper,153. 154 where (a) is a method available for
obtaining the pressure distribution and (b) for obtaining the gas flow
distribution.
In the pressure model the cohesive layers are represented by cutting
out the conductive paper, whereas in the flow model the conductivity is
raised by applying a silver paint. The gas flow lines and pressure
distribution can be obtained by measuring the voltage distribution
while applying a constant voltage to the conductive paper. However, it is
clear that this measurement is made on the basis of two-dimensional
potential flow, and this is appreciably different from the actual flow
in a three-dimensional situation.
It is to be understood from Fig. 3.6.2 that when comparing profile E,
where the inner side profile has protruded inward, with the profile of the
cohesive zone A, the ratio of the pressure drop in the lower part of the
131
101 Pressure model Ibl Flow model
111 Eleclric conducting ,heel

121,131 Eleclrtc pole ISilver po,nll
141 ConSloni pOlenl'ol generator
151 Amperemeler
161 Dlgltol.voltmeler
171 Probe
c:J Hole
_ Silver po,nl
Fig. 3.6.1. Schematic diagram of electroconducting paper method with

pressure distribution (a) and streamlines (b).
furnace to the total pressure drop is considerably decreased and the

pressure at the wall is increased in profile A more than in E.
Provided that gas pressure distribution at the actual blast furnace
wall is already known through measurement a profile of the cohesive
zone conforming to this gas pressure distribution may be obtained.
However, the method will encounter difficulty in obtaining a profile of
the cohesive zone according to the pressure distribution.
Method (1) gives mathematically the profile of the cohesive zone and
is a method which gives the furnace gas pressure distribution under the
assumed profile of the cohesive zone. By reducing the difference from
the measured pressure distribution progressively by changing the
assumed profile of the cohesive zone, the model yields a profile of the
cohesive zone equivalent to the actual pressure distribution.
02 04 0_6 08 I0
p . I-I
X Rb Profi le
H'b 1.73
A-E
W, 0. 17
0.32 A
Wb
0.67 £
Fig. 3.6.2. Relation between profiles of cohesive zone and pressure distribution.
Figure 3.6.3 shows a calculation flow diagram for computing the way
in which gas is distributed to the coke slits at the cohesive zone once the
profile of the cohesive zone is provided.
Usually pressure loss is determined by the gas flow rate. However, in
this model it has been taken that the flow rate depends on the pressure
loss. That is, gas flow is produced at the coke slit layers according to the
difference in pressure between the coke column inside the cohesive
zone and the lumpy zone.
The calculation is performed as follows using a trial-and-error
method. First, a certain proportion of the gas flow is allocated to the
lowest coke slit layer, whereby pressure at A-B, A-a and a-b can be
obtained.
Gas flow rate at the second-stage coke slit layer from the bottom may
be obtained from the difference in pressure between Band b with the
above assumption. The gas flow rate at the next coke slit layer can also
be obtained in a manner similar to that used in the above discussion.
During iterations in which pressure inside the cohesive zone
becomes lower than the pressure at the same level in the lumpy zone, the
calculation is suspended and the flow rate has to be set again to a new
value at the bottom stage of the calculation.
The calculation is repeated until the volume of gas passing through

the top-stage coke slit layer accords with the pressure difference across
the layer. The calculation then yields results for a profile of the cohesive
zone which gives the gas pressure distribution on the inside and outside
ofthe cohesive zone, and the volume of gas flowing through the coke slit
layers. Therefore this model makes it possible to assess the profile of the
cohesive zone in the actual blast furnace through comparison of the
pressure distributions. That is, the profile of the cohesive zone
providing the best fit between the actual measured pressure distribution
in the furnace and the predicted gas pressure distribution pattern may
be obtained by using the trial-and-error method shown in Fig. 3.6.3
successively.
Generally, the profile of the cohesive zone varies depending on the
furnace operation modes adopted.
As a premise, an inverse V-shape profile of the cohesive zone having
a high coke column has been assumed. This zone type is deemed to have
a desirable profile at present and, besides the intention of operators to
form this profile in the furnace, the calculation time using this
assumption is reduced as far as possible.
Sel calculating co"dillOn
. Furnoce profile
. CP', Cpo
,p•• VT
B.---==:!lJ
Fig. 3.6.3. Schematic diagram and calculation flow chart of gas volume rate
r,
distribution by cohesive zone (C~, C position and thickness of cohesive layer;
PA, Pdp PLu, pressure in front oflowest coke slit, at dropping zone, and at lumpy
zone; Pn , pressure at next coke slit; lJ.Pi, pressure drop at i-th coke slit; Vb, lowest
coke slit gas volume rate; V", coke slit gas volume rate; Vd, calculated total gas
volume rate; VT , total (bosh) gas volume rate).
3.6.1.2. Premises for model

To estimate the profile of the cohesive zone in the furnace during
operation, the following assumptions are made:
(1) The profile of the cohesive zone maybe expressed by an equation
y = ayX and as shown in Fig. 3.6.4. The coefficient a is given at the
upper and lower parts of the inner boundary and the upper and lower
parts of the outer boundary respectively, with origins initially provided
between the apex and the root of the cohesive zone. This profile is drawn
approximately by a curve of y = ayX according to the results of
dissection studies of the Hirohata No.1 blast furnaceY4
(2) The profile of the dead man is obtained by using the equations
established by Miyasaka et al. 99 and Shimizu et al. 155 It is also assumed
that no gas flows through the dead man, as discussed in detail below.
(3) The gas temperature is set as shown in Fig. 3.6.4, i.e. the
temperature at the burden surface and the theoretical flame temperature
Burden surface
(TOP gas temperature)
Upper leve I of apex
softening-
Lower level of
(IOOOOe)
apex
ori gin of inner side Origin of outer side
Inner side of
softening - melting
zone (iSOOOC)
U ppe r level of root
Lower leve I of root
Tuyere center level (Theoretical

flame temperature)
Fig. 3.6.4. Determination of the profile of the softening-melting zone and gas
temperature in the furnace.
at the tuyere centre line. The inner and outer boundaries of the zone are
assumed to lie at l800°C and 1000°C respectively. The gas temperature
in the intermediate regions is linearly approximated according to the
height. Temperatures at the inner and outer boundaries of the cohesive
zone are determined based on the values calculated by another
mathematical modeU 8 These temperatures will be re-defined in future
when the softening and melting properties of burden are made clear.
(4) The gas viscosity is kept at a fixed value regardless of gas
composition and temperature. Gas density is also maintained at a fixed
value irrespective of gas composition, and change by gas temperature
only is taken into account.
(5) The gas pressure at the tuyere center is set to 0·9 times the blast
pressure.
(6) Taking account of the volume change of burden as a function of
height, the bulk densities of ore and coke are provided by the following
equations according to the dissection studies of the Kukioka No.4 blast
furnace: 145
Po 1·90 + 1·3x (3.6.l)
Pc 0-45 + 0'3x (3.6.2)
where Po and Pc designate the bulk densities (tlm 3) of ore and coke, and
x is the dimensionless height from burden surface to tuyere center.
3.6.1.3. Calculation procedure of model

As shown in Fig. 3.6.4, the profile of the cohesive zone can be
determined by providing five points, i.e. the upper level of the apex, the
upper and lower levels of the root and the origins of the inner and outer
boundaries. The lower level of the apex can be determined automatically
by ore layer thickness provided that the upper level of the apex is fixed.
In the model, the shaft gas pressure distribution is calculated by
providing initial values of the five positions respectively, and the five
positions are moved so that the sum of squares of the difference between
the calculated and measured values at the installed shaft pressure
measurement position becomes a minimum. The method of calculation
for setting the profile of the cohesive zone is the same as that already
reported,40 i.e. the alteration sequence of the five position parameters
was examined and the sequence of parameter change was selected so
that the zone profile parameters with the greatest effect on the shaft gas
pressure distribution are changed first. Moreover, alteration in height is
made by single layer units corresponding to the respective layers
divided according to the ore and coke bases. Thus the following
parameter adjustment sequence is fixed: height oflower level of root_
Height of origin - Inside radius at origin _ Height of upper level of
apex - Height of upper level of root - Outside radius at origin.
With the first parameter changed, calculation is continued while the
sum of squares of the difference between the calculated and the
measured values is decreasing, and when the sum commences to
increase the calculation is transferred to the next parameter. On
completion of the calculation, made by changing the final parameter,
the profile of the cohesive zone which gives the minimum value for the
sum of squares of the difference between the calculated and measured
values is found. Mter that, a second calculation is made by changing
from the first parameter once again with this profile adopted as the
initial value. As a result of the second calculation, the profile of the
cohesive zone which yields the minimum sum of squares of the
difference can be obtained. This minimal sum of squares of difference is
taken as the minimum value in the calculation process, and no
restrictions are placed on its absolute value.
The profile of the cohesive zone obtained by the above procedures is
not computed through every alteration sequence of the five parameters,
and therefore it cannot be said, in the strict sense, that the sum of
squares of difference is kept absolutely at a minimum. However, it may
be considered to approximate a very exact solution in view of the fact
that the results of verification of the model stated later are satisfactory,
and the procedures described above take account of savings in
calculation time.
3.6.1.4. Investigation in preparation of model

the major assumptions which provide the premises for the model
discussed above are summarized hereunder.
Figure 3.6.5 shows a comparison between the estimated results
obtained for the case in which the gas is isothermal and at low
temperature and that in which the distribution of gas temperature is
determined as stated in paragraph (3) above. As can be seen, when cold
gas flows, the gradient of gas pressure in the upper part of the furnace is
steep and the difference between the calculated gas pressure at the
burden surface and the measured top gas pressure is large. It is therefore
reasonable to assume that the gas temperatures change in the simple
linear way indicated. In an investigation of the model40 developed
previously, it was found that there is no big difference in the gas
0
- pressure distribution in
\ the case that gas
2 \
\ temperature is decided
\ by simple linearization
\
4
\ ---- pressure distribution in
6 \ the case that cold gas
\ flows
\
E 8 \ • Measured shaft pressures
\ used in the mode I
.
10 \
CD \ Measured top pressure
> \
.!! 12 \
....u
-
\
\
0 14 ~
II> \
\
-
16
E \
...
0
18
\
\
\
-
CD \
u
c 20 \
0 \
II>
·0 22
24
26
28
30 2.5 3.0 3.5
Gas pressure (kg Icm 2 )
Fig. 3.6.5. Effect of gas temperature on the profile of the softening-melting

zone.
distribution at the coke slits regardless of gas temperature. However,

there is clearly a need to use gas temperatures which approximate those
in the operating furnace for estimating the profile of the cohesive zone
using the shaft gas pressure distribution in the furnace.
Figure 3.6.6 shows a comparison between the estimated results for the
cases where gas does and does not flow through the dead man. As can be
seen in Fig. 3.6.6, a large pressure drop is found in the vicinity of the
upper level of the cohesive zone root. This is because the root does not
allow gas to pass through even slightly, and the pressure at the wall at
root level is therefore the same as the pressure of gas flowing in the
dropping zone. Slightly above the root, however, gas flows towards the
wall through the bottom coke slit and this results in a sudden pressure
drop.
Based on the following three points, it was judged that better results
are ensured in the case where no gas flows through the dead man:
(1) Only a slight difference between the calculated and measured
shaft gas pressure at the bottom level is found for the assumption
of zero gas flow through the dead zone.
(2) Since the radial gas temperature distribution obtained with a
shaft probe shows a low temperature at the wall, it is guessed that
a u
o -pressure distribution in the
case that gas doesrft flow
2 1000 CD
~
through dead man
;:)
- --Pressure dist ribution in
4 500 "0
~ the case that gas flows
CD
0- through dead ma n
E
6
...
CD • Measured shott pressures
used in the model
E II>
8 o ® Measured shaft pressure
<!)
at the lowest level
CD 10
>
..!
12
....u
0
14
Vi
E 16
...e 18
CD
u
r::
0 20
Vi
0
22
--------- ...
.... ...
,,
,
24 \
\
26 ,
I
I
\
\
28 \
\
30 2.5 3.0 3.5
Gas pressure (kg Icm 2 )
Fig. 3.6.6. Effect of dead man on the profile of the softening-melting zone.
the cohesive zone root exists at quite a low level in the

furnace.
(3) The difference between the calculated and measured values of
shaft gas pressures is small.
Furthermore, from calculation results obtained by a two-dimensional
gas flow model,28 the gas volume passing through the dead man is small,
and it may be assumed that there are no real problems involved in the
cohesive zone profile estimation on an operating blast furnace by
assuming no gas flow through the dead zone.
Figure 3.6.7 shows the estimated results obtained for the case where
the vertical gas temperature distribution in the furnace is provided by
0 ~------'500 oU
- - pressure distribution in the
250 ~ case that gas temperature
2
i'=me:~~:ct ;;;J \ is decided by use of radial
f-----~ 0 ~ \ temperature distribution
,Temperature ., \
4 \ obtained with top probe
distribution ~ \
6 obtained with ~ \ ---- pressure distribution in the

top probe \ case that gas temperature
\ is decided by simple
8
.
\ linearization
E \
\ Measured shaft pressures
.
10
\ used in the mode I
Qi \
>
II> 12 \
\
\
.\
.>0:
0 14
~
II>
16
-
E
...0
18
Q)
0
c:
c 20
.~
0
22
24
26
28
30 2.5 3.0 3.5

Gas pressure (kg/cm2 )
Fig. 3.6.7. Effect of determination of gas temperature on the profile of the
softening-melting zone.
the exponential function given by eqn (3.6.3) taking the gas temperature
distribution obtained with the top probe as the initial value. This case,
which takes the averaged radial temperatures calculated from the
equation at each vertical level, is compared with the simple linear
temperature distribution given earlier in the figure.
(3.6.3)
where Tg designates gas temperature caC), db d 2 and d 3 are constants,
and z is the distance (m) from the burden surface.
It can be said that the difference between the calculated and
measured values of shaft gas pressure is made smaller by predicting the
gas temperature more accurately using the above equation, and the
estimation accuracy of the profile of the cohesive zone has thereby been
improved. However, since there is no substantial difference in the
estimated results of the profile, it is preferable to use the simple
temperature prediction method.
3.6.1.5. Verification afthe model

In order to verify the accuracy of the cohesive zone profile estimated by
the model, the results have been compared with data obtained from
other instruments installed in an operating blast furnace.
A mathematical model has been developed for obtaining temperature
distributions of gas and solid in the radial and vertical directions in the
blast furnace using the radial gas temperature and composition distri-
butions obtained with a top probe (or shaft probe) taken as initial
values.42 It has been assumed in the calculation that the isothermal line
of solid temperature at 1000°C is relatively in accord with the starting
line of softening given by the results of dissection studies of the Kukioka
No.4 blast furnace.
Figure 3.6.8 shows both the isothermal line of solid temperature at
1050°C calculated by this temperature distribution model using shaft
probe data, as well as the outer boundary of the cohesive zone estimated
by the present pressure tapping based model. As can be seen in Fig. 3.6.8,
both are in reasonable agreement except near the wall.
In large blast furnaces, the charging ratio of ore and coke (O/C) at the
wall has been raised by means of a burden distribution apparatus
(movable armor, etc.) to control gas flow. When O/C is low, the
resistance to flow is small and, as a result, gas volume is large and gas
velocity is high. Consequently the temperature of the solids is raised
before reduction occurs fully and, as a result, the softening of solid is
8
E
10
Q)
>
Q)
12
-
.>0::
()
o 14
I II
E 16
o...
'0-
Q) 18
-
()
J::
o
I II 20
o
22
24
center wall
Fig. 3.6.8. Comparison of the results estimated using the model with those from
another mathematical model.
started earlier. If ole is high, the temperature of solid is not raised so

quickly and reduction progresses more fully, resulting in softening of
solid at temperatures higher than 1050°C. The reason why the
isothermal line of solid temperature has been set at 1050 0e is that it is
supposed that the reducibility of ore has been improved in comparison
with values at the time of the dissection of the Kukioka No.4 blast
furnace. Thus the remaining FeO around 10000e has reduced and the
starting temperature of softening attributable to the remaining FeO has
risen. For these reasons, the temperature distribution model tends to
predict inaccurate results at the wall.
As part of the presently developed model, the gas volume coming out
of each coke slit is estimated. By taking 30% of the flow area adjacent to
the wall, the gas flow from the coke slits in the peripheral region may be
calculated. In Fig. 3.6.9 this peripheral gas volume is contrasted with
the values obtained with the top probe and with stave temperatures.
_ 0 50 . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
-~
0-
~
".&>
..
E! ~ (a )
'&e ( b)
1! ..
.~ e /.
'50.. 60
0.0.
~. ..
o
X 40 :.
--
Q.
.. 0. ~:
.c 0
.: =i
.. .
0:
"- "j
!' 0:."
30 .~.; 55
~ '0
" " /- ~.E
~o..&>~ :s-g
: .~
E 0 "o 0
0:
20 '--------""--_-'-_ _l-.._......J ~"Oo 50 '---_---L_ _- ' -_ _'---_--'
50 60 70 80 90 0 ~ 50 60 70 80 90
o '"
'" E Gas flow in Ih. peripheml region (Nm 3/s) Gas flow in Ihe peripheral region "(Nm3/s)
130,------------,
o
o ~-
-0
_0 \
i
0-
~ 60 ,-----------;(c-:C~) " ,,110
0: ~ <.>
5~ " 0
"00:
A-----..,-
~.~ g~
o
"0 "
.c 40 ---.--:~ • ~.
<.> - ~ CP 90
O.c
.~
-" "
.. 0 1;;-
-
..5 -
~ ~
~ e. ~
o ~
20 ~ 70
E~
-~ "~
2
8.1! o L-_---L_ _- ' -_ _' - - - _ - '
x. :;
E
~
;0
•
Al1aehed level of Ihermoeouples
2. 50 '--_...L.I..._ _- ' - _ - - '_ _- '
" -
E - 50 60 70 80 90 17 18 19 20 21
.... 0
Gas flow in Ihe peripheral region (Nm3/s) Dislane.of upper level of rool from slack level (m)
Fig. 3.6.9. Relation between the results estimated using the model and data
obtained with other instruments in the furnace"
As can be seen, the gas temperature in the peripheral region obtained

with the top probe rises as the gas volume in the peripheral region
increases. Also, the CO gas utilization (Tlco) in the peripheral region, as
measured by the top probe, assumes a maximum value as the peripheral
gas volume is increased. When the gas volume is high, the gas velocity is
too great and, conversely, ifthe volume is low, insufficient heating of ore
will result. In both cases this will lead to a decrease in Tlco. Further, as
the gas volume in the peripheral region increases, the stave temperatures
in the upper region of the shaft rise whereas in the lower region of the
shaft, when the estimated position of the upper level of the root
approaches the installed position of the stave thermocouple from
beneath, the stave temperature rises under the influence of the cross-
flow of gas coming out of the coke slits.
As will be apparent from the above discussion, the estimated results
are, in great measure, in conformity with the data obtained from other
instruments in the furnace, from which the inside phenomena of the

blast furnace can be understood well. Furthermore, the results are
extremely helpful for the analysis of blast furnace operation in terms of
the cohesive zone profile and, at the same time, they have testified to the
fact that the estimation accuracy of this model is high.
3.6.2. Relation between Indices Estimated Using the Mathematical

Model and from Blast Furnace Operation (Cohesive Zone Analysis
with 4000 m3 Class Blast Furnace)
In the operation of a blast furnace, it is essential to derive various
indices representing the operational state of the furnace and control
them in turn. In this section, a detailed description ofthe various indices
that can be derived based on the estimated results of the model is given,
and these are compared with blast furnace operation and evaluated as
control indices.
As shown in Fig. 3.6.10, the following parameters are taken as the
appropriate indices: (i) volume oflumpy zone; (ii) volume of dropping
volume of
droppi nil zone Cross section of co~e sli Is
ot inner side of softeni ng-
melting zone
The shortest distan ce

between inner side of
sofleninll- melting zone
and dead man
Fig. 3.6.10. Indices representing the operation state in the furnace.

zone; (iii) cross-section of coke slits at inner side of cohesive zone;

(iv) shortest distance between inner boundary of cohesive zone and
dead man (hereinafter referred to as f:l.L).
Figure 3.6.11 shows the relationship between the volume of the lumpy
zone and blast furnace operation. As the volume of the lumpy zone
110
(.) (a )
0
-
...
Q)
::J
100
...
.,
0
Q)
a.
-E
Q)
1/1
0
90
• .~
co
a.
0
~ 80
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
Volume of lumpy zone ( m3 )
52
(b)
~
0
~
-
c:
0 50
• •
0 •
, •••
-
N
• • •
•
::J
• • •
48 •
1/1
0
•
co
0
(.)
46
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
Volume of lumpy zone ( m3 )
Fig. 3.6.11. Effect of volume of lumpy zone on the furnace operation.

increases, greater heat exchange between gas and solid occurs and, as a
result, the average top gas temperature decreases. However, the average
TJco in the top gas remains almost constant and this may be because
reduction does not occur below a certain temperature or because the
effect of radial gas flow distribution in the lumpy zone is equally as
important as the volume of the lumpy zone.
Analysis results, including those gained in the operational test of the
Kimitsu No.3 blast furnace with low fuel ratio in 1975, have revealed
that there is a favourable correlation between gas utilization ratio (TJ",)
and lumpy zone volume. It has been discovered that increasing the
lumpy zone volume greatly contributes to improvement in furnace
efficiency.
Figure 3.6.12 shows the relationship between dropping zone volume
and blast furnace operation. Since the quantity of heat transferred from
the gas to the molten metal becomes greater as the volume of the
dropping zone increases, the molten metal temperature rises and the
retention time of liquids becomes greater, thus resulting in an increase
in the Si content in the molten metal. The Si content in the molten metal
shows a fixed value for dropping zone volumes below a critical value,
and in this range the chief reaction is between SiO gas and metal at a
high rate. When the dropping zone volume increases beyond the above
range, the contribution to hot metal Si of the slag-metal reaction
becomes great. The mechanisms for these reactions are currently under
study.
It is to be understood from the description given above that the
volume of the lumpy zone is a useful index representing the thermal
efficiency and reducibility of the blast furnace, while the volume of the
dropping zone is a useful index for representing molten metal
quality.
It is found from Fig. 3.6.13 that the permeability resistance index, K,
in the blast furnace rises as the gas flow per unit cross-section of coke
slits at the inner side of the cohesive zone increases. It is surmised that
this is because the total cross-section of the slits reduces as the apex of
the cohesive zone becomes lower, and this results in an increase in gas
pressure.
K = (P~ - p?)/BG17 (3.6.4)
where P b and PI are blast pressure and top gas pressure (g/cm abs), and
2
BG designates volume of gas generated in the raceway (Nm3/min)

(hereinafter referred to as bosh gas volume).
.----.0
1540 r------------------------------------------------------,
( 0)
U
a
1530
.•
Q)
...,
~
:::s
rc
• •
• •
~
•
.~
Q)
1520
--.
D..
•
...,
E
Q)
...,rc •
Q)
E 1510
...,
0
:c
1500
500 550 600 650 700 750
Volume of dropping zone (m 3 )
0.45
*
...,
';;; ---.
Q) •
E
..., 0.40
0
.<:: •
•
C
...,
.~
c
- . •
,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __eo_.
...,
Q)
0.35
c
0
u
.~
Vl
•
0.30
500 550 600 650 700 750
Vol ume of dropping zone (m 3 )
Fig. 3.6.12. Effect of volume of dropping zone on the furnace operation.

2.6 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
/
•
2.5
-
III
o
0'
o
><
a>
2.4 .1 •
"0
c:
2.3
.J:J
o
a>
2.2
....E
a>
0.. /.
~.
2.1
2.0
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
Gas flow per unit cross section of coke slits at

inner side of softening - melting zone (Nm 3 15·m 2 )
Fig. 3.6.13. Effect of gas flow per unit cross-section of coke slits at inner side of
softening-melting zone on permeability index of gas.
Figure 3.6.14 shows the relation between slip frequency X 5 + drop

frequency (times/day) (slip is the instantaneous descent of more than
1 m of burden surface; drop is that ofless than I m) taken as the index
representing unusual descent of burden and I':!.L. As viewed from
Fig. 3.6.14, unusual descent of burden becomes heavy as I':!.L narrows,
and this is thought to be due to unsteady supply of coke to the
raceway.152
In 1975, successive slips occurred during the operational test of the
Kimitsu No.3 blast furnace with low fuel ratio, as shown in Fig. 3.6.15.
20 .---------------------------------------~
>-
0
"0 15
"'-
II>
Q)
• •
E
0-
0
10 •
....
0
+
0-
(/)
___________ .--------
>< 5
l~
If)
.-
OL---~--L-----~--~--~~~--~------~
. .
1.3 14 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
The shortest distance between inner side of

softening - melting zone and dead man (m)
Fig. 3.6.14. Effect of the shortest distance between inner side of softening-
melting zone and dead man on descent of burden.
This phenomenon is traceable to variations in the amount of coke

supplied to the raceway via the region between the cohesive zone and
the dead man. Although it seems that there are many sources of this
problem, it is clear that such problems will occur if this clearance (ilL)
is small. However, these successive slip periods were obviated by
adjusting the movable armor to transfer the cohesive zone inner
contour towards the wall, taking action which allowed gas to pass
smoothly to the wall and enhancing the strength of sintered ore.
The indices thus derived based on the estimated results by the model
have proved to be very informative as those representing the operational
state of the blast furnace. Further work is required to establish the
method of control of these indices during furnace operation.
Norma! stole Stale in succe~sive slIps
.1
Stagnanr zone
Ibl Movemenl af sound,ng
150.3.21
lal
Fig. 3.6.15. Successive slips in operational test of the Kimitsu No. 3 blast
furnace with low fuel rate.
3.6.3. Analysis of Operation with Decrease in Production

From the estimated results using this mathematical model based on
data obtained during periods of decreased production, it has been made
clear that, in general, the level of the apex lowers and the level of the root
rises as a result of bosh gas volume reduction. Therefore attention has
been directed to the change in the level of the apex and the root with
changing profile of the cohesive zone, and the operational factors which
have an effect on these levels.
As indicated in Fig. 3.6.16(a), the level of the apex rises as the gas flow
per unit cross-section of the furnace increases. It is assumed that this is
because apex formation is enhanced by the greater quantity of heat
transferred to the ore as the gas volume increases. However, the apex
level ceases to rise at around 18 m. Also, if the level of the apex rises
excessively, the volume of the lumpy zone decreases and this reduces
the working efficiency of the blast furnace.
It may be considered therefore that the cessation of the rising trend

results from actions taken to suppress the central gas flow. Also, when
the ore base per charge is high (encompassed by short dashes as data in
~ 20 r-------------------------(-a--,)
.D
o •
><
CI)
a. .---~-------.,--~.~---.~.----
-
18
o •
o •
~~
.!! E 16
...
CI) ...
o.CI)
g.~
•
_ ~ 14
./
/
o
•
.~
.... II)
oC'"
.~~
!~. 12 L-_ _ _ ~ ____ ~~ _________ L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ ______ ~
1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35

Gas flow per unit cross section of the furnace
(Nm3/S m2 )
o
II) 20.------------------------;l~--~(-b~)1
>
o
I·
.D
o
><
CI)
a. 18
-
o
o • ••
~ ..... ••• •
./
16
.!! E
...
CI) ...
o.CI)
a. ....
C
/'
::::I
_ u
II) 14
-------
0
.... II)
oC'"
.~ ~
! ~ I~IOOO 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000
Kinetic energy of blast (kg·m/s)

Fig. 3.6.16. Effect of gas flow and kinetic energy of blast on the level ofthe apex.
high coke base in Fig. 3.6.l6(a», the level of the apex is decreasing
despite a constant gas flow. This is supposed to be because of a delay in
the heating of ore inside the thick ore layer.
Further, when Fig. 3.6.l6(b) is prepared by taking only the data
enframed by the rectangle in Fig. 3.6.16(a), it is found that, the larger
the kinetic energy of the blast flowing through the tuyere (hereinafter
referred to as a tuyere energy), the higher the level of the apex even
though the gas flow is the same. This is because the depth of the raceway
becomes larger and more gas flows toward the central region as tuyere
energy increases.
Thus, the greater the bosh gas volume per tuyere, the lower the level of
the root, as shown in Fig. 3.6.17(a). The reason for this is the same as the
--.
above, namely that, the greater the gas flow, the deeper the raceway and
'0 o~ 4.0 r-,-------------------------,

~ E (a)
-~
o
~:; 3.0 (0'

Q)-
c:
Q)
'\;--;--.
~ u " -I ~ ••
Q)
~ ~
••
•
1\.
1\ , :----
-
,..
Q) 2.0 1\
J \
'0;
Data in high coke base __ - - i
1.0 '---_ _--'---_ _--'-_ _'-=L::..-"--_-L.
-
(0 0
-------
0 o~~~~
_ _----'=--_ _...L.-_ _.....J
200 210 220 230 240 250 260 270
Bosh gas volume per tuyere (Nm 3/min· tuyere )
'0
-
o~
~ E (b)
":--.>----
o ~ 3.0
Q)
>
-Q)
~
Q)
-c:
Q)
... -..
-- -------------
:p
..
(J 2.0
----.--...-------
~ Q)
,...,
o ~
0;
:c Q)
1.0 ' - - - - - - ' - - - - - - ' - - - - ' - - - - - - - - - '
13000 14000 15000 16000 17000
'" 0>
._
Q) .0
::c c Kinetic energy of blast (kg' m Is )
Fig. 3.6.17. Effect of bosh gas volume and kinetic energy of blast on the level of
the root.
the more gas flows towards the central region. As bosh gas volume
decreases, the raceway depth becomes less and this results in more gas
flowing in the peripheral wall region. Consequently the root is melted
more rapidly and the level of the root goes up.
Further, when the ore base per charge is high (encompassed by short
dashes as data in high coke base in Fig. 3.6.17(a)) despite gas flow being
the same, heat transfer to the root interior is delayed and the level of the
root is lowered. In addition, when Fig. 3.6.17(b) is prepared by taking
only the data encompassed by the rectangle in Fig. 3.6.17(a), it is found
that, the greater the tuyere energy, the lower the level of the root, even
though the gas flow is the same. The reason for this is that more gas
flows toward the central region when tuyere energy is higher and gas
volume in the peripheral region decreases. Also, for operation with low
fuel rate, the volume of gas for melting the root decreases and, as a result,
the root level lowers.
The mechanism of descent in the apex and ascent in the root for
decreased production operations, based on the above results of
investigation, is as shown in Fig. 3.6.18. However, the extent of the
IEer.a.. in production
n
Oecreo.. in volume Of} ... Decreall in volume of gal
bosh gas per un it croll section of
y
the furnace
1
Decrease in kinetic
energy of blaB' I Oecreo.e in volume of I I ,,~.,'.. '" .~~
~I reduction in volume
'"~
of
tuyer.
I
bosh gal per
r race way
r Increas. in ore baSI r
Acceleration
Descent in apex I
4,",~. ". . ",. ;, ,".~ .";.,;, "..

lower region of the furnace the roof of
m.. "
softening-
Ascent in root I
melting zan. Acceleration
I Oecreas. in are bale I

I ncnose in fuel rat.
Fig. 3.6.18. Change of the blast furnace condition with a decrease in the
production of the furnace.
change in the levels of the apex and the root differ according to whether
reduction has occurred through change in tuyere energy, gas flow per
unit cross-section of the furnace, and bosh gas volume per tuyere when
bosh gas volume decreases owing to operation with decrease in
production, ore base per charge and change in 'fuel rate.
Also, with regard to blast furnaces having the same inner volume, it
can be said that the rate of change in the levels of the apex and the root
for decreased production operations is less in a blast furnace with fewer
tuyeres or a smaller belly diameter.
3.6.4. Future Direction

The accuracy of this mathematical model developed for estimating the
profile of the cohesive zone and gas flow in the blast furnace in
operation has been confirmed to be satisfactory, and it has been shown
that the model is very useful for deriving indices which represent the
operation state in the furnace in terms of the cohesive zone profile.
Although the present model has been developed following the
concept that it is intended to estimate the profile of the cohesive zone
and the corresponding gas flow distribution in the operating blast
furnace, it has been simplified using many drastic assumptions. To
further improve the estimation accuracy, it will be necessary to develop
a method for detecting the cohesive zone directly, and this is a problem
to be analyzed in the future.
3.7. ONE-DIMENSIONAL DYNAMIC MODEL
A number of basic phenomena in a blast furnace have been gradually

clarified through experimental and theoretical investigations using
analyses of actual operations. It is therefore very important to develop
mathematical simulation models in order to summarize these results
for the better understanding and improvements of blast furnace
operations. Although many trials have been performed,19, 32,156-159 further
investigations should be conducted using electronic computers and
more precise up-to-date information now being obtained on the
phenomena occurring in the blast furnace,
In this section a mathematical simulation model describing the
dynamic behavior of blast furnace operations is described not only for
the case of step changes in blast and charge parameters but also for
unsteady state blast furnace operation, such as the shutdown, the blow-
in and the blow-out.
3.7.1. Outline of Mathematical Simulation Model

The blast furnace process is a continuous counter-current process
involving heat and mass transfer; it is also one of the most complicated
processes in the metallurgical industry. A schematic diagram of the
mathematical simulation model describing the process is shown in
Fig. 3.7.1, and an outline of the model is as follows.
in ut variables out ut
Volume flow rate
Chemical compositions (Burden) (Top Gas)
Physical properties. Temperature
(Diameter ,DensitY,etc.) Compositions
(State variables)
( Parameters)
Temperature
Geometric profile 'Heat exchange
. 1--- Compositions
Rate parameters
'Heat loss. Packing condition
in ut variabl es out ut
Blast volume rate, Productivity

temperature ,etc.
Temperature
Oi I, Tar injection ( Raceway)
Fig. 3.7.1. Schematic diagram of the blast furnace simulation model.
3.7.1.1. State variables

The state variables are assumed to be uniformly distributed in the radial
direction ofthe blast furnace. The state variables in this model are those
for the gas and solid states listed in Table 3.7.1, while the liquid state is
not taken into account.
3.7.1.2. Transport phenomena

The transport phenomena considered in the model are listed in Table
3.7.2. The rates oftransport phenomena are represented as a function of
the state variables as follows.
TABLE 3.7.1
State Variables in this Model
Solid state (Y,) Gas state (Yg)
Ts Temperature CK) Tg Temperature (OK)

Us Descending velocity (m/h) Wg Mass flow rate (Nm/h)
Wst Moisture (-) p Pressure (kg/cm2)
rl Liquid ratio (-) Yeo CO in gas (-)
YFe203 Fe20l in ore (-) Yeo2 CO 2 in gas (-)
YFeO Fe in ore (-) YH2 H2 in gas (-)
Yslg Gangue in ore (-) YHp H 20 in gas (-)
Zc Carbon in coke (-) YN2 N2 in gas (-)
Zash Ash in coke (-)
do,dc Diameter of ore and coke (m)
Pbo, Pbc Bulk density of ore and coke
(kg/m l )
(a) Reduction of iron oxide by the gas: Rt, Ri, Rj, Rt (kmol/ml . h). An
unreacted core model with two reaction interfaces is adopted for the
reduction of iron oxide by the gas as follows:
R*1
ITO
a ( ----
P)
UPl·X22 - UP2 ·X12
(i = 1,3)
o 22.4R T pO X ll X 22 - X l2 X 21
1 TOP)UP2.XII-UP1.X21
R*1 a (----
o 22.4R T pO X ll X 22 - X l2 X 21
(i = 1,4)
XII = Drl + Djl + D:;,! + Rhl

X 22 Drl + Djl + R~l
X l2 = X 21 = Drl + Djl
UPl = (KHW.J'j - h)/(l + K HW)
UP2 = (KWFjYj - Yk)/(l + K WFj )
(j = CO, k = CO2for CO reduction, j = Hb k = H 20 for H2 reduction)
where UPl and UP2 represent potentials for reductions from Fe 20 l to
FeO and from FeO to Fe. Drl, Djl and D:;,l show resistances for gas
diffusion through the gas film, Fe phase and FeO phase respectively.
Rbi and R~l are resistances for reductions from Fe20l to FeO and from
TABLE 3.7.2
Transport Phenomena in this Model
Reactions
R(: Fe203 + CO _ 2FeO + CO2
R1: Fe203 + H2 - 2FeO + H 20
Rj: FeO + CO _ Fe + CO 2
Rt: FeO + H2 - Fe+H20
Rt; FeO + C _ Fe+CO
Rt: HP + CO - H2 + CO 2
Rr: C + CO2 - 2CO
Rt: C + HzO - CO + H2
R~: Evaporation of moisture
Rio: Melting of reduced ore

Heat exchange between gas and solid
qe = ahgsCTg - Ts)
Heat loss through the wall
qloss = TTDhwCTg - Twa)
Pressure drop in gas flow
dP 2 3
- = FkCl - €)GgPoTg/(gc€ dpPgPTo)
dz
FeO to Fe either by Hz or CO. Dr\ Di l , D~I, R;;I andR~1 are written as

follows:
Dr = lTd~kfi
Dj lTdodwDsF/(do - dw)
Dw lTdwdhDsW/(dw - d h)
R HW lTd~kHF(1 + l/KHw )
RWF lTd;"kwF(l + l/KWF )
where kr (m/h) is the mass transfer coefficient through the gas film, DsF
(m 2/h) and Dsw (m 2/h) are effective diffusion coefficients of gases in the
Fe phase and in the FeO phase, k HW (m/h) and kWF (m/h) are rate
constants for the reactions, and do (m), d w (m) and d h (m) are the
diameters of the particle, the FeO interface and the Fe20 3 interface.
These values could be given as follows:
k
fi
= Di(2
do
+ 0·55 Reog 5S CgO.333)
DsF = k et:;(Tj296Y75
Dsw = ket:~T,/296)175
(k e = 0·0677 for CO reduction and 0·0298 for Hz reduction)
k HW. CO = 20100exp(-14000/RTs), k HW. Hz = 107 exp(-30000/RT.)
k WF . CO = 2600 exp(-14 OOO/RTs), k WF . Hz = 106 exp(-30 OOO/RTs)
where Di (m 2/h) is a molecular diffusion coefficient, Reg and SCg are

Reynolds and Schmidt numbers, t:h (-), t:w (-) and t:i (-) are the
porosities of the Fe203 phase, the FeO phase and the Fe phase, and Vh
(m 3), Vw (m 3) and Vi (m 3 ) are the volumes of Fe203, FeO and Fe in an ore
particle. Porosities and volumes are given by assuming that the density
of atomic Fe is constant before and after the reaction as follows:
t:w = 0'8l29t:h + 0'1871, t:i = O' 5l44t:h + O' 4856
159·6 YFe203 71·8 YFeO 55·8 YFe
Vh = - ---- V = - ---- v· = - --
5·171-t:h' w 5'71-t: w ' 1 7'01-t:i
(b) Reduction a/liquid FeD by carbon: Rt (kmol/m 3 • h). This reduction
is regarded as proceeding in proportion to the square of the thickness of
FeO in liquid and is represented as follows:
Rt = aek5(YFeOrl)2
where ae (m 2/m 3) is the specific surface of the coke bed and k5 (kmol/h) is
the rate constant. The rate constant is expressed as follows:
k5 = 4·66 X lO"exp(-53 300/RTs)
(c) Water gas shift reaction: Rt (kmol/m3 . h). This reaction is regarded
as taking place on the particle surface in proportion to the deviation of
the gas components from their equilibrium and is shown as follows:
Rt = ak6
1
( 22-4R Ts pO
ro P)2 (YCOYH20 - Yco:J!H/K6)
where a (m 2/m 3 ) is the specific surface of the bed, K6 is the equilibrium

constant and k6 (kmol/h) is the rate constant represented as follows:
k6 = exp(l5 - 27 9001RTs)
(d) Carbon solution loss by the gas: Rj, Rt (kmollm 3 • h). The formulas
proposed by Hatano et al. 159 are adopted as follows:
Rj k7J (1 + 0'237ln~) In(l- We)PbcYe

1 + YH/YH 20 • k72 2·598 In(l - w~) 12
Rt = kS1 (1 + 0'237ln~) In(l - WJPbeYc

1 + Y CO IY C02' kS2 2·598 In(l - w~) 12
where u g (m/s) is the velocity of gas, We and w~ are the reactivity
parameters of coke and its standard value (0'253), and k7l, 72 ( - ) and
ks!. S2 ( - ) are rate constants for the solution loss reaction by CO
described as follows:
kS1 = exp [252de + 4·42 - (227 OOOde + 15 950)ITsl
kS2 = exp [-652d e + 16·93 - (17 870 - 648000dc)/Tsl
(e) Evaporation of moisture in the burden: Rt (kg/m3 • h). The
evaporation of moisture in the burden is assumed to proceed above
100°C by the rate of heat input under the condition that the burden
temperature is kept constant at 100°C:
R* = Heat input to burden
9 Latent heat of evaporation
(f) Melting of ore: Rto (kg/m 3 • h). The melting of ore is assumed to
proceed at the melting point of ore by the rate of heat input under the
condition that the solid temperature is kept constant until ore is melted
completely:
Heat input to ore
Rto =
Latent heat of melting
The liquid is assumed to move with coke and unmelted ore at a descent
velocity us.
(g) Heat exchange between gas and solid: ahgs (kcallm3 • h . 0q. The
formula by Tate et al. 156 is used for the evaluation of the coefficient of
heat exchange as follows:
38 .7 PgUgCg a
Re0-4
g
where Pgis the density, cgis the specific heat coefficient of gas and Reg is
the Reynolds number. Here a is introduced to correct the heat exchange
parameter in the case of the existence of liquid phase as follows:
Heat capacity of coke and un melted ore
a = Heat capacity of coke, un melted ore and liquid
(h) Heat loss coefficient: hw (kcal/m2 . h . DC). The heat loss through the
blast furnace wall proceeds in proportion to the temperature difference
between the inside and outside of the wall. The coefficient of heat loss is
estimated as follows:
h = kb
w lb
where kb (kcal/m· h . DC) is the heat conductivity of the lining brick and
lb (m) is the thickness of the furnace wall.
3.7.1.3. Input variables

The input variables are the geometric profile of a blast furnace, the rate
parameters and the controllable parameters in the blast furnace
operation; these are listed in Table 3.7.3.
The transitional behavior in a blast furnace may be expressed as a set
of partial differential equations for each state variable as follows:
oY oY
at + Uj oz = f(Y,t,z) (3.7.1)
Here the time dependent term in the differential equations for gas can
be neglected because of the short passing time of gases through the blast
furnace:
oYg _ I
;;- - ~ fg(Yg , t, z) (3.7.2)
uZ ug
On the other hand, the differential equations for solid may be
rewritten in the form of total differential equations since they have a
unique solution as follows:
dYs = oYs dt + oYs dz
at oz
Therefore eqn (3.7.1) for solid can be transformed into a set of
ordinary differential equations as follows:
dYs dz
dt = fs(Y" t, z) and dt = Us (3.7.3)
TABLE 3.7.3
Input Variables in this Model
Charge parameters Blast parameters
Mass of burden charged at the same time Blast volume

Ore/coke ratio Temperature
Composition of ore Moisture
(Fe203' FeO, Fe, gangue, water) Pressure
Composition of coke (carbon, ash, water) Injection rate of heavy fuel oil
Physical properties of ore and coke Injection rate of tar
(diameter, density, void ratio) Oxygen enrichment
Nitrogen enrichment
In this way the differential equations for gas and solid states may be
written as follows:
Density of ore: Pbo
Density of coke: Pbe
d
dt Pbe =
Liquid ratio: rl
Components of ore: Yi = YF"2OJ'YFeO,YFe,Yslag
Components of coke: Yj = Ye, Yash

Temperature of solid: Ts
d 1
dt Ts = Phe~Yn(dTs' csn/dTs) + Phe~ Yn.(dTs· csn,/dTs)
X [ahsg(Tg - Ts) - ; hw(Ts - Twa) + l2 b..Hk • R~
- Ts(:~:; cn~mk,n
n k
. R~ + ~ cn,~mk,n" R~)l
k 0 1
~
Position: z
dz
Us
dt
Descending velocity of solid: Us
iJus = _ !(u !!..A + A Rro)

iJz A s dz Pho
Mass flow rate of gas: Wg

iJW
iJz =
--g ~~m
1 k k, 1
'R*k
Gas components: Yi = Yco,YCC}z,YH2,YH20,YN2

iJiJz Yi = wIg (-Yi~n ~mk,n
k
. R: + ~mk,i . R:)
k
Gas temperature: Tg
- Tg~Cl'
1
~mk,l
k
'R~lJ
Gas pressure: P
~P = (1'75 + 150 I-S)(l-e)G~TgPO

iJz Reg ges3 dp PgToP
where mk, n ( - ) is a stoichiometric constant, Cgn (kcal/N m3 • C) and Csn 0
(kcal/Nm3 • 0 C) are specific heat coefficients of gases and solids,

respectively, D (m) is the diameter of the blast furnace, e is the void ratio
of packed bed, Reg is the Reynolds number, and gc is the gravitational
conversion factor.
3. 7.1.4. Calculations
In solving the differential equations it is convenient to rewrite eqns
(3.7.2) and (3.7.3) in finite-difference forms. Here, the space difference
(Az) and the time difference (At) are given as follows.
The content of the blast furnace is divided into finite layers as small
as the space difference. One unit layer is made of burden and coke
charged at the same time.
The time difference is evaluated such that the blast rate over this time
supplies the necessary quantity of oxygen for the consumption of
carbon in the unit layer at tuyere level. Although this is about 10 min or
so, it may be subdivided into a half or a quarter of the required time
when it is too long to obtain accurate simulation results.
At the start of the calculation, the solid state variables must be set as
an initial condition. The boundary condition for gas at the tuyere level
and the time difference are calculated from the input blast conditions.
Then the differential equations are integrated from the tuyere level to
the top of the layers to give the new state variables. The new positions of
each layer are calculated with their new volumes based on the geometric
profile of the blast furnace.
If the height of the top of the layers is lower than stock level at the
particular time, one or some charges are made to fill the space between
the top of the layers and the stock level.
Behavior of the blast furnace in any operation can be simulated by
iterating the calculation steps mentioned above. An example of the
calculated results for the steady state operation of a blast furnace of
1350 m 3 in inner volume is shown in Fig. 3.7.2.
3.7.2. Applications to Blast Furnace Operations
3.7.2.1. Dynamic response obtained by the model

The dynamic responses of the blast furnace to step changes in the blast
or charge parameters are now described for the blast furnace of3000 m 3
inner volume. It is very important to clarify the effect of heavy oil
injection on blast furnace operation, because the injection rate of heavy
Fig. 3.7.2. Calculated results of heat and components profile for the steady
state blast furnace operation.
oil is one of the main control parameters for the furnace heat condition,
namely the hot metal temperature (H.M.T.).
The simulated result shown in Fig. 3.7.3 has a good agreement with
the actual result in Fig. 3.7.4. It takes rather a long time to reach the new
steady state in the case of heavy oil injection. This also occurs for change
in ore/coke ratio, oxygen enrichment and blast volume rate, but the time
is smaller for blast temperature and blast moisture change as shown in
Fig. 3.7.5.
3.7.2.2. Applications of the model to special operations

No trial had been made on the application of mathematical simulation
models to special blast furnace operations such as shutdown, blow-in
and blow-out. However, it is very important and attractive to apply a
mathematical simulation model to special operations with precise
knowledge of its limitations.
(aJ The shutdown ofthe blastfurnace. The most significant parameter in
studying the shutdown is the coefficient of heat loss through the wall
and through the bottom of the blast furnace, these having been
evaluated through the monitoring of heat flux in the actual operation.
Oi I injection +37.5Kg/min (75Kg/H.MTon)
+40
+30
+20 H. M.T.
+I0
0
-0.5
0
+30
+20 T.G.T
+10
0
0
2 Reduction (+4.IKmol/min)
0
Total Reductionn-----(-5.5Krnol/min)
0
- 2 CO Reductio n (- 3.4 KmoVm in)
0
-2 O'irect Reduction (-3.5Kmol/min)
-4
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time(hr.)
Fig, 3.7.3. The simulated result of the dynamic response to the change in heavy
oil injection by 7'5 kg/H.M. ton for the blast furnace of 3000 m 3•
Oi I injection CB 13.5kg/min (5kg/H.M.Ton)
+40
-------
Hot metal
+ 30
T
tlO
20
----
O~~~-----;~-------
-0.4
-0.2
O¥-~~----------------------
(-1.5 Kmol/ min)

o
I ---......... ....... - ...."...-- ..........
-_/
2
( - 2. 0 K mo I / min )
O~~--~------------~-=~--------
- I
- 2
- 3
....... _--
D i rec t Reduction
o 2 4 6 8 /0 /2
( Hou r)
Fig. 3.7.4. The experimental result of the dynamic response to the chanSe in
heavy oil injection by 5'0 kg/H.M. ton for the blast furnace of 1850 m .
0) Blast temperature -50°C b) Blast volume rote -2CONmtmin
+40
~30
o~-------- (+29°C)
-10 H.MT
-20 (- 2~'5°C )
-30
_ _ CO/C02
Or-~~==---~~-
-005 CO/C02
O~-===~--------- T.G.T (tI4°C)
-10 TG.T (-1°C)
o K======~(r::I_II.::i3I1(;Km;;:;;o:;[;V;;:;;min)
- 2 Total Reduction
O~==== ____,-=-;~~~
- 2 (-O.2Kmol/min)
CO Reduction
- °+--C====~r-:;-;-~~
2I . (-I. I Kmol/min)
-4
Direct Reduction Direct Reduction
o 5 10 15 20 25 () 5 10 15 20 25
Time (hr.) Time (hr.)
c) Blast moisture +IOQ'i Nm3 Ore/Coke - O. I
o -----
-IO~.M.T.
- 20
- 30 (-330C)
Toto I Reduction
-4 ( -'52 Kmo !;min)
0
-2 (-3.1 Kmo!;min)
H2 Reduction CO Reduc-:ti~on::--~'::':';-
0
°k:===="I(r:-vi'l'~.6:1<Kmrncoor;l;;;;m:J;;-in ) -2 -----r:z-T Kmol/m in)
- 2 Direct Reduction -4 Direct Reduction
o 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (hr. ) Ti me (hr.)
Fig. 3.7.5. The simulated results of the dynamic response of blast furnace to the
step change in (a) BT from 1250°C to 1150°C, (b) BY from 4850 Nm 3 to
4650 Nm 3, (c) BM from 10 g!Nm 3 to 20 g/Nm 3, (d) Ore/coke ratio from 4·1 to 4'0,
for the furnace of 3000 m 3 volume.
It was assumed that the decrease of descent velocity at the top of the
furnace for an hour or two after the shutdown is brought about by the
scaffold formation caused by resolidification of the melting zone during
the shutdown, and that subsequent slipping is caused by remelting of
this solidified scaffold. Therefore, in the simulation, no charge is made
until this scaffold has remelted. The time required for the remelting is
given by the mathematical model itself. The result of the simulation is
shown in Fig. 3.7.6 where the blast and charge parameters were input
Actual
Calculated
1550 H.M.T. (OC)
J\ fl.
\:i \ I
~
O/C 3.4
25 I
I
,_.Jr.J
1.2 CO/C02
(-) 1.1
1.0
0.
slipping
12 o 12 0 12 o
Time( hr)
Fig. 3.7.6. Simulated results of blast furnace operation before and after
shutdown for the furnace of 4200 m3 .
a) 4
2
1550
H.MT
(OC) 15O'Jt--"-- t--c-f"'~LT9>'-- - - - - -
1450
b)
30 O/C 40
15
H.M.T
(OC) 1::Yv\.'I--~~ --+--+---,1- 7'7£---"H".M'.t - -
1450
-20 -10 20 30
c) -16hr -9hr-3IT1 ~.~~______~O~/~C~
1550 3.2
H. M. T __ ;::::::==-
( 0C) 1500+---~"'---+- +---,...7",,'7-'7-
1450 H.M.T
-10 20 30
Time(hr)
Fig. 3.7.7. Calculated results of the effects of (a) the inteIVal shutdown, (b) the
change in orelcoke ratio (O/C) before shutdown, and (c) the change in OIC after
shutdown on the recovery of H.M.T. for the blast furnace of 4200 m 3 inner
volume.
5000
25
4000
3500 20
3200
3000 0;,
15
C
(Nm' )
~n 2000
Geametric
10
rate profi Ie
1000 12aa
sao 5
0 I-----J
40 400
CO(%)
30
(%)
20
eo}%) o /
.. ~
10 /
~'" T.G.T (Oe) o. Actual
0
~ ........ = Calculated
____________________________________ ~r
I I I I I I I I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (hr.)
Fig. 3.7.8. Simulated results of the blow-in operation for the blast furnace of
3600 m 3.
- - schedu led
[ _ _ actual
____~B~last temp~________~~====~
Stock level
(m)
Coke only~I (41)

(ch)
1148
I
lTon)
lJ-t"'=----- - - - H . M.T.
-------
(Ton) Water sprinkled
~===Co::=(=%=):::::::::::I~
(%) IO~ \~
o C02(%) ~ ~
o 4 8 12. 16 20 24
Time (hr.)
Fig. 3.7.9. Results of blow-out operation with the decrease of stock level for the
blast furnace of l350 m 3.
from the actual operation. The effects of the interval of shutdown and
changes in the charge parameter (ore/coke ratio) have been studied as
shown in Fig. 3.7.7, through which the schedule of controlling ore/coke
ratio should be optimized in order to get smooth recovery of the blast
furnace after the shutdown.
(b) The blow-in ofthe blastfurnace. The initial condition of solid in the
furnace can be given from the actual results of filling of coke and
burden before the blow-in. Then the blow-in operation can be
simulated according to the schedule of the increase in blast rate and
blast temperature. One of the simulated results is shown in Fig. 3.7.8.
The adequacy of the model for the application to the planning of the
blow-in of the blast furnace was confirmed.
(c) The blow-out of the blast furnace. An example of the simulated
results is shown in Fig. 3.7.9, where a blast furnace of 1350 m 3 in inner
volume was blown out with the decrease of stock level from the top to the
upper bosh under the schedule predicted by this mathematical model.
The actual results are in good agreement with the schedule and the
predictions by the mathematical model until the top of the burden
reached a height around half the hearth diameter above tuyere level.
3.8. NOTATION
A domain for plane integration

(r-z plane) (U)
Ab effective area for heat transfer to
particles in a large bell (U)
Ac effective surface area of coke for
reaction (U)
Ai cross-sectional area of an annulus
in i-th block (L)
Aw inner surface area between top level
of burden bed and tuyere level (U)
A z cross-sectional area at z (U)
a specific surface area of particle (U/U)
ac , ao specific surface area of coke
and ore (U/U)
aj specific surface area of j-th layer (L2/U)
C i concentration of i-th component (kmol/U)
CeO, ChO , CIO , CoO initial concentrations of coke, hematite,

limestone and oxygen combined with
iron (kmol/U)
C r carbon ratio (-)
(c p);, (c s); specific heat of i-th component of
gas and solid (L2/fT)
CO average specific heat of dust (L2NT)
Cj average specific heat of j-th phase
U = g, s, 1) (VNT)
Cgw average specific heat of wet blast (L2/fT)
Cm specific heat of cooling water (VNT)
csp, Css specific heat of hot metal and slag (L2NT)
De effective diffusivity (Vlt)
Do,Db,Dh inner diameters of throat, belly and
hearth (L)
D h, diameter at bottom of a large bell
hopper (L)
D; diffusion coefficient of i-th
component in blast furnace gas (Vlt)
Dij equimolar counter-diffusion
coefficient in two-component
system (L2/t)
Ds"Dss intraparticle diffusion coefficients
of CO and H2 in reduced iron
phase (Vlt)
Ds2 , Ds4 , Dss intraparticle diffusion coefficients
of CO2 in coke, CO 2 in CaO, and
H 20 in coke (Vlt)
D sM , Dsw, DsF intraparticle diffusion coefficients
of CO in magnetite, wustite and
iron layer (Vlt)
Dz inner diameter of furnace at z (L)
d diameter of packed materials (L)
d p average diameter of any solid
particle (L)
do,d L average diameters of iron ore and
limestone (L)
de,de1 average diameters of coke in blast
furnace and at tuyere level (L)
dh, d w interface diameter of boundaries

between hematite and wustite, and
wustite and iron (L)
E j Eg = 8(1 - 8\), Es = 1 - 8, E\ = 88\ (-)
E r, E; effectiveness factors of solution-
loss reactions by CO and H2 (-)
Eri eddy diffusion coefficient in radial
direction for i-th component (U/t)
Fg , Fo, F\ volume flow rates of gas at any
level in furnace, at top level of
burden bed, and at tuyere level (U/t)
F b, Fw blast volume in dry base and in
wet base (L3/t)
Fi volume flow rate of i-th component
of gas (U/t)
F OJ. volume flow rate of enriched
oxygen (L3/t)
FmAo,FmD.o molar flow rates of oxygen in ash
and dust (kmol/t)
FmD.c, FmL.c, Fmc.c molar flow rates of carbon in dust,
limestone and coke (kmol/t)
F ms. i molar flow rate of i-th component (kmol/t)
F ms. wus. io F ms. wus. d molar flow rates of wustite to be
reduced indirectly and directly (kmol/t)
FM , FSL , Fw volume flow rates of hot metal,
slag and wustite (U/t)
Fr Froude number (-)
Fs volume flow rate of particle bed (U/t)
!c fractional conversion of coke (-)
Ji fractional decomposition of
limestone (-)
j.,fsO overall fractional reduction and
fractional prereduction of iron ore (-)
j.HM,j.MW,j.WF,j.HW fractional reduction for each reduction
step from hematite to magnetite,
magnetite to wustite, wustite to iron,
and hematite to wustite (-)
fo fractional conversion of iron ore (-)
Ji ,h viscous and inertial terms for
Ergun's equation (1/t), (VIM)

Gg,Gs total mass velocities of gas and
solid (MIVt)
Gg;, Gsi mass velocities of i-th component
of gas and solid (MIVt)
g gravitational acceleration (Lie)
ge gravitational conversion factor (-)
H distance between top of burden bed
and tuyere level (L)
6.H; heat of reaction of i-th reaction (MU;e·kmol)
6.He , 6.H" 6.Ho heat of reaction of solution-loss
reaction, decomposition of
limestone, and indirect reduction
of iron ore with CO (MU;e·kmol)
HTR ratio of heat flow (= csGJcgGg) (-)
hkj heat transfer coefficient between
phases k and j (M/fT)
hj forced heat transfer coefficient at
phase j (j = g, s, 1) (M/fT)
hw heat transfer coefficient for heat
loss through wall (M/fT)
K" effective thermal conductivity (MLlfT)
K"K4 ,K5 equilibrium constants of indirect
reduction of iron ore by CO,
decomposition of limestone, and
indirect reduction of iron ore by
H2 (-), (MILe), (-)
KHM,KMW,KWF equilibrium constants of reduction
steps from hematite to magnetite,
magnetite to wustite, and wustite
to iron (-)
KHW,KWF equilibrium constants of reduction
steps from hematite to wustite and
wustite to iron (-)
kj thermal conductivity at phase j
(j = g, 1, s) (ML/fT)
k HM , k MW , kWF rate constants of chemical reaction
for each reduction step of iron
oxide (Lit)
k HW , kWF rate constants of reduction steps

from hematite to wustite and
from wustite to iron (Lit)
kb k2' k3' k4' ks, k6' ks rate constants of i-th chemical
reactions
(Lit), (L 3/Mt), (L4/kmol· t), (kmol!LIt), (Lit), (U/Mt), (Lit)
kSb kS2 rate constants of forward and
reverse reaction for solution-loss
reaction by CO 2 (-)
ke effective thermal conductivity (MLlfT)
keL effective thermal conductivity of
porous CaO (MLlfT)
kf}, kf2' k f4 , k fS , k f6 gas-film mass transfer coefficients
in i-th chemical reaction (Lit)
L domain for linear integration
(r-z plane) in Section 3.5; height
from top of burden bed to bottom
of furnace in Section 3.3 (L)
L t diameter of tuyere (L)
L., L b, Ls heights of belly, bosh and shaft (L)
Lsb = La + Ls (L)
Lso height of throat (L)
(Lr)i heat of fusion for i-th component (ML2!fkmol)
I, 10 height of particle bed on large bell
and that in simplified model (L)
Ib thickness of lining brick of blast
furnace (L)
Mi molar mass of i-th component (M/kmol)
~i molar flow rates of i-th component
at phase j (j = g, s, 1) (kmol!t)
me mass of single coke particle (M)
m~ initial carbon content in coke (-)
mk, n stoichiometric constant of n
component in k reaction (-)
~ shape function at i-th node (-)
No, N e, NL numbers of iron oxide, coke and
limestone particles in unit volume
of bed (l/U)
Ngi diffusive flux of i-th component
in radial direction (kmol!Ut)
N FeO corrected molar fraction of FeO

in slag (-)
Nu Nusselt number (= hdlk) (-)
ni molar numbers of i-th component (kmol)
P, P' total pressure of gas (MILe)
po, Po total pressure of gas at standard
state and at top of burden bed (M/Lt2)
Pd CO2 pressure for decomposition
of limestone (MILe)
Pi pressure at i-th node (M/Lf)
Pj partial pressure of j-th component (MILe)
Prj Prandtl number in phase j
(= fJ-jC/k j ) (-)
Qj heat of reaction in phase j
(j = g, s, 1) (MIVt)
Qh, Qm sources of heat and mass (MIVt)
Q" Qw heat of slag formation and heat
loss through wall (MIUf)
Q~ heat loss through furnace wall
calculated from eqn (3.2.100) (MIUf)
qh,qm fluxes of heat and mass (MN), (MIUt)
% actual velocity of phase j in bed in
y-direction (Mit)
R radius of furnace in Section 3.3 (L)
R, R gas constant
I (MUNT·kmol)
Ri mean radius of i-th block in blast
furnace in Section 3.3 (L)
Ri reaction rate with respect to
species i in Sections 3.1 and 3.4 (kmol/Ut)
RT,R{,Rj,Rt,Rt,Rt,Rf,Rt overall reaction rates per
unit volume of bed (kmol/Vt)
R i, R To overall reaction rates of
evaporation of moisture in burden
and of melting of ore per unit
volume (MIVt)
R:fM,R~w,R~,R:fw overall reaction rates for each
reaction step from hematite to
magnetite, magnetite to wustite,
wustite to iron, and hematite to
wustite per unit volume of bed (kmol/Vt)
Rc radius of dead zone at tuyere level (L)

Rep particle Reynolds number
(= d pGgI)1g) (-)
Rej Reynolds number for phase j
(j = g, 1) (-)
r radial coordinate (L)
rl liquid ratio in blast furnace in
Section 3.7 (-)
ro , ri radii of particle and reaction-
interface (L)
rj, r2, r3 radii of reaction interfaces for
reduction steps of Fe20 3 - Fe304,
Fe 30 4- FeO, and FeO _ Fe (L)
rj mass fraction of j-th component
in dust (-)
S domain for boundary integration (r-z-O coordinate)
SI mass flow rate of slag (Mit)
Sc Schmidt number (-)
Sh Sherwood number (-)
SFe, SFe203 mass fractions of Fe and Fe203 in (-)
ash
1j temperature at phase j (j = g, 1, s) (T)
TO temperature at standard condition (T)
To,TI temperatures at top and at tuyere
level (T)
Ta ambient temperature (T)
Tb,T~ blast temperature and Tb in
practical operation (T)
Tc coke temperature at tuyere level (T)
Tcw temperature of cooling water or
vapor (T)
Tm average temperature (T)
Tsf temperature of feeding particle (T)
TI temperature of oil injection (T)
T p , Tsl temperatures of hot metal and of
discharged slag (T)
T st temperature of injected water (T)
T t theoretical flame temperature (T)
Tw blast temperature in wet blast (T)
Twa wall temperature (T)
Twe exit temperature of cooling water (T)

t time (t)
t. mass fraction of coke in ash (-)
tr residence time of solid particles
in each block (t)
to charging interval of particles (t)
U overall heat transfer coefficient
through furnace wall based on
inner surface area (M/fT)
Uj linear velocities of phase j (Lit)
UN superficial flow rate of gas at STP (V/L2t)
UFe mass fraction of Fe in cinder (-)
~ superficial velocity of phase j
(j = g, s, 1) (Lit)
~ volume of j-th layer per charge
(j = 1, 2) (L 3)
VB bed volume (V)
Va, V; bulk volumes of ore and of total
solid particles per charge (M3)
~y superficial velocity of phase j in
y-direction (j = g, s, 1) . (Lit)
Vsm source of bulk volume of particles (V/L3)
V-L' T';I superficial velocity vertical and
parallel to layer (Lit)
VFe , VFeO mass fractions of Fe and FeO in
iron oxide (-)
We Weber number (-)
fV;" W L , W M , Wa, Weinder mass flow rates of coke, limestone,
metallic iron, iron ore,
and cinder (Mit)
WD,Wail discharge rate of dust and rate of
oil injection (Mit)
Wm mass flow rate of cooling water (Mit)
W p , W; production rate of hot metal and
discharge rate of slag (Mit)
Wto feeding rate of total particles (Mit)
W st , w~ rate of vapor addition and W st
in practical operation (M/L 3)
We reactivity of coke (-)
X functional (-)
Xi volume fraction of bulk particles

in i-th range of size (-)
M thickness of single layer (L)
x x-coordinate (L)
x~ ratio of oxygen enrichment (V/V)
Y y-coordinate (L)
Yeo, I> Yeo, 2, Yeo, 3 molar fractions of CO at each
reaction interface (-)
y~o, I> y~o, 2, y~o, 3 molar fractions of CO in equilibrium
state for each reaction step (-)
Yi'Yi,O,Yi, I>yf molar fractions of i-th component
at arbitrary position, at top of
burden bed, at tuyere level, and
in equilibrium condition (-)
Yj,o'Yj,i molar fractions of j-th component
at outer surface of particle and
at reaction interface (-)
Yl ratio of oil injection (M/V)
z z-coordinate (L)
- vector quantity
Greek letters
a apparent angle of repose (-)
aj apparent angle of repose of j-th layer (j = 1,2) (-)
ai molar fraction of i-th component in hot metal (-)
ab inclination angle of large bell (rad)
a xy , f3xy permeability in packed bed in directions
x and y (I/L, Mt/L4)
a o, f30 coefficients of permeability at layer 0 (l/L, Mt/L4)
f3a effective area for reaction per unit surface
area of coke (-)
f3b inclination angle of feeding hopper (rad)
f3c, f3H mass fractions of C and H in injected oil (-)
Yc mass fraction of C in coke (-)
8 representative length (= d/6Ej) (L)
Lli vertical depth of i-th block (L)
Ll,j, I vertical depth of j-th layer in i-th block (L)
C'CI void fraction in bed and c at tuyere level (-)
Cl ratio of liquid volume to void volume in
packed bed (-)
t:j voidage in j-th layer U = 1,2) (-)

t:pe ' t:pio t:pL porosities of coke, iron ore, and limestone (-)
t:o voidage in ore layer (-)
t:h, t: w , t:i porosities of Fe203, FeO and Fe in an ore
particle (-)
t:y, t:yL porosities of reduced iron layer and of CaO
layer (-)
~ = rlRbe (-)
~e ratio of increase in coke saving (-)
1] ratio of increase in production rate of hot
metal due to oxygen enrichment (-)
Od apparent angle of repose of dead man (-)
Ow angle between wall and vertical axis (-)
K gas constant (UNK)
J1i volume of i component in ore particle
(i = Fe20 3, FeO, Fe) (U)
J1j viscosity of phase j U = g,l) (MiLt)
J1w viscosity of water at 20°C (MILt)
J1., J1 p ' J1L viscosities of slag, hot metal and molten
materials (MiLt)
v kinematic viscosity (Ult)
( = zlRbe (-)
(i mass fraction of i-th species (-)
(p ratio of increase in production rate of hot
metal due to 1% enrichment of oxygen (-)
(pi' (e, (L labyrinth factors for reduced iron layer, coke,
and CaO layer (-)
Pj density of phase j U = g, s, 1) (MN)
P. apparent density of particle (MN)
Po, PI densities of gas at top and at bottom of bed (MIU)
Pb bulk densities of particle bed (MIU)
Pbj bulk density of j-th layer (MIU)
Pc apparent density of coke (MIU)
Pw density of wustite (MIU)
Pgw density of wet blast (MIO)
p" PP ' PL densities of slag, hot metal and molten
materials (M/L 3)
(J surface tension (MN)
¢ average shape factor of all solid particles (-)
¢i effective angle of internal friction (-)
</>j shape factor of solid particles in j-th layer (-)

</>w angle of wall friction (-)
</>0' </>c' </>L shape factors of iron ore, coke and limestone (-)
X stoichiometric coefficient (-)
l/f stream function (M/t)
l/fj velocity potential of phase j (-)
-
W vortICIty
00
(l/t)
WI' W 2 shaft and bosh angles (rad)
SUbscripts
b burden
be belly
c coke
g gas
gs between gas and solid
gl between gas and liquid
in inflow
i-th component
J j = 1, 2 (1, coke layer; 2, ore layer)
k k-th reaction
I liquid
M cohesive zone (1300-1400°C)
o ore
out outflow
R raceway
r component for r-direction
,rz partial differentiation with respect to rand z
S cohesive zone (1200-1300°C)
s solid
sl between solid and liquid
wi inside wall
wo outside wall
we outlet of cooling water
x component for x-direction
,x partial differentiation with respect to x
y component for y-direction
z component for z-direction
o at top of bed or initial condition
I at tuyere level
~ II vertical and parallel to layer respectively
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154. H. W. Gudenau, K. Kreibich and K. H. Peters, Stahl u. Eisen, 101 (1981),

147.
155. M. Shimizu, T. Nagai, K. Okabe, M. Kondo and T. Inatani, Tetsu-to-
Hagane, 58 (1972), 589,
156, M. Chon and M. Tate, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 61 (1975),935.
157. R. Wartmann, Stahl u. Eisen, 95 (1975), 442.
158. G. A. Flierman and H. Oderkerk, lSI meeting, Amsterdam (1973), 40.
159. M. Hatano, T. Miyazaki and Y. Iwanaga, Trans. ISIJ, 20 (1980),292.
CHAPTER 4
Flow of Gas, Liquid and Solid
This chapter deals with the flow phenomena in the blast furnace. The
blast furnace is a counter-current reactor of rising gas and descending
liquid and solid. Since energy for reduction and heating of iron ore to
produce pig iron is supplied by the rising gas, the flows of gas and solid
in the furnace are crucial to furnace performance in both fuel rate and
productivity. While all aspects of the flows of solid and liquid in the
furnace are discussed, only a part of the interesting area of gas flow is
mentioned in the present chapter. One of the major fields of interest,
raceway phenomena, is discussed in Chapter 6. The following subjects
will be discussed:
Flow of Materials in the Upper Shaft (Section 4.1)

Among the blast furnace technologies that have been developed in
recent years, radial gas distribution control by means of burden
distribution control at the stock line is the most important for attaining
better performance. The burden distribution is characterized by the
structure of the layered bed of ore and coke. The structure is determined
by the flow of burden material at the time of charging. The flow of solid
particles at charging is explained at first in relation to burden
distribution control.
Radial Variation in Burden Descent Rate (Section 4.2)

Although the flow of charged material in the upper shaft is relatively
uniform when the furnace runs normally, the burden descent rate
varies radially across the furnace. This influences the burden distribution
and will also be considered.
297
Solid Flow in the Lower Furnace (Section 4.3)

The solid flow in the lower furnace is more complicated, since the coke
particles in the central region must move towards the periphery of the
furnace to be consumed in the raceway by combustion. Abnormal flow
conditions in this part of the furnace cause serious furnace problems
and the effect of flow of solids in the lower part of the furnace is
discussed.
Velocity Distribution for Bulk Solid Flow (Section 4.4)

Although no kinetic theory is established to account for the velocity
distribution of the flow of bulk solid, a semi-dynamic approach has
been used in an attempt to explain the stress distribution and the
boundary of flow and non-flow regions.
Shape of the Cohesive Zone (Section 4.5)

The major objective of burden distribution control is to form a cohesive
zone ofthe shape that best suits the operational target at the time. The
shape of the cohesive zone primarily depends on the radial distribution
of gas and ore velocities. On the other hand, the shape of the cohesive
zone influences significantly the gas flow distribution in the lower part
of the furnace. The relationship between the shape of the cohesive zone
and the gas flow distribution is considered.
Gas and Liquids in the Dropping Zone (Section 4.6)

In the dropping zone that extends underneath the cohesive zone down
to the hearth, liquid metal and slag flow through a bed of coke counter-
current to rising gas. In this region the liquid and gas interact with each
other; both the liquid and gas flows will become the focus of interest.
Liquid Flow in the Hearth (Section 4.7)

Finally, the discussion is extended to the flow in the hearth. The liquid
products, slag and metal, accumulate in the hearth, and flow towards
and through the tap hole, during tapping. The flow is important in two
aspects: first, the flow conditions will determine the degree of hearth
drainage which is of crucial importance to practical furnace operation;
secondly, the flow influences the magnitude of the thermal load on the
hearth wall and the hearth bottom and hence the life of the hearth
refractories.
Of the three phases - gas, liquid and solid - present in the furnace,
the flow of the gas has been most extensively investigated. Owing to
FLOW OF GAS, LIQUID AND SOLID 299
these investigations and the relatively simple kinetics of the flow in the
empirical formulation, it is now not very difficult numerically to
simulate gas flow in a packed bed of known distributions of particle
diameter, porosity and temperature, On the other hand, present
knowledge about the flows of solid and liquid in the furnace is not as
well developed. Therefore the aim of this chapter is not to present a
comprehensive account of flow in the furnace, but to give an account of
the latest knowledge. It is expected that this will give the reader a clearer
insight into the physical phenomena in the furnace. However, it must be
stressed that descriptions of the phenomena have been given quantita-
tively wherever possible.
4.1. FLOW OF SOLIDS DURING CHARGING AND CONTROL

OF BURDEN DISTRIBUTION
Enormous progres.! in both theory and practice of burden distribution

control has been achieved since the discovery of the cohesive zone in
dissected blast furnaces, and the recognition of its role as a gas
distributor.
Current ideas on burden distribution control are centered around the
cohesive zone. In the case of an inverted V-shape of cohesive zone,
which is regarded as a typical type, the permeability is improved and the
gas utilization decreased as the height of the cohesive zone is increased.
Therefore a compromise has to be made between good permeability
and good gas utilization by controlling radial gas distribution.
The shape of the cohesive zone is determined mainly by the radial
distribution of the thickness of the ore layer and the burden
permeability since, the thinner the ore layer and the more permeable
the burden, the more rapidly the ore is heated, and vice versa. Therefore
it is important to know the influence of burdening conditions on the
radial distributions of ore layer thickness and on burden permeability.
Since coke is larger in size than ore and about ten times as permeable,
the prevailing method of gas distribution control is through control of
the radial distribution of layer thicknesses of ore and coke.
Figure 4.1.1 shows two types of charging apparatus widely in use for
intensive burden distribution control: bell and movable armor top and
bell-less top. The layer thickness distribution is controlled by adjusting
the trajectory of burden material by use of the movable armor in the
former case, and by changing the tilting angle of the distributing chute
in the latter case.
In this section, the motion of burden material at charging and the

resulting burden distribution are discussed. Each of these two types of
furnace top has different characteristics of burden motion. Therefore
the two cases are discussed separately.
l'"
\
Hyd(oulic unll
Furnoce ,hell
J
i/
101 Bell lOp wllh movable armor 16
Malenol flow _ --.,,,,,,,,

conlrol gOle. '1' 7
lower seol,ng J \0
valve
fbi Bell-less lop
Fig.4.1.1. Charging equipment for blast furnace.

4.1.1. Burden Distribution of Bell Top Furnaces
4.1.1.1. Trajectories of burden materials from the large bell

(aJ Phenomena. We consider burden materials present in a large bell
hopper comprised of a large bell and a large bell hopper wall, as shown
in Fig. 4.1.2. Then we imagine that the large bell lowers at a prescribed
speed from a closed position to reach a position corresponding to a
prescribed large bell stroke.
I
I
I
lorse bell ' ¥.........- J... O
'"
\
\
\
\
\
y
Fig.4.1.2. Schematic drawing of a large bell and a bell hopper showing

parameters used for analysis of burden trajectories.
According to experimental results, I at an early stage of this large bell

descent there exists a period when no particles flow out. This period
lasts until the horizontal clearance at the lower edge of the hopper wall
reaches about four times the mean size of the burden to be discharged.
When the burden begins to flow out of this hopper, a dynamic arch
contacting both the hopper wall and the large bell is formed at a level
close to the edge of the hopper wall. Above the dynamic arch, particles
constituting the burden interfere with each other as they descend slowly
toward this arch. Passing through this dynamic arch, particles fall freely
till they reach and strike the large bell. Subsequently they move along
the large bell to its edge and attain an initial velocity for free fall in the
throat space. The burden materials leaving the large bell strike the
burden surface, the throat wall or the movable armor to form a burden
profile.
These four stages, as described above, are involved in the trajectory of
burden materials at the furnace throat.
(b) Formulation o/the/alling trajectory. We imagine that the large bell
lowers enough to allow the burden materials to discharge. The total
energy T of a unit volume of granular bed at level h 0 in the large bell
hopper is described as
(4.1.1)
where Pb denotes the bulk density of the bed, Vb the descending speed of
the particles,gthe acceleration due to gravity, andh o the distance from a
point made by the hopper wall and the large bell surface.
In the vicinity of the hopper exit, the area where the particles flow
downwards is approximately expressed as follows:
S = 21TR H(D H - kdp ) (DH">kdp) (4.1.2)
where RH denotes the radius of the annular hopper exit, DH the
horizontal clearance at the level h, and d p the mean size of the burden. k
is a dimensionless parameter to be empirically determined and is equal
to about 4, as mentioned previously.
The descending velocity Vb is expressed in terms of ho with the aid of
the correlation DH = he/tan 0b:
Vb = W/PbS = W/Pb21TRH(ho/tan Ob - kdp ) (h o "> kdp tan (}b) (4.1.3)
where W denotes the mass flow rate.
According to Brown's theory,2 the total energy T is dissipated by the
burden descent in the hopper attaining a minimum at the level where
the dynamic arch is formed, where h 0 is approximately equal to the large
bell opening ha:
(dT/dh)ho=ha = 0 (4.1.4)
Substituting eqn (4.1.3) into eqn (4.1.1) and defining the descending
velocity u D (= Vb) at the level of the dynamic arch h a' we may rewrite eqn
(4.1.4):
(4.1.5)
The velocity of particles u E striking the large bell surface after the free
fall from the dynamic arch is written as
(4.1.6)
where it is assumed that the average fall distance is h a!2. Assuming the
nonelastic collision of particles to the large bell surface, we obtain the
initial velocity U Esin (Jb of particles moving along this surface and the
velocity at the edge of the large bell U o:
(4.1.7)
in which 10 denotes the distance shown in Fig. 4.1.2 and /1 the friction
factor of the large bell. The free fall trajectory of particles leaving the
large bell edge is described as
(4.1.8)
If we prepare the data on large bell dimensions 10 and (Jb, friction
factor /1, mean size of particles d P' and large bell opening h a' the falling
trajectory of the burden material leaving the large bell may be
calculated with the aid of eqns (4.1.5)-(4.1.8).
The calculated results for coke and sinter are shown in Fig. 4.1.3. It
r
will be seen that, the lower the bell descends, the closer to the wall the
- 2.2 ~ -2.2 ~
r
0.1 -
-2.0 0.2 5
200mm -2.0 2 mm 0.2 5
0.3 :? 0.3 :?
-18 500mm OA·~ - 1.8 00
500 OAO'
- - 050- ~ O.5~
-1.6 700mm 0.6 - 1.6 700mm 0.6 0
- - 0.7 -- 0.7
-lA -lA
-1.2 -1.2
-1.0 - 1.0
E -0.8 -0.8
]0 E
~ -0.6 L -0.6 0
E
00
0
I "- OA <{
4' -OA 9
<{
:;: -0.2 :;:
·-0.2
SlOm SlOm
0 0
0.2 0.2
OA 0.4
0.6 0.6
0.8 0.8
1.0 1.0
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
Distance from wall (m) Distance from wall Iml
laJ Coke Ibl Sinter
Fig. 4.1.3. Calculated trajectories of coke and sinter from a large bell.
burden materials fall. In this case the movable armor comes to affect the
falling trajectory at a position at least 600 mm inwards from the
wall.
(c) Burden profiles obtained by use of movable armor. Figure 4.1.4 shows
the coke layer profiles obtained for three movable armor positions:
600 mm, 800 mm and 1000 mm inwards from the furnace wall. 3 In the
600 mm case, the burden profile is similar to that obtained without
movable armor. The 800 mm position gives a typical burden profile
obtained by use of movable armor; the coke layer is thinnest at the wall,
thickest about 1· 3 m inwards from the wall, and gradually decreases in
thickness towards the center, although that is affected by the base
profile. In the 1000 mm case, such a tendency is extremely pronounced.
1000
cc.
Fig.4.1.4. Burden profiles obtained by use of movable armor.
4.1.1.2. Suiface angle of burden

Mter striking the stock surface, the burden materials move on the stock
surface toward the furnace center to form a new top layer. The surface
angle, i.e. the angle of the settled burden materials to the horizontal
plane, is one of the main factors that determine the radial distributions
of ore and coke.
(a) Suiface angle in the absence of gas flow. Table 4.1.1 lists typical
properties of burden materials, including the angle of repose which is
defined in this section as the surface angle measured in the absence of
gas flow. The surface angle depends on charging conditions. Narita et
al.4 conducted experiments with a full scale 40 0 segment model and
investigated the surface angle by changing the charging sequence (one-
batch charge and two-batch charge), the charge amount and the pellet
ratio. As shown in Fig. 4.1.5(a), the surface angle of one-batch charged
ore changes with the charge amount and shows a minimum, whereas
the surface angle of two-batch charged are decreases linearly with

increase of the charge amount, as shown in Fig. 4.1.5(b). The surface
angle depends on the pellet ratio; an increase in the pellet ratio by 10%
reduces the surface angle by about lOin the case of two-batch charged
are.
The surface angle of coke charged onto the are layer is independent
of the surface angle of the are and is about 31·r, as shown in
Fig. 4.1.6(a); the surface angle of the second batch coke charged onto the
coke layer decreases with increase in the amount of the second batch
coke, as shown in Fig. 4.1.6(b).
(b) Suiface angle under the injluence ofgasjlow. Yushin and Babarykin 5
measured the surface profiles of burden at two different levels of blast
TABLE 4.1.1
Physical Properties of Blast Furnace Burden
Coke Sinter Pellets
Bulk density (kg/m) 525 1660 2150

Void fraction (-) O' 51 0-45 0·41
Size of burden (m) 50 X 10- 3 18 X 10- 3 12 X 10- 3
Minimum fluidization velocity (m/s)" 2'9 2'5 2'2
Apparent friction factor F (l/m)b 205 876 1469
Angle of repose (deg) 35 33 26
Shape factor (-) 0'63 0'67 0·85
"Calculation conditions: top gas temperature 120°C; top gas pressure 2 atm.
bF = 1'75(1 - e)/ct> s d p e 3.
1010 .
c;,
C>
~ 30 ~::....z!---+--+--+-l f--I=~~--1
(;
'0
io 25
.,u
j 2° I~ilti!E§11
0.06 0 10 0 14 0 18 0 12 0 14 0 16 0 18
Chorge omount H R I t
Fig.4.1.5. Influence of charge amount and pellet ratio on surface angle of ore.
34
101 C j
'"
<D
:'2
<D (
0 0 ~
8 32 AO-o~
'0
~
~~-
.2!
'"o
c
00 0 '1
0 •
:'; 30
Charging weight of coke It/chi
~
</) x 103 _/130 .15.5/ A 18.0
V 20.7 t; 26.0 0 310 0 36.0
28
15 20 25 30
Surface angle of ore below coke Idegl
36
• Ibl C,jC"j
~
en
<D
2:'
~ 34
""" ~
u
•----
.2!
'"a
c
•
32
:'; .......
.g
~
</)
30
10 15 20 25
Charge amount of C" It I
Fig.4.1.6. Influence of (a) surface angle of ore below coke and (b) charge
amount of coke, on surface angle of coke.
volume during a start-up period and confirmed that the surface profiles
were different, the profile with high blast volume having a smaller slope
than that with low blast volume. Conducting experiments with a
reduced scale slice model, Sugiyama et al. 6 demonstrated that the
surface angle decreased with increase in the gas velocity, reaching zero
at the minimum fluidization velocity.
According to Nishio and Ariyama/ we begin by considering an
elementABDC given by a pair of parallel faces one of which lies along
burden slope at an angle f3 to the horizontal plane, as shown in
Fig. 4.1.7, with gas flow perpendicular to the burden surface CD. The
gravitational force of the burden and the drag force caused by the gas
flow act on this element. The shear stress acting on the face AB is
r = Pb(g!!.L) sin f3 (4.1.9)
y
stream line
Fig.4.1.7. Forces acting on a piece of surface burden.
in whichpb is the bulk density of the burden material,gthe gravitational

constant, and AL the distance between face AB and CD. The
compressive stress acting on the face AB is
(4.1.10)
in which Ap is the gas pressure drop between face AB and face CD.
According to Coulomb's equation, the shear strength of the face AB is
(4.1.11)
in which <Pi is the internal friction angle of the burden material.
Suppose now that the burden material flows on the inclined top layer
from the periphery to the center. If the shear stress r is larger than the
shear strength r c, the burden material moves toward the center; if the
shear stress is smaller than the shear strength r c , the burden material
stops and accumulates. Consequently the slope is determined so as to
cause the shear stress r and the shear strength rc to balance:
r = rc (4.1.12)
Substitution of eqns (4.1.9) and (4.1.11) into eqn (4.1.12) gives
tanfJ/tan<Pi = 1- (AP/AL)/p~cosfJ (4.1.13)
Applying Ergun's equation8

11'/'/I1L = [150(1 - e)/Rep + 1'75] [(1 - e)/<psdpe3]pgu2 (4.1.14)
to the pressure drop terml1P/I1L in eqn (4.1.13) gives
tanp/tan<Pi = 1 - [1 - 150(1 - e)/Rep
+ 1'75] [1 - e)/<psdpe 3] (PgU 2/PbK) (1/cos P) (4.1.15)
where Rep is Reynolds number (pgU<Psdp/Ji g), <Ps the shape factor, e the
void fraction, Pg the gas density, and u the gas velocity. Since the internal
friction angle <Pi is approximately equal to the angle of repose,9. 10 the
values listed in Table 4.1.1 are applicable.
Equation (4.1.15) may be simplified to
tanp/tan<Pi = 1 - 1'75[ (1 - e)/<psdpe 3] (pgu 2/ptlJ)(lIcosP) (4.1.16)
because the term 150(1 - e )/Rep has little effect on the surface angle
under conditions relating to the blast furnace burden. Calculated on the
basis of data in Table 4.1.1, the surface angles for coke, sinter and pellets
are shown in Fig. 4.1.8 as a function of pu 2 • The surface angles decrease
linearly with increase in ptfl2. Since the mean of p gu 2 at the throat is in
the range 1·5-4·0 kg/m· s2, depending on the top pressure, the surface
angle is about 2-7 0 smaller than the angle of repose measured in the
absence of gas flow.
40r---~---'----'---~----~---
Q)
u
~
~ 10~--~--~--~4-~~----+---~
5 10 15 20 25 30
Pu' (kg/m's')
Fig.4.1.8. Correlation between surface angle of burden and P gu 2•
(c) Decrease in suiface angle with burden descent. The surface angle of a
charge affects the radial variation in the layer thickness of the next
charge, by decreasing during the interval between charges as shown in
Fig. 4.2.7 in Section 4.2; this mainly results as follows. If it is supposed

that a layer of thickness II at the throat decreases to 12 with burden
descent owing to the increase in cross-section, as shown in Fig. 4.1.9, the
surface angle f31 at the throat correspondingly decreases to f3 2 with
burden descent. This phenomena is discussed in detail in Section 4.2.
center wall
Fig. 4.1.9. Decrease in surface angle with burden descent.
4.1.1.3. Redistribution at the time of next charging

(a) Mixed layer. As shown in Fig. 4.1.10, Togino et al. 1I demonstrated
that sinter particles strike the coke layer and drive additional coke into
Coke Surface before

Charging Sinter
Coke Surface after

04m Charging Sinter
Mixed Layer of Sinter and Coke
Center Radiol Position in Furnace Furnace

Wall
Fig. 4.1.1.0. C~ange of coke la~er surface and formation of mixed la~er when
smter is charged (full Size model of Kimitzu No.3 furnace). I
the furnace center to form a mixed layer there. This phenomenon is one
of the important factors which promote central gas flow.
(b) Coke dam. When dissecting an experimental blast furnace, Ando
et alY found that the distribution of burden charged prior to blow-out
was different from that charged after blow-out; the former distribution
had a coke pillar at the center, whereas the latter had no coke pillar and
ore was present even at the center. According to the dissection of the
Tsurumi No.1 furnace where ore of70% pellet ratio was charged, a coke
pillar was observed at the center with normal blast volume, whereas the
coke pillar diminished with reduced blast volume just before blow-out. 13
These results suggest that coke is fluidized at the center. However,
according to the data listed in Table 4.1.1, the ore would fluidize, instead
of the coke, because the minimum fluidization velocity of ore is smaller
than that of coke.
This discrepancy was eliminated as follows. 7 The data listed in Table
4.1.1 show that the apparent friction factors of sinter and pellets are
much larger than that for coke. The difference in such a factor affecting
the permeability plays an important role. As shown in Fig. 4.1.11, the ore
leaving the large bell strikes the throat wall; it then moves from the
periphery toward the center on the coke layer while the gas, avoiding the
less permeable ore layer, is deflected toward the center and fluidizes the
coke there to form a coke dam which blocks ore movement.
This mechanism was confirmed by means of model experiments. 7
Z) central gas flow 3) fluidization of 4) fi nal burden

intensified. coke. distribution.
time -
Fig.4.1.11. Mechanism of formation of burden distribution in gas flow.

Photo. 4.1.1. Appearance of burden distribution (white, ore; black, coke; P,

pellet; S, sinter; C, coke): (a) effect of top gas velocity; (b) effect of charging
sequence.
The burden distribution formed in the gas flow can be visualized with
the aid of Photo 4.1.1,14 where the inclination angle of each layer
decreases with increase in the gas velocity indicated at the throat. The
coke dam is formed at the center when the gas velocity exceeds a critical
value and this noticeably reduces the ore/coke ratio at the center, as
shown in Fig. 4.1.12.14
Both the mixed layer and the coke dam described above can occur at
the same time in a blast furnace to affect the gas distribution.
4.1.1.4. Control of burden distribution

Almost all the bell-charged large blast furnaces are equipped with
movable armor and probes detecting the furnace condition to strictly
control burden distribution. We discuss now the control of burden
l"
o
Cetlter
Radlol pOSIhon
Fig.4.1.12. Effect of top gas velocity on ore/coke distribution.
distribution with movable armor. Nippon Kokan built a full scale 36 a

segment model of the Fukuyama No.5 furnace equipped with a cold
blast supply facility and burden discharging facility, so as to provide a
good simulation. A number of experiments were conducted and typical
results are given in Fig. 4.1.13. Burden distribution contours without
movable armor control are shown in (a), whereas burden distribution
with movable armor control is shown in (b). In case (a), the ore surface
below the coke layer was formed by descent of the ore layer to 2 m below
the stock line. In this case the inclination angle changed from 26·0 to
20· 20. Therefore the coke layer thickness at the wall is much larger than
at the center, and the ore layer thickness is smaller at the wall than at the
center.
In case (b), a pair of charges was scheduled and the movable armor
was used to push the coke layer towards the center. The nonuniformity
of burden distribution shown in case (a) was improved with movable
101
Ibl
Fig. 4.1.13. Burden distribution (a) without and (b) with movable armor
control.
armor control. This effect of movable armor control is shown in

Fig.4.1.14, in which streamlines and isobars for both cases were
determined from measured values as shown. In case (a) we see that the
gas flow concentrates towards the wall, whereas in case (b) the burden
distribution is improved to give a more uniform gas flow.
Movable armor is a most important measure to control burden and
gas distribution, especially for large blast furnaces. For example,
Fig. 4.1.15 shows the relation between furnace capacity and shaft gas
efficiency for the blast furnaces in the Fukuyama works of Nippon
Kokan. 15 It will be seen that the adoption of movable armor in large
blast furnaces improves the shaft gas efficiency to a level equal to or
above that of small and medium furnaces.
3.5
II 3.5
U 3.0
S; 3.0
'~ u
E 2.5
\ i
Q)
25
\
.-f'
u 2.0
~
1:
0 1.5
\ ~
u
~
2.0
\ ""'"'
I"- ~ r-.---' \
Q)
~ 1.5
\
())
\..
"
o
1.0 ())
2
~
\ " 1.0
f-
0.5 l'
f- 0.5
00
\
Sl 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 o
Iml
0
p u 2 =2.2
0.7 0 ~91 0 Sl o 1.0 20 3.0 40 5.0
0
04 0506 Iml P u 2 = 22
02°3
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
8
8
9
9
10
B B GOO 700 800 B
10
CC lOC>l cc POl cc lOOl
2·0 2·0 2<l
101 Ibl
Fig.4.1.14. Streamlines and isobars (a) without and (b) with movable armor
control.
4.1.2. Burden Distribution of Bell-less Top Furnaces

A bell-less top is shown in Fig. 4.1.1(b). It provides high flexibility in
burden distribution control since accurate control of material flow rate
and the rotating and tilting motion of the chute make it possible to
distribute a given amount of burden material at any desired radius in
the blast furnace. The distributing chute has the shape of a semicircular
trough. The burden materials flow at a relatively low rate in the chute
which rotates at a constant angular velocity at various tilting angles.

Flow characteristics are different from those for a bell top and some of
these are described below.
l:::
1.0
3Bf
with armor
,
f- "8
FUkUYO~4
X
4 movable
..... 1\"
FUku~~A
4Bf ............
1 BF FUkUY~;;;-- ~O oemoe FukuyamCl
2Bf 5Bf
Q; 0.9
Fukuvama- ............
3BF IWlthout
.........
0 1974
armor)
.......
-
" 1975
X 1976
0.8
2000 3000 4000 5000
Inner volume lm 3 )
Fig.4.1.15. Relation between shaft gas efficiency and inner volume.
Fig.4.1.16. Dimensions of the distributing chute, the coordinate system and

the forces acting.
4.1.2.1. Material flow on the distributing chute 17

The subject is treated as the motion of a point mass. When an object
moves in a rotating field, it is subjected to centrifugal and Coriolis
forces, in addition to the gravitational force. The equation of motion is
--
expressed in vector form as
rna= F g - ---
rn[w X (w X r ) I - ---
2rn(w X v ) - F r (4.1.17)
-
where rn is the weight of the point mass (M),-; the acceleration (Lt- 2),Fg
the gravitational force (MLt- 2), w the angular velocity of the chute (e l ),
-;- the radius (L), -: the velocity of the point mass (Lt- l ), and Fr
frictional force (MLt- 2).
On the basis of the coordinate system shown in Fig. 4.1.16, eqn
(4.1.17) has been solved numerically using the Runge-Kutta-Gill
method for the longitudinal (L), the tangential (T) and the normal (N)
directions to the chute inner surface. An example of calculated results is
shown in Fig. 4.1.17 for the case of the chute used at Chiba No.2 blast
furnace (Leh = 3 m, Heh = 1·02 m, reh = 0·57 m) under the following
conditions: chute rotating speed 8 r.p.m., tilting angle 50 initial 0
,
velocity in the L direction 3 mis, friction coefficient 0·4.

The centrifugal force has its maximum value at the chute end where it
is less than 10% of the gravitational force, and it therefore does not have
5.--------, 1.2,-------.., 50 . - - - - - - - - - ,
I. 1.0 1.0
~ 3 ~ 30
Ul en
:g 2 ~ 20
..J a) ~~10
> 1
L direction b)
0.2
T direction
o F-~~~-~--1 8~ __
--- ~ 6
'0
~ I.
Fee
:§: 2
--F~o------ z
III 0
'-._._.-I,__ -I. Fg -2
c) N direction
-6 -I. '--~~~-:--~-'
0.43 0.86 t29 1.72 2.11. 0 0.1.3 0.86 t29 1.72 2.11. 0 0.43 0.86 1.29 1.72 2.14
leh (m) L~, leh (m) Lt, leh (m) L~,
Fig. 4.1.17. An example of changes of variables on the chute.
a large effect on the motion of the point mass. On the other hand, the
Coriolis force component in the T direction is greater than that of the
gravitational force in the major part of the chute, although its maximum
value in the L direction is at most equivalent to 20% of the gravitational
force. In the range of small eM, the T component of the Coriolis force
mainly acts upon the point mass to lift it up along the inner surface of
the chute. With an increase in eM, the N component gets larger and
becomes comparable to that of the gravitational force at a eM value of
50 0 • In the range oflargere M, the gravitational and Coriolis forces press
the point mass on to the chute surface. If the Coriolis force is ignored,
the velocity component in the L direction is calculated to be somewhat
larger than its correct value because of the reduction of the frictional
force, and the lack of the associated decelerating effect in this direction.
The calculated values of eM at the chute end have been compared
with observations from photographs. Good agreement was found, as
shown in Fig. 4.1.18, and this proves that even such a simple
formulation gives correct analytical results for the complicated flow
characteristics of granular material.
50
40 =0.4,...":> .!. -- +
-
)J
. h '"
).J =0.55
en
•
-
QI
30
"0 \.C- .
::E
<:l>
CD 20
!7
10 • obs .
0
30 40 50
Tilting angle, 90-4> (degJ
Fig. 4.1.18. Comparison of calculated and observed values of OM'
4.1.2.2. Trajectories of burden materials from the distributing chute'S

For a bell-less top, knowledge of trajectories provides basic information
for the control of burden distribution. This has been confirmed by the
following full-scale test. About ten containers, cans or bags, were placed
radially in a row at different levels in order to receive the falling
materials. The radial distribution of weight fraction and cumulative
weight fraction in the stream were obtained at each level as shown in
Fig. 4.1.19. A trajectory is defined as a curve passing through the points
where the cumulative weight fraction reaches the same value, as shown
in Fig. 4.1.20. It is noteworthy that the stream is quite wide and the
trajectory of main flow, defined as that for F = O' 5, is a little above the
center line of the stream. This is one of the characteristics and is due to a
wide velocity distribution within the stream during burden motion on
the chute. Another characteristic is that an extreme size segregation
exists in the stream, as shown in Fig. 4.1.21. This is attributed to the
1·0
0-8
~
~
~ o·
4/LI..
> .•
:;:c:
~.2 0-4
~v
:l l!
u ....
0·2
0
1·0
0·8
c
.2
u
.='" 0·6
1·09 0-67
L:
.~ O.
4/
~
Dimensionless radius; r/R (-)
Fig. 4.1.19. Radial distribution of weight fraction and cumulative weight

fraction in the falling stream.
percolation of small particles into the spaces between large ones which
happens as the particles flow on the chute.
The falling point of the coke main flow is at a constant position
corresponding to a dimensionless radius ofO' 87 at high tilting angles as
shown in Fig. 4.l.22(a). The falling point for sinter moves towards the
wall with an increase in tilting angle and is always located nearer to the
wall than that of coke. The main trajectories of both materials are in
agreement with one another at tilting angles below 43 0 • The width of the
stream decreases with decrease in tilting angle.
The burden flow becomes wider with increase in volume flow rate, as
shown in Fig. 4.1.22(b). The trajectory of the upper boundary corres-
ponding to F = 0 moves towards the wall, but those of the main flow
and lower boundary only change slightly. In the case without ribs on the
Sinter
NCh =3
Q=O.53(m3/s)
Lch = 4 (m)
/// .
/ /!J :
/ //~'!//
/ . . /l
///;// !
/I///!
/ // III ;!
SL
Om Q/ I . /'
1/.'/ I / . I i <II
u
/ //. /1I :! c
!!!
I
I /. • .!Q
/ I / I f "0
, / . / I :
2m 1.1 i I ! :::
I !
~
/f1k} . c
.2
cs/!? a'":- i
'
VI
c
<II
E
Cl
'·0 0·8 0.6 04 0·2 o

Dimensionless radius. r/R(-)
Fig.4.1.20. Examples of trajectories; F is the cumulative weight fraction (_).

."
\
E 10
g
.
N
'iii
c
~ •
.~
a;
E
£
5
\•
\
~
h/R=1.64
o L-__ ~ ____ ~ __ ~ __ ~
1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4

Dimensionless radius, r/R (-)
Fig.4.1.21. Size segregation in the falling stream.
al
0
1
I 50 2
3
i
•5
6
- 0' 40 7
g>z
:!? c 8
~g
O"J .':;;' 9
c 0 30
0 Q.
"'''
.-c -"
':::L
\0
>=u 20
0.25 SinTer
- - - Coke
bl
v~ o 025 075
0.6
~
C
oJ 04
~
0.05 / 0.5 0 95
OL-__- L____L -_ _ ~ ____ ~ __ ~~
12 10 08 0.6 04 02
D'mensionless rad,us, r R I -I
Fig.4.1.22. Falling point of mass flow on the burden surface; effect of (a) chute
position and (b) volume flow rate.
chute surface, the velocity of burden flow becomes larger because of a

low friction coefficient. Under these conditions, the velocity distribution
becomes uniform, resulting in a reduction in stream width. In addition,
the trajectories move slightly towards the wall.
4.1.2.3. Size segregation in the burden layer at the furnace top 18

According to the results of a burden distribution survey carried out at
the time of filling of Chiba No.6 blast furnace, the mean particle size
becomes larger from the periphery to the center and from the lower to
the upper layer, as shown in Fig. 4.1.23. 19 The former type of size
segregation is discussed later. The latter is due to the discharging order
of the raw materials from the lock hoppers. That is, at first the portion
with the highest fraction of small particles is discharged and the mean
size gradually increases. The void fraction is 40-45% in the mixed layer
and around the falling point of burden flow, and 45-50% at other
positions.
_ Upper layer
--<)- -Middle layer
12 - ....-. lower layer
---A-..Mixed layer
El0
E
G.I
N 8
I,/)
c:::
I'll
G.I
:;E 6 • ......
;..,.,.,.,,------
4 -- __ .... Bag sampll'
5 432 o
Radius (m)
Fig. 4.1.23. Distribution of mean particle size in ore layer.
When granular materials with a wide size range flow down an

inclined burden surface, the size segregation caused by the percolation
offines into the voids of coarser particles occurs in the flow direction. To
this problem, Miwa 20 applied the following equation:
log (xn lxn -I) = log (x~/x~ _ a- (an - an _ 1)/ (4.1.18)
where 1is the distance in the flow direction (L),x n the weight fraction of
n-th size (-), an the size segregation constant (L -1), and fis a suffix for
the feed materials. By substituting x~ at 1 = 0 for x,; and rewriting for
only the n-th size, the following equation is obtained:
(4.1.19)
Values of an can be calculated from the radial distribution of size
analysis. Data for samples taken at the time of filling as shown in
Fig. 4.1.23 (bag sample) are used to calculate an values; they are 0·25
for < 5 mm, 0·02 for 7'5-9'5 mm and -0'23 for 13-5-18'5 mm. The
absolute value of an has a minimum at the harmonic mean size and
becomes larger with size deviations from this mean value, as shown in
Fig. 4.1.24. However, it is undesirable that n values correspond with only
one group of charging conditions; therefore eqn (4.1.20) below has been
derived by substituting the ratio of cumulative weight fraction under the
n-th size to that of the remainder, Xn/(l - Xn), instead of Xn in eqn
(4.1.19). Then, all an values converge to the same value regardless of
particles size as shown in Fig. 4.1.25.
log (Xn/l - Xn) = log (X~/l - X~ - a1 (4.1.20)
0.3 r--------------,
0.2
0.1
c:
1:1 -0.1
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4 1--_-'--_-'-_---'-_----''-----'
o 10 20 30 40 50
Particle size (mm)
Fig. 4.1.24. Relationship between particle size and size segregation constant.
The percolation rate of under-sized particles is explained by eqn

(4.1.21) resulting from differentiation of eqn (4.1.20) with respect to I.
That is, the percolation rate is proportional not only to the weight
fraction of under-sized particles but also to that of the larger size
particles acting like screens. As shown in Fig. 4.1.25, a is almost zero at
Mizushima No. 4 blast furnace with a bell top. By contrast, a large
degree of size segregation is observed with the bell-less tops, and this is
due to the lower charging rate:
dXjdl = -aXn(1 - Xn) (4.1.21)
I:
1 :
"0
~
~~;~
~::
I/~~
~ t-~:..
. .. _. :smm
• M 4BF --:--
- 1
5mm
5 4 3 2 o
RadIUs Iml
Fig. 4.1.25. Data plot based on eqn (4.1.20).
4.1.2.4. Control of burden distribution by bell-less topl 8

The constitution of the surface and layer profiles of the burden for the
case of a bell-less top is very complicated because of its charging
versatility. The morphology depends on the charging conditions and
especially the charging pattern. Charging patterns are defined as
progressions in which the chute position numbers indicating tilting
angles are arranged in order of rotation.
More than 200 charging patterns were tried in the operation of Chiba
No.6 blast furnace (one of the largest with a bell-less top) since its
blowing-in in June 1977. 21 . 22 With the exception of the starting-up
period, these are classified into three groups according to operational
results, for example fuel rate. Group A corresponds to patterns for

center-working operation with 480 kg/thm fuel rate, group B for
moderate operation with 450 kg/thm, and group C for the optimal
operation, giving 430 kg/thm.
Gas temperature and composition distributions, and calculated
burden profiles for typical charging patterns of each group, are shown
in Fig. 4.1.26. It is obvious that an increase in T/co of top gas and a
decrease in fuel rate occur with expansion of the CO 2 -rich region to the
A e
Co~('
Cen1er-workillq op Moderate op lON fuel role op
Dec 77 Fer:, 78 Nov Dec 78 00 79
C 3145566677889 11122233446710 1122333444567

Ch(]!qIl1~1
pattern
o 1122334455 111222334455 1112233456717
Tlco 46 2 11(0 506 7}co 53.5

40 H0
g
//"-------
','-------- ....-... ~-
o
"0
~
0 o
e
C e
0
~
J. 0 C 434 ~o e 251 J.O C 071
10
o 5 0 5 0
c we We W
Fig. 4.1.26. Gas distributions and calculated burden distribution indices in

three typical cases of Chiba No.6 blast furnace operation.
center. The region of TJ co above 50% corresponds to that of ore/coke

ratio above 3· 5, but excessively heavy burden does not necessarily bring
about an increase in TJ co locally. In case A, furnace gas easily ascends
through the central region with high gas permeability, resulting in low
TJco of top gas. For the purpose of high CO utilization, it is essential to
have a uniform distribution of ore/coke over a major portion of the
furnace radius. The charging pattern of case C enables this requirement
to be achieved, while retaining good permeability in the narrow central
region. This is due to a sufficiently large burden particle size resulting
from the above-mentioned size segregation, and due to a low ore/coke
ratio burden caused by temporary fluidization of the coke layer
occurring at the moment of ore charging. The charging pattern of case C
is an optimal case, in the sense of a good balance between uniform
burden distribution and gas permeability. A calculated index ~O/C
given in Fig. 4.1.26 indicates the difference of ore/coke between the wall
and the center, and this index is useful to judge burden distribution
uniformity. Finally, the relation between ~O/C and TJco shown in
Fig. 4.1.27 explains that uniform burden distribution improves the
efficiency of the gas-solid reactions.
.•
A S,at1 ng-lUp OpetOI or
• Cer'ef'-~~ ng 0,*01'0"
54 o Modetope operat,on
• low 'uel fole O~rarlotl
52
~50
4.:; 48
'"
- 46 100110 C1
o .93J',1u C1
44 11.635
- 2 o 2 4 0 44 46 48 50 52 54
-,,0 e l l I~col"" 1%1
Fig. 4.1.27. Relationship between CO gas utilization, 11co and a calculated

index on burden distribution, t::,. Ole.
4.2. FLOW OF SOLIDS IN THE UPPER PART OF THE FURNACE
4.2.1. Information from Dissected Blast Furnaces

The burden distribution in the upper shaft has the following charac-
teristics, as shown by dissected blast furnaces: 23 - 28
(1) The layered arrangement of ore and coke is maintained not only
in the shaft but also the melt-down level of ore.
(2) The layer thickness decreases with burden descent.
(3) The angle of layer inclination decreases with burden descent.
It is very difficult directly to deduce the burden descent mechanism
from the data of dissected blast furnaces, because they are influenced by
a number of disturbances. However, model experiments offer basic
information on the burden mechanism, and data both from dissected
blast furnaces and from model experiments may be used to investigate
the flow of charged materials in the upper shaft.
4.2.2. Burden Descent Model

Wagstaff29 observed burden descent using a semicircular blast furnace
model and confirmed that the burden descends with a uniform
horizontal component of velocity in the shaft. The same results were
obtained by other workers,30.31 as shown in Fig.4.2.l.
Toyama et al. 32 proposed a burden descent model based on
experiments using a moving bed with tapered walls; the particles in the
lfI) W
. ~
II'I/f ll
/,-~
~~ . I-- - ~"'"
Fig.4.2.1. Burden descent in blast furnace.

bed move along the lines radiating from the apex of a cone subtended by
the tapered walls. According to this model the particles possess a
uniform component value of descending velocity, as indicated in
Fig. 4.2.2. 32
Fig. 4.2.2. Descending pattern of materials in blast furnace. 32
We may modify Toyama's model for burden descent in the blast

furnace shaft by assuming that the burden descends in a vertical
direction in the throat region (with a vertical wall) and along the lines
radiating from the cone apex mentioned above in the upper shaft region
with a tapered wall, as illustrated in Fig. 4.2.3. In a blast furnace of throat
diameter Do. throat height Lo and a shaft angle from the vertical of 0sh,
any particle in a charge with the volume V; moves from the point(/l,rl) to
the point (/, r) on a line. This movement of the particle is formulated as
follows:
(1) Value of I
1= V/(JT/4)m+11 for II <Loand V t «JT/4)D5(Lo-ll) (4.2.1)
o~
-.\1\\\\\\
11\\\\\
11\\\\\
11\\\\\
1\\\\\\
1\ \\\\\
\\ \
11\\\\\
11\\\\\
1\\\,\\
1\\\\\\
lr= II \ " \ \ \
\ \ · \ \
00/ 2~
'1
\ \ \ \ \
\ \ \ \ \ \
,
~~I~I_\~\~\~\~\~S~.~L~2~m~__~r
Lo I \ \ \
,
\ \. \
Fig. 4.2.3. Model of burden descent in shaft.

I = {(l/8)(DJtan OsJ 3
+ 3[Vt - (IT/4)D5(La - I]) ]/(IT tan2Osh) }l13 - Da/(2 tan Osh) + La
for I] <La and ~ > (IT/4)DMLa -I]) (4.2.2)
I = [Da/(2 tan Osh) - La + 1])3 + 3 V/(lT tan2 Osh) p/3
- Da/(2 tan 0sh) + La for I] > La (4.2.3)
(2) Value of r
r = r] for I] < La (4.2.4)
r = r][1 + DJ(2 tan Osh) - L a]/[DJ(2 tan Osh)]
for I > La and I] <La (4.2.5)
r = + DJ(2 tan Osh) - Lo]/[/] + DJ(2 tan OsJ - La]
rdl
for I > Lo and I] > Lo (4.2.6)
Equations (4.2.1)-(4.2.6) give the location change of any particle in the
burden with the descent of one charge of volume ~.
4.2.3. Decrease in Angle of Layer Inclination with Burden Descent

We may consider inclined layers in a blast furnace as shown in
Fig. 4.2.4. The descent rate of the burden, which is uniform at any
horizontal section, reduces with burden descent in the shaft, because of
the increase in the cross-sectional area, whereas the peripheral portion
Descent rate
Fig.4.2.4. Schematic illustration of change in descent rate and inclination

angle of burden layers with burden descent.
of an inclined layer has a larger descent rate than the central portion.
Therefore the angle of inclination of the layer decreases as the burden
descends.
Based on these assumptions, the reduction in the angle of the layer
inclination has been calculated using eqns (4.2.1 )-(4.2.6), and compared
with data from an operating blast furnace as well as a dissected blast
furnace.
In Fig. 4.2.5 calculated angles of inclination are shown for the descent
of five charges where the five positions on each layer contour are
connected by straight lines to give four segments. We see that both the
inclination angle of each segment and the layer thickness reduce with
burden descent. The decrease in these inclination angles is more
obviously illustrated in Fig.4.2.6(a). In Fig.4.2.6(b), the inclination
angle of each segment is plotted as a function of the charge numbers
indicated in Fig. 4.2.5. This figure suggests the following characteristics
of burden descent:
(1) The rate of change of inclination angle decreases with burden
descent.
(2) The larger the inclination angle, the larger the rate of decrease.
MA Setting, 800mm
-4.7'
9
ChNo6
o 1 2 3 4 5
Distance from center
Fig.4.2.5. Change in inclination angle with burden descent.

2 r---'---~----~------~~--,-,
]
g
.
~ A
o Ol-·-=+----+----+---! - ~ +--+--1
o 6
o 2 3 5 6
101 Dlstonce rrom center 1m'
40
"---.., '-
_30
--.
.,0>
.,
:9 ::::::::~ ~ r-- r- I
~ ~
]>20 _.Segmenl
o
c
• I
.2 a II
.~ 10 '-A
..
III
v IV
.E
-10
o 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ibl Charge No. I-I
Fig.4.2.6. Change in (a) layer profile and (b) inclination angle, with burden
descent.
If the charge has an inclination angle of 30 0 in the upper shaft, the

angle is predicted to reduce by about 2 0 during the descent of one
charge, whereas the measured surface angle of the top layer in the
Fukuyama No.5 furnace decreased by 2-2'5°, as shown in Fig. 4.2.7.
Thus the calculated and observed results are in good agreement.
We now compare this burden descent model with a dissected blast
furnace. The burden profile determined by dissection of the Tsurumi
No.1 furnace is shown in Fig. 4.2.8. 23 On the basis of the initial lining
geometry of the blast furnace and an initial inclination angle of 31 ° at a
point 4 m below the stockline, the change in layer inclination is
calculated by eqns (4.2.1)-(4.2.6) and shown in Fig. 4.2.9, together with
data from the dissection. Although the measured values show some
scatter, the trend in the range 4-10 m agrees with the calculated curve,
whereas the trend of the measured values does not agree for levels
greater than 10 m. Since it is shown later that this disagreement is
o M.A 0 mm
.,
0. • M.A 700mm
~ 0
g>" ~-"
. -2
c - I
~ ~~
-
u
.2 ~~-
~
<; - 3
.,
C -4
"
u
c" o 5 10
TIme cfler charging (mln(
T,me: chcrging 10 ch arging (mini
Fig.4.2.7. Change in surface angle of burden with burden descent.
Fig.4.2.8. Burden distribution in blast furnace after blow-out (Tsurumi No. I

furnace).
attributed to the lining wear which arose for levels greater than 10m (as
shown in Fig. 4.2.9), the basic idea proposed here to express burden
descent is consistent.
These results lead to the conclusion that the burden descends with a
somewhat uniform speed in the shaft and that the decrease in the layer
inclination is mainly caused by the tapered shaft wall.
012340 10 40
distance from center layer angle
1m J
Fig.4.2.9. Comparison between calculated coke layer angle and measured
values in shaft (Tsurumi No.1 furnace).
4.2.4. Influence of Some Other Factors
4.2.4.1. Influence of lining wear

Kambara et al. 25 conducted an experiment with a 1/20 scale slice model
of the Kukioka No. 4 furnace, two side walls of which had a shape
corresponding to a worn lining; the model had a considerable
enlargement in diameter at an intermediate part of the shaft. The
burden profile obtained is shown in Photo 4.2.1, where it may be
observed that the inclined layer rapidly changed towards a horizontal
inclination at the part corresponding to a worn lining. This is made
clear in Fig. 4.2.10.
4.2.4.2. Influence of scaffold fonnation

Kodak and Boriso~3 demonstrated by a model experiment that the
scaffold disturbed the uniform burden descent discussed previously, as
shown in Fig. 4.2.11. The burden proftles obtained from the dissection
of the Amagasaki No.1 furnace 24 and the Chiba No.1 furnace 28 suggest
that this phenomena can arise in the blast furnace.
Photo. 4.2.1. Burden descent in the model with worn lining.

2 J
3 1
4 J
5
]
I
6
7
,/ ~l~
l\-
ci
Z 8 i Worn pori
'"'<;"
-"
9 ~
U j
10
II J
I
r
12
13
14 I.
15
o
1 30
10 20
Incl inollon ongle Idegi
Fig. 4.2.10. Influence of lining wear on burden descent.
Fig. 4.2.11. Influence of scaffold on burden descent.

4.3'. FLOW OF SOLIDS IN THE LOWER PART OF THE FURNACE
4.3.1. Basic Phenomena
4.3.1.1. State of burden descent

It has been shown (Fig. 4.3.1) using a tracer technique that burden
material in the blast furnace descends approximately in the form of
plug flow from the throat to the belly.34-36 In the lower part, the flow
pattern of material is rather like 'funnel flow' showing marked radial
distribution of descent velocity. The descent behavior of burden was
studied using a slice model as shown in Fig. 4.3.2. 37 From velocity
vectors flowing into the raceway shown in Fig. 4.3.3, the central part is
divided into the two zones, A and B, each of which has a different
descent behavior. The descent velocity of particles in zone B is very low
in comparison with that in the peripheral zone. In zone A. no
appreciable motion of particles can be seen and the zone is called a
dead coke zone.
The stream and time lines of particles are shown in Fig. 4.3.4. The
particle descends with high velocity at an intermediate radius, while
esh: 83'
o
r
~ Stream I.ne
T,•• ,,".
~ . I(
Fig.4.3.1. Stream lines and time lines measured with tracers.
near the wall the particle velocity is very low on account of friction
between particle and wall. The flow pattern of particles in the tuyere
region results in funnel flow.
4.3.1.2. Effect of gas flow rate on burden descent 37

Figure 4.3.5 shows the relation between radial distribution of descent
velocity and the gas flow rate at different heights. The radial
distributions in the upper part (vertical Grid No. 20) are not affected by
gas flow rate and the descent velocities of particles are almost uniform
in the radial direction.
In the lower part, the descent velocity varies across the radius and
reaches a maximum value near the wall. Increase of gas flow rate brings
the position of maximum velocity nearer to the wall, and enlarges the
dead coke zone.
4.3.1.3. Effect of discharge rate on descent behavior

Figure 4.3.6 shows the relation between the radial distribution of
descent velocity and the discharge rate of the particles. At the level of
1-----240 ----I
i
40
Hopper
I
Pressure Top
Camera
I
o
o
Sampling Box
Fig.4.3.2. Schematic drawing of experiment apparatus. 37

Wall Center
,,
, I
I
20 I I I I I
I I I I
I
,
I I
I I I •
//',
·
I I I
I
15
"I I I
I I
I /"
/' , ....--zone
• B
I," )/j
0 I/Il"
I
Z
0 I I
I I f
C;;;
0 , ~I
10
I II~I/ I
...--zone A
I /~~/ I
'I,'
I , ,
3 5 7
GRID NO, I-I
Fig. 4.3.3. Vectors of particle velocity in steady state. 37
Wall Center
,-----------,
h-r-r-.--~.-----.-ll = 0 sec
11-+----+-----t--"1 100
200
300
I 400
500
o 600
z BOUNDARY of
g DEAD ZONE
('5 IW = 5,0 g!secl
,'----+-IW= 15,0 g/secl
3 5
GRID NO, I-I
Fig. 4.3.4. Time lines and stream lines in the raceway region. 37
High - low
Wall Center Wall Center Wall Center
3. 0 ,----------,
Vertical GRID NO. 20 Vertical GRID NO. 15 Vertical GRID NO. 10

2. 5
Key Vg (I mini
6. 70
2.0 0 200
0 300
W=5 g, sec
u 1.5
~
E
.§
1.0
0.5 _..ll----- n
-"i-~;.-
~
5 3 5 3 5
GRID NO. I-I GRID NO.1-I GRID NO.1-I
Fig. 4.3.5. Relation between gas flow rate and descent velocity distribution for
various heights.3?
High - - ---Low
Wall Center Wall Center Wall Center
3.0,-----------, ,----------,
I
I
K \ Vertical
Vertical GRID NO. 20 Vertical GRID NO. 15 /; \ GRID NO. 10
2.5
Key W (g/secJ
1\ \
2.0
o
V TO
I \\
o 15 f \\
\\
. I
\ <l\
.,
~ .....\ \\
\ \\
\ .\
\ \
GRID NO.1-I GRID NO. I-I GRID NO. I-I
Fig.4.3.6. Effect of discharge rate on descent velocity for various heights. 3?

vertical Grid No. 20, descent velocity does not vary significantly across
the radius with increase in discharge rate.
At the lower part, shown in vertical Grid No. 15 or No. 10, the descent
velocity varies in the radial direction and increases markedly near the
tuyere.
4.3.1. Formation of Mixed Zone in the Peripberal Region Near the Wall
4.3.2.1. Effect of shaft angle on the formation of the mixed zone

The descent velocity of burden in the shaft of a blast furnace has been
generally considered to be uniform in the radial direction. On careful
observation, it" is found that the radial distribution of descent velocity
depends on the shaft angle. The effect of shaft angle on descent behavior
is shown in Photo 4.3.1.38 At shaft angles of 79° and 83°, the descent
velocity v.. at the wall is larger than vc at the central part, while in case of
90°, v.. < Vc. Furthermore, in the peripheral part near the shaft wall,
Photo. 4.3.1. Appearance of burden descent observed through plastic plate. 38

material stagnates and a mixed zone of coke and ore is gradually

formed.
Photo 4.3.2 shows the appearance of a horizontal cross-section at the
belly of a 180 0 segment mode1.38. 39 The layer structure of ore and coke is
different in the circumferential direction, especially in the comer where
the circular wall is connected to the transparent plate. The stagnant
zone of coke is formed only in the comer. Therefore it is recognized that
the material descent observed through the transparent plate does not
show the correct layer structure of the stack. For these reasons, when a
segment model is used, the descent behavior should be observed at the
A-B section in Photo 4.3.2.
Photo. 4.3.2. Appearance of layer structure at a horizontal cross-section. 38. 39

Figure 4.3.7 illustrates the appearance of the A-B section, observed by

the method of discharging, over the stack surface for alternate charging
of coke and pellets or sinter. The mixed zone of coke and ore is formed
at the periphery and the vertical position of the zone is lowest for a shaft
angle of 83 0. From the observations, the mechanisms for formation of
the mixed zone is considered to be as follows. For a shaft angle of 79°,
material in the periphery slides into the lower part because of the
remarkable increase of cross-sectional area, while for angles of 83 ° and
90°, material stagnates near the wall because of frictional forces.
The height and width dimensions of the mixed zone for the alternate
charging of pellets and coke exceed those for sinter and coke charging.
The relationship between the dimensions of the mixed zone and the
shaft angle is available to estimate how much the mixed zone is affected
by a local change of shaft angle due to the erosion of brick or scaffold
formation.
8sh : 79' 8sh : 83' 8sh : 90'
p
1 s
c i c
p s
v i
!
"
1\ c c
\
v p
! S
I
'y'l.
C c
1
~
J P s
'Fc+ ~
: t·····j "\
Fig. 4.3.7. Burden descent and mixed zone observed by dissection. 39
4.3.2.2. Influence of wall condition on material flow 37

When wall erosion takes place in the furnace shaft, as shown in
Fig. 4.3.8, particles with a layer structure flow into and/or remain in the
hollow, and a mixed zone is formed in the process of the exchange with
descending particles. But the burden descent throughout the furnace is
not very different from that with no wall erosion. On the other hand, in
the case of scaffolds, burden descent is stagnant and the mixed zone is
easily formed above the projection, and also the burden is mixed under
the projection. Scaffolds have a larger influence on the obstruction of
burden descent than wall erosion.
-_._---
.. ...
,..,.....,............-
.......-. ~ ..........
",....., ......,. .. ·t\. ~ ..
(a) (b)
(d)
Fig. 4.3.8. Effect of shaft deformation on material flow during stack descent
(Ws = 5 gis, Vg = 200 Vmin). (a) T = 0 s; (b) normal; (c) scaffolding, T = 140 s;
(d) wall collapse.
4.3.2.3. Permeability in mixed zone on the wa11 38

A mixed zone near the wall was formed experimentally in a semi-
cylindrical model of a blast furnace as shown in Fig. 4.3.9. A circular
baffie plate (15 mm width) was set on the inner surface of the upper part
of the shaft Coke particles which were initially packed in the furnace
were discharged from just below the tuyere, and pellets (2-5 mm) and
lad'segment model
1 Vessel
2 Bell
3 Table feeder
4 Motor
5 Roots blower
6 Orifice
7 Manometer
8 Thermometer
9 Baffle plate
Fig.4.3.9. Experimental apparatus for measuring the pressure drop in the

stack.38
coke (5-10 mm) were charged alternately at the throat (both 40 mm

layer thickness). When the pellet layer arrived at the lower part of the
shaft, burden descent was stopped and the pressure drop in the middle
part of the shaft was measured by blowing air through the tuyere. The
results are shown in Fig. 4.3.10. The pressure loss in the middle part of
the shaft was markedly decreased due to formation of a mixed zone, and
it was found that a mixed zone near the wall, formed during burden
descent, had good permeability. These results agree with those observed
in blast furnace dissections, but are contrary to previous work40 with a
packed bed. Further studies would be necessary to examine in detail
those characteristics peculiar to a moving bed.
4.3.3. Movement of Coke to the Raceway
4.3.3.1. Source of coke to raceway

It is known that coke particles are supplied into the raceway through a
very narrow region of the raceway ceiling, as shown in Fig. 4.3.11 (a), not
sideways.41 As shown in Fig. 4.3.11(b), this narrow region has been
confirmed, by two- and three-dimensional model experiments,39 to be
limited to an upper part of the tuyere tip. In this experiment, although
particles were discharged from different positions in the raceway,
supply of coke from the front or side of the raceway was not observed,
This phenomenon is decided solely by a mechanical balance between
gas flow and solid particles around the raceway.
E 1
~ 0.8 o Pellet Op=2~5mm .~ f-
o C Coke Op=5~10mm
::E 0.6 f-
~
E
~~4~ _ :A-
0.' o S-F'=15mm " .....• f-
Q2 0 ~/I
...J
<l
a::0.1 o
<l0.0 8
1//
6-/.-Y-
.I
0.0
0.04 - It.
0.0 2
0.01,
I
2 4 6 810
QG ( NmJ/min)
Fig.4.3.10. Effect of mixed zone on pressure drop.38

101 Hot segment model Ibl C old circ ulor model
charged line of lime stone
4.0 f--' t. -r-'--.- r -;r

I I , I
I ' I J I
\' I I (, /
1//1
'" 3.0
~
I :
I
2
-="E 2.0
g
.:i:'
dead zone
i
Cl
1.0
i--
.
boundory
of the rocewoy
0~
0 L-~1~.0~--2~.0~--~
3 .~0~
Distance from furnace wall Iml
Fig.4.3.11. Flow pattern of particles into raceway?9,41

In order to clarify the movement of coke under the softening-melting

zone, the velocity of descent has been measured at the centre (C) and
wall (W) for different discharge positions in the two-dimensional model
shown in Fig. 4.3.12 (A) and (B).
IBI 10 IOJ
c w
Plote
,
v,
. e
\1
• 60·
o 4Y
5 " 30·
•s
_ 10
e
\0\
~ 15 if
J: 20 ~
25 \
o 5 10 15
l leml
Fig.4.3.12. Flow pattern of particles to discharge point(s) and locus of critical

point for Vc = 0 in slice model with plate. 39
Using a plate to simulate a cohesive zone in the slice model, descent

velocities in regions C and W (v", v w ) are measured for different
discharge positions of the particles (point S). Based on the fact that
particle flow to the raceway is funnel flow, the raceway is not formed
and the tip of the discharging pipe (point S) introduced from the rear
wall is assumed to be a supplying point ofthe particle to the raceway.
The descent velocities in regions C and W vary with the relative
positions of the plate tip (point P) and point S, and there exists a critical
point such that the descent velocity in region C becomes zero as a
function of horizontal distance H and vertical distance L (Fig. 4.3.12(B)).
Figure 4.3.12(D) shows a locus of the critical point for vc = 0 which was
obtained by changing the positions of the plate and the pipe. When
point S is located on the right-hand side of this locus, region C becomes
an immovable bed and the particles are discharged only in region W.
The locus can be considered as a projection limit of the cohesive zone
which ensures a stable descent of coke in the central part of the furnace.
Furthermore, this locus almost corresponds to a slip line through the
point P from the initial point S, and therefore probably defines the
inclined profile of the dead coke zone itself. The accurate under-
standing of this profile has great importance for control of the cohesive
zone.
4.3.3.2. Inclination of boundary of dead coke zone

The profile and inclination of the dead coke zone are very different in
every experimental apparatus. Generally, the inclination is large in a
two-dimensional model and small in a three-dimensional one. A profile
of the dead coke zone measured by the semi-cylindrical model is shown
in Fig. 4.3.13. 38 The top rises with a decrease in shaft angle, and the slope
has a hollow in the middle section. The hollow disappears with an
increase in shaft angle, and at an angle of90 ° a slight bulge is evident.
Fig.4.3.13. Effect of shaft angle on profile of dead coke zone?8
The inclination angle obtained by a linear approximation of the

slope profile indicates a value very close to the angle of internal friction
for coke. In addition, the descent rate of burden has only a small
influence on the profile of the dead coke zone.
The inclination is affected by the blowing volume, and increases with
the volume as reported by Wagstaff. 42 In the case of a three-dimensional
model, however, the influence of blowing volume is smaller than for a
two-dimensional model. From blast furnace dissection studies, the
inclination angle of the dead coke zone is estimated to be 30_50°.43,44
4.3.3.3. Permeability of moving coke zone

Hot model experiments45 have shown that there is a region where coke
particles move towards the raceway as a funnel flow, and a moving coke
zone where coke descends radially between the cohesive zone and the
dead man. In these regions, the arrangement of coke particles changes,
and the permeability characteristics are different from those of the plug
flow region.46 The permeability of the moving coke zone with funnel
flow has been studied by a counter-current moving bed (see Fig. 4.3.14).
This model was an 800 mm long counter-current moving bed
(100 mm 0), with an inner wall covered by coke particles of 5-8 mm. In
order to achieve satisfactory pressure drops ranges, the model was
packed with coke particles of average diameter 4'5, 5·33 and 7·4 mm.
The bed diameter and particle size were determined by a slit model so
that the coke exhibited funnel flow in the measured range of pressure
drop. During descent of the burden with air blown from the bottom of
the bed, the blowing rate, pressure drop and descent rate at the bed
1 Roots blower
9 2 Valve
3 Orifice
4 Manometer
5 Thermometer
6 Motor
7 Table feeder
8 Moving bed
9 Scale
Fig.4.3.14. Schematic drawing of moving bed. 38

surface were measured at the time when the blowing rate and pressure
loss reached a steady state.
Figure 4.3.15 shows comparisons of pressure drop just after packing
(fixed bed) with that of steady descent (moving bed). The pressure drop
of the moving bed is approximately half that of the fixed bed. Moreover,
the descent rate appears to have no influence, and the coke bed
descends with a constant void fraction. The void fraction e of the funnel
flow region can be estimated by Ergun's equation, taking the shape
factor into account:
l:i.P
(4.3.1 )
l:i.L
~ 0.6 o , - - - - - - . - - - , - - , . . . , . , . - - , - - - - - - - . - , . . . , - - , - - - - r - ; - - , - - - - ,
E dp :45mm
~ 0·40 i2Ss:Q65
9..
I
Vs (em/mln)
o 3.2 - 4.5
E 0.20 ! 1. 3-12.1
~ '13.3-22.9
0.10t---+_-
0.08
...J 0.06
<J
- 0.04
Cl...
<J
0.02
0.01
000 ~~O---;:';;-~~;';;-;~;;--~20;;-----:40:'::--:!:60::-80::'::-:-:10::::0--L-==-==----!;40::---;60:';::-;:80':cl:±OO;;----'
Gas veloCity (UO) (em/set)
Fig. 4.3.15. Comparison of pressure drop between fixed and moving beds?8. 39
Solid lines in Fig.4.3.15 are calculated for a fixed shape factor

CPs = 0·65 with voidage as a parameter, and the observed values satisfy
Ergun's equation.39 Because it is difficult to clarify the value of cP" the
relationship between CPs and e has been evaluated for various pressure
drops and the results are shown in Fig. 4.3.16. Figure 4.3.16 shows thate
in fixed and moving beds is independent of particle size, and that e in a
moving bed with funnel flow is about 20% larger than that in a fixed bed.
066 Dplmml
0 4.SO
0.64 ~_
Ivr _ O • ing b ea )( 533
•..
-
0.62 6.SO
740
~~
- 0.60
I
0,54 ~~'~ed b
A -
i .....
. ed
0.52
4 ..........
O,SO ....... r--
0.48
055 0.60 065 0]0 0.75 0.80
¢Is I-I
Fig.4.3.16. Relation between <P s and e in fixed and moving beds.38. 39
4.3.4. Movement of Coke in Dead Coke Zone and Hearth

Markers which are charged before dissection of a blast furnace, or
measurements on samples which are taken from tuyeres, show that it
takes a long time for coke in the dead zone in the lower part of the
furnace either to descend or to be replaced.
At the Sakai No.2 furnace, coke has been sampled by inserting a
sampler through a tuyere 13 days after formed coke was charged and 7
days after an exchange to normal coke. Both samples showed that coke
was completely replaced. 47 These coke samples were taken 2-3 m in
from the tuyere, and the results showed that coke in the dead zone is
renewed.
Table 4.3.1 gives measured results for coke consumption in the hearth
by charging coke which includes radioactive SC203 as an ash
component.48 From the results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) Coke in the peripheral zone is consumed in 2-3 days. Considering
that the greater part of the coke in the hearth is consumed by pig
TABLE 4.3.1
Replacement Period of Dead Coke Zone Measured with Radioactive Coke48
Test Changing position of radioactive coke Period before detection
1 Periphery 1·5 m from wall Tuyere level almost 10 h

2 Periphery 1·7 m from wall Cinder notch level 2.5 days
(1 '2 m below tuyere level)
3 Midway 3·6 m from wall Tuyere level 18·5 days
4 Center 7·9 m from wall Tuyere level 15·5 days
iron attack, the volume of pig iron which drops down through the
peripheral zone is large, and is relatively small in the middle or
central zone.
(2) Coke in the central or middle zone is only consumed in 15-19
days, i.e. the replacement of dead coke is very slow.
Furthermore, the dead coke piled up on the coke bed in the hearth
moves up and down according to the tapping cycle. In this case, the peak
of the dead coke zone is unstable and is renewed by the next cycle of
descending coke as much as coke movement towards a tuyere, and the
peak becomes roundish. This has been verified by a simulation
experiment49 using polystyrene balls and glycerine solution.
In an operation with a V-shaped cohesive zone, as was observed in
dissections of the Kawasaki No.3 furnace and the Amagasa"ki No. 1
furnace,43.so coke in the central part (central coke) must descend. In such
a case, coke particles probably float up from the hearth toward the
raceway. This phenomenon has been experimentally observed and is
shown in Photo 4.3.3. 51 In a two-way dimensional model of the hearth,
which was divided into central and peripheral regions, resin balls
(5 mm, Pb = 0'8) were packed and mercury was added to a given level.
Subsequently, the balls were discharged from the raceway zone, and
balls were supplied in the central region. When the mercury surface was
higher than a certain level, particles in the hearth floated up into the
raceway. This implies the possibility that the V-shaped cohesive zone
Photo.4.3.3. Simulation of coke behavior in the hearth. 51

maintains a steady state as well. Such movement of coke takes place

rather more easily for periodic tapping than for continuous tapping in a
modem large blast furnace.
4.4. THEORETICAL APPROACH TO THE FLOW OF BURDEN

MATE~INTHEFURNACE
The behavior of solids in the lower part of the blast furnace is not well
understood because of the difficulties of investigation and analysis, in
spite of the importance in preventing hanging and slipping. In order to
estimate burden descent in the belly and the bosh, it is necessary to
understand the stress conditions in these regions. Therefore the stress
distribution has been studied using a model furnace, and the profile of
the dead coke zone has been theoretically analyzed by the slip lines of
Mohr's circles.
4.4.1. Stress Distribution in the Blast Furnace
4.4.1.1. Basic properties of bulk solids 39. 52

The angles of internal and wall friction of various materials which have
been used in the model and the small experimental blast furnace are
shown in Table 4.4.1. These values were measured by the direct shear
tester shown in Fig. 4.4.1. All the materials (except the glass beads) had
almost equal angles of internal and wall friction, and particle diameter
Apparotus for Internol rrictlon measurement
Apparotus for wall friction measurement
Fig. 4.4.1. Apparatus for direct measurement of shear stress. 52

TABLE 4.4_1
Basic Physical Properties of Partides 38- 52
Angle of internal Angle of wall friction (deg)

Mean dia_ (mm) friction (deg)
Rusted steel Slippery steel Glass plate Chamotte brick

plate plate 'T1
t-<
0
Crushed 7-7 48-3 18-3 10-6 4-1 14-8 ~
formed 12-3 49-7 l7-5 9-42 3-7 13-2 0
'T1
coke l7-6 47-0 16-7 9-26 3-7 13-8
~
y)
Crushed 8-1 43-5 15-9 9-70 3-4 11-9
metallurgical 11-1 43-5 15-9 9-70 3-5 11-3 C
coke 14-3 44-6 15-4 9-65 3-5 11-3 10
c:::
Sinter 4-9 38-6 18-8 9-43 10-7 16-4 8
6-2 36-8 14-2 ~
Fired pellet 0
IJl
10-3 40-4 15-1 11-3 9-98 12-5 0
t-<
......
Cold bonded pellet 9-2 41-3 14-9 11-3 10-2 11-6 0
Formed coke 17-4 41-3 19-1 8-14 4-7 12-8
River sanda 1-5-2-5 40-0 28-0
Glass bead 2-0 22-0 6-9
aMeasurement with lenike flow tester_

w
Vi
w
had only a small influence on the angle of internal and wall friction, as
seen in Figs 4.4.2 and 4.4.3. The angle of internal friction of glass beads
is constant at sizes greater than I mm diameter, and under dense
packing conditions the internal friction angle becomes 3 0 larger than
that for loose packing, as shown in Fig. 4.4.4.
- Crushed formed coke
] 501----t---±---+----I
n
.i:
o
~ 45r----t--~~~+--~
o Metallurgical coke
~
OJ
-< 40 '------7;---7:::----:1-':-6---:'20.
Particle dio Imml
Fig.4.4.2. Effect of particle size on angle of internal friction. 52
_ _ Rusted stee l plate

-_. -
-.
Chamatle brock
20 ---- - Slippery steel plole
r---- ~ _a __
- Gloss pl ate
Cru shed formed co e
t:--.
-
c 15 1--.
x Meta llu rgical coke
]
g
1-- ~ ..
..
f-- _. -><
~ 10 --- ~F'---
.
g>
-
5
« ~~ b....-·
o 8 12 16 20
Particle die Imm l
Fig. 4.4.3. Effect of particle size on angle of wall friction. 52
4.4.1.2. Stress distribution in model jurnace 39

The dynamic behavior of the bulk solid is generally analyzed with the
following scale factors:
whereL is length, r is shear stress, a is major stress, v is velocityofflow,1l

is the scale factor, and subscripts m and p denote model and prototype
respectively.
o 25
Q)
c;,
c:
<C
200L---0...J..-
5 --1L.0- - -1..L.5- - - - ' 2.0
Parti cle d ia meter fmm !
Fig. 4.4.4. Effect of glass beads size on angle of internal friction measured by
three axes compression method. 52
The stress distribution in the blast furnace has been studied by

Shimizu et al. 39 using a cold model as shown in Fig. 4.4.5. In this study,
sand took the place of burden. The descent velocity of sand in the model
(1. 86-2'17 cm/min) was determined from the above equations based on
values of 6-7 m/h measured at the throat of a commercial furnace
(throat diameter 8·8 m, inner volume 3090 m 3) .
Bottom plate
Discharging pipe
Fig. 4.4.5. Apparatus for measurement of stress distribution In the blast

furnace (7/30 scale of Kakogawa No.1 furnace).39
Figure 4.4.6 shows the measured and calculated results of vertical

stress at different heights under static conditions. The theoretical values
are calculated by eqn (4.4.7) based on Janssen's theoryY
Cylindrical model
i7v (g/cm') i7v (g.-cm')
Fig. 4.4.6. Stress distribution in the vertical direction just after packing with
sand. 39
DERIVATION OF THE THEORETICAL EQUATION BASED

ON JANSSEN'S THEORY
On the theoretical analysis of stresses in the stack, Janssen assumed that the
stress was in the critical state for yielding and that the major and the minor
principal stresses acted in the vertical and the horizontal directions, respectively.
The horizontal stresses were considered to be uniform in the radial direction.
Considering the Mohr's circle in Fig. 4.4.7 on the above assumptions, the
ratio of the horizontal stress aH to the vertical stress av is expressed as follows:
K=
am - am sin ¢!i
am + am sin ¢!i
I-sin¢!i
(4.4.1)
1 + sin ¢!i
where K is a coefficient of earth pressure known as Rankin's constant.
D."!
. th e stack'Just a f ter packi ng.38
Fig. 4.4.7. Stress m
From Fig. 4.4.8, the vertical pressures are in equilibrium:
A(P + gpbdh) = A(P + dP) + I1wHcos 8 (~)Sw

sh
cos 8 sh
(4.4.2)
hence
H = KP (4.4.3)
A = 1T(R + h tan 8 sJ 2 (4.4.4)
Sw= 21T(R + h tan 8 sh ) (4.4.5)
where 11 w is the coefficient of wall friction and Pb is the bulk density of material.
Now if h = 0, then P = O. Equation (4.4.2) is integrated as
P = gPb [(htan8 h +R) -R( R ) 211 wKJ

211wK + tan 8 sh S h tan 8 sh + R tan 8 sh (4.4.6)
dh
cos Osh
Hcos Osh
Fig.4.4.8. Schematic drawing for calculating stack stress in a blast fumace. 38

Clearly from Fig. 4.4.6, the experimental values, although scattered

due to the packing conditions, are in fairly good agreement with the
calculated results. Therefore the distributions of static stresses just after
packing can be theoretically estimated by using eqn (4.4.6) derived on
the assumption that the major and the minor principal stresses act in
the vertical and horizontal directions, respectively.
Figure 4.4.9 shows the distributions of wall stress a horizontal stress Vi'
ay, and vertical stress aH in the stack, and the coefficient of earth
pressure aH/ay under dynamic conditions. Large fluctuations of wall
stress a w occurred owing to intermittent descent of particles close to the
wall. a w increased gradually towards the lower part of the shaft and
decreased markedly after reaching a maximum at the belly. The striking
development of wall stress at the belly means that the active state of
stress field changes to the passive state.
'{I ndr col" dt; o~." 83
Coefl lclenl 01
corrh pre\!oute
n 20 4) iJll 8(\ 1000 20 40 6(' 8( 1("10 2r JO 60 80 1 0 1200 I 2 3 4 5

fJ .. 19 m J
Fig. 4.4.9. Changes of wall, vertical and horizontal stresses in the vertical
direction. 39
a H is so small that a radial distribution could not be recognized in the

shaft. At the belly in which aH develops markedly, aH changes in the
radial direction and is high at the periphery and low in the center.
Radial distributions of ay are found at all levels and ay at the shaft
decreases towards the periphery. In the lower zone, av rises around the
top of the central dead zone in which r/R = 0-0' 5. Considering the
distribution of av, it is inferred that stresses in the coke dead zone are
very large.
The coefficient of earth pressure aHia y at the shaft is very small and
nearly uniform in the radial direction. At the lower part where aH/aV
changes markedly with radial direction, analysis by the Mohr's circle
shows that the directions of the major principal stresses and the slip
lines are different at the various radial positions.
In Fig. 4.4.9, the shaded area shows that the coefficient of earth
pressure is about 1. In this area where material descends in funnel flow
toward the outlet, the stress condition is a completely passive stress field.
The action lines of major principal stress just after packing and in a
steady flow state are illustrated in Fig. 4.4.10, on the basis of the stress
distributions shown in Figs 4.4.6 and 4.4.9. The effect of the descent
velocity on the distributions of horizontal and vertical stress is not
apparent in Fig. 4.4.11. This means that the direction of major principal
(AJ just after packing IBI steady flow
A : Active state
B : Transitional state
C : Passive state
Fig. 4.4.10. Directions of major principal stresses just after packing and at
steady flow. 39
Horizontal slress
o 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80 100
UH 19 / cm 2J "v Ig / cm 21
Fig.4.4.11. Effect of descent velocity on distribution of horizontal and vertical

stress. 39
stress, as well as the slip lines which have angles of ± (1T /4 - 41;12) to the
lines of major principal stresses, is constant with different descent
velocities.
4.4.2. Inclination of the Dead Coke Zone Boundary

The Mohr's circle is often used to analyze the inclination of the dead
coke zone mechanically. In this case, it is necessary to clarify whether
the stress field during descent in the stack is an active or a passive state.
The above-mentioned results of stress measurement prove that the
stress field around the dead coke zone is in the passive state. Using this
result, the profile of the dead man can be analyzed theoretically. When
the stress field of the region surrounded by the bosh wall with angle (J
against the perpendicular axis is in the passive .state, and the stress
condition is a yield limit, Mohr's circles of the peripheral, middle and
central parts are expressed as Mw , Mr and Me in Fig. 4.4.12, where the
horizontal stress C1h is assumed constant in the radial direction. When
the angle between a tangent to the slip line at a certain radial position
and the horizontal plain is y, the direction of the major principal stress
,,~
0"
o~
T ..:(,qj.
,,<
,<0""
!Trz1w --------------.----- ,........,=---
" wI
"
Fig.4.4.12. Stresses of wall, center and radius r in the dynamic condition. 39

a r is 0, and the angle of internal friction for the particle is ¢i, the slip line
is generally expressed as follows:
- dz/dr = tan r (4.4.7)
r = 0 ± (JT /4 - ¢/2) (4.4.8)
The diagram for the direction of the slip line of a bed is obtained by
expressing 0 in eqn (4.4.8) as a function of the radius r.
Equations (4.4.9)-(4.4.13) are given from Fig. 4.4.12:
(t'rz)w = Xl sin20 w (4.4.9)
(t'rJr = X2 sin20 (4.4.10)
(4.4.11)
ah = xdl/sin¢i + cos 2l/fwJ (4.4.12)
20w = [¢w+sin-l(sin¢w/sin¢0J +28 (4.4.13)
where ¢w is the angle of wall friction of the particle,ow is the direction of

the major principal stress on the wall, (t'rz)w and (t'rz)r are shear stresses
acting in the z-direction on the wall and the middle part of the furnace,
a mw and a mr are mean stresses at the wall and the middle part of the
furnace.
The equation of Mohr's circle Mr through point P2 is represented by
(4.4.14)
From eqns (4.4.10), (4.4.11) and (4.4.14), the following equation is

obtained:
(4.4.15)
Expressing (t'rz)r as a linear function of radius r by the method of

Walters,54 the following equation is obtained:
(4.4.16)
Meanwhile, from eqn (4.4.9) and (4.4.12), the following is derived:

sin ¢isin 20w
(4.4.17)
1 + sin ¢iCOS 20w
From eqns (4.4.15)-(4.4.17),8 is expressed as a function of dimensionless

radius r*:
£
v = -1.
2
Sln
-1 [
tan ¢i -
r*Pcos¢i
sin ¢i (tan2 ¢i - r*2 p 2)112
] (4.4.18)
Figure 4.4.13 shows a group of characteristic curves obtained from the

observed data on the dead coke zone and the above-theoretical analysis.
On the whole, the profile agrees with a b-slip line which has a plus sign
in eqn (4.4.8) among a pair of a- and b-characteristic curves obtained
from the theoretical analysis. Hence, by obtaining the b-slip line which
starts from the discharge hole, the dead coke zone can be approximately
estimated. The reason why the calculated value is lower than the
observed one in the center results from the assumption that horizontal
stress is kept constant. As shown by the measured data in Fig. 4.4.9, ifthe
horizontal stress in the lower part of the furnace can be expressed as a
function of radius, the tangent of the b-slip line is increased from the
geometry of Mohr's circle.
1.2 r----.:--r;-~:_::_-____,
1.0
"N"" 0.6
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

r/R I-I
Fig. 4.4.13. Comparison of calculated profile of dead coke zone with

experimentalobservation.39
4.4.3. Notation (Sections 4.3 and 4.4)

A cross-sectional area in shaft
dp particle diameter
h height of stack (m)

K coefficient of earth pressure (Rankin's constant) (-)
I1L length (m)
Lp size of blast furnace (m)
Lm size of model (m)
p pressure (Pa)
R throat radius (m)
r distance from center (m)
r* dimensionless radius (-)
Sw wall surface area (m 2)
u superficial gas velocity (m/s)
Uc descending velocity at center (m/s)
Uw descending velocity at periphery (m/s)
Urn descending velocity of solid in model (m/s)
up descending velocity of solid in blast furnace (m/s)
Pb bulk density of bed (kg/m3)
e fractional void volume of bed (-)
e contact angle (0)
esh shaft angle CO)
A scale factor (-)
fJ g gas viscosity (kg/m·s)
fJw coefficient of wall friction (-)
am major stress in model (kg/m 2)
ap major stress in blast furnace (kg/m2)
aH horizontal stress (kg/m 2)
ay vertical stress (kg/m2)
a mw mean stress at wall (kg/m 2)
a mr mean stress at middle part (kg/m2)
al> ab am, a w stress defined in Fig. 4.4.7 (kg/m 2)
rm shear stress in model (kg/m2)
rp shear stress in blast furnace (kg/m 2)
(r rz)w shear stress acting in z-direction on wall (kg/m 2 )
(r rz)r shear stress acting in z-direction on the middle (kg/m 2)
part of furnace
¢i internal friction angle (0)
¢s shape factor of particle (-)
¢w angle of wall friction (0)
D direction of major principal stress CO)
Dw direction of major principal stress on wall (0)
4.5. NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF RADIAL GAS FLOW

DISTRIBUTION
The gas flow in a blast furnace governs the reduction of iron ore and
heat transfer to solids. Therefore it is important to know how the gas
flow is affected by changes in the furnace burden profile, caused by
variations in the fed materials and in the burden distribution in daily
operation. Gas flow in the furnace is affected by radial particle size
distribution, void fraction distribution and ore and coke layer thickness
distribution in the upper part ofthe furnace, by the shape ofthe cohesive
zone in the middle part, and by the shape of the deadman and the flow
resistance of gas through the deadman in the lower part.
Since the above problems have become important for modem blast
furnace operation, two-dimensional analysis is used as the basis for
calculation of gas flow. Numerical calculation of two-dimensional gas
flow has become possible by extending Ergun's equation8 for pressure
drop to two dimensions, and many examples of the calculation have
been reported. 55,56
However, these attempts have not been widely applied to commercial
blast furnaces. This is because the burden distribution and cohesive
zone distribution in the furnace must be numerically defined before
calculation of the gas flow, and this is difficult. In this section, an
attempt is made to calculate the two-dimensional gas flow by
combining a gas flow model with a burden distribution model in which
a degree of freedom is given to the furnace burden profile.
4.5.1. Burden Distribution Model

The burden line at the furnace top was determined from the angle of
inclination under the influence of the gas flow. 57
If the standard angle of inclination is Po, the minimum fluidization
velocity of burden U mf and the average velocity of top gas U, then the
angle of inclination of the burden top surface upon charging is given by
(4.5.1)
The minimum fluidization velocity, Umf , is expressed as follows by

means of Wen's equation: 58
(4.5.2)
The profile of the burden top surface of the second and following
charges is given, as shown in Fig. 4.5.1, by a third-order polynomial ofx,
and the coefficients a to d are determined in such a way that the volume
of an ore layer, Vo, given by eqn (4.5.3) and the volume of a coke layer, Ve,
given by eqn (4.5.4) are satisfied.
Vo = !oc(CJPbo) (4.5.3)
Ve = CJPbe (4.5.4)
Fig.4.5.1. Schematic model for the calculation of burden distribution.
For example, the equation of the burden line g(x) in Fig. 4.5.1 is
determined by repeating the calculations of eqns (4.5.5)-(4.5.7) until eqn
(4.5.7) is satisfied.
e
a ] _ [X!'
X3, X3, X2]-1 [Y2]
X!' X3 Y3
[ be - (4.5.5)
Ce xl, X~, X4 Y4
g(x) = ae x 3 + be x 2 + CeX + de (4.5.6)
(4.5.7)
The degree of freedom of the burden distribution was determined as

follows:
(1) The angle of inclination of a coke layer was changeable within
the range of ± 5°.
(2) In order to express the radial distribution of the ore/coke ratio,
the layer thickness AY at each radial positionX was changeable.
With this burden distribution model, it is impossible to take a
sufficient range of variables owing to the limited capacity of the
computer used. Therefore the characteristic values that decide the flow
resistance of gas in each part of the blast furnace, such as void fraction
and particle diameter, were expressed as representative values obtained
by making the characteristic gas flow resistance values of the ore and
coke layers proportional to layer thicknesses.
The shap~ of the cohesive zone can be estimated only when reactions
and heat tranJer are taken into account. In the present gas flow model,
however, the internal and external boundaries of the cohesive zone are
defined by
(4.5.8)
Since an extreme value is taken at the furnace center, the term Xl is
omitted. Equation (4.5.8) can also express a W-shaped cohesive zone.
4.5.2. Two-dimensional Gas Flow in the Blast Furnace

The flow field as expressed by eqn (4.5.12) is derived from simultaneous
solving of eqn (4.5.9), an equation of continuity, and eqn (4.5.10), a two-
dimensional expansion of Ergun's equation, as the equation of motion,
where the stream function, lfI, that satisfies eqn (4.5.9) is defined by eqn
(4.5.11).
o 0
(4.5.9)
oz (r Gz ) + or (yGr) = 0
gradP = - (FI +F2 1(1)0 (4.5.10)

where
(4.5.11)
(4.5.12)
where
An empirical formula, derived59 on the basis of a combustion
experiment by using a model combustion furnace, was used to express
the shape of the raceway.
An empirical formula obtained with a cold model by Miyasaka et a/. w
was used to represent the shape of the deadman.
Figure 4.5.2 shows the boundary conditions for gas flow. The basic
concept is that gas blown horizontally through the tuyere passes
Gr cos 8+Gz sin 8=0
8=tan- 1 (f,lr)
Gr sin 81+Gz cas 81=0
3r=0
Gr=O
Gr=~Gin
Gr=O
Gz=O
Fig. 4.5.2. Boundary conditions for gas flow.
through the burden line perpendicular to the furnace top. At other

boundaries, the gas is assumed to flow parallel to the wall.
The numerical calculation was made by taking the finite difference of
the second-order partial differential equation concerning the stream
function, If/, and by using the SOR process. The computer used was
FACOM-M140F.
As shown in Fig. 4.5.3, the inside of the blast furnace was divided
into a grid of equally spaced bars, and each zone of the furnace was
represented by numbers. Special numbers were used in positions that
~ I I 1 ~ , " ) ,. 't ..... 10 U U U ,. U It. II
., .2'1 2'J ')

... ,) 1,) 1 1 J:U
_ U U _ l--..L-..L..J. Zz.,_ _ __ __ _
". 2) 1) 1 J J I 1 1 II
., ,,, .u U J 1 .L , 1 1 1 1 U
U '" 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 U
.1 1" 1 1 J 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 21 .
- ~:--!:-. ~ t- ':-!- ~- ~-~-~i_t - ~t-------

•0 1" 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 21
)1 H 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 Ii
,. 1" 1 1 J 1 1 1 1 I I I 21
)~ I'" 1 1 1 1 1 1 ) 1 1 I. 1 II
,. 1l1li 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 J 1 21
- ~: -- !:- ~ - ~-~-~~-!-~ - ! - t~ ~-! -~!------
H ,,, I 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 21
)0 1" I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11
.. t '" 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 U
•• ,.. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l;U
-:!--!:-!--t-l ~--t-!-~-!-t-t-!-~ ~~-----
.til)
..
.,
HI . ,
h
h _, _,
, . , -, - ,
.'1.,
1 I.
1
1
J
1
1 I.
1
1 1 J 1 I 11
1 l i t 1 1 11
I
1
1
I
1
1 1 U
4l 16" ., . , . , I I 1 1 1 1 1 U 1
_ '1 _ _ _ "" _ '_J _"'2'_ "'1_ "'Z _ .1 _ 1 _ 1 _ 1 _ 1 _ 1 _ 1 1_ __
I_
"0 1 " ] , ' - , .1 -1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 I 21
). I" 1 ,) -, .. 1 .~"1 1 I. 1 I 1 I 1 21 _ _ _
,. l I t . ) , ) , -1 -2 _1 I 1 J L I. 1 I 21
II _ 1... , Jo , . 2 . ' _2 ) I L L I J J 2l
_ " ___1,,,_,_ )_
1I 1 . . . " " , ., .,2 · 2 -'1 1 1 I 1 I J 21
L~1 _ ·] ~2 _ _ ~I _ l _ l _ l_J _ 1J1_ _ _
loll h ) ; ) 1 ,..2 _2 ."·2 J I 1. 1 J 1 21
») h I~ ) l .).2.~ to :1 . :1 J 1 1 1 1 1 H
.*
II 1 " · ) ' . ) " . 2 .1 .1 ·1·2 1 1 J J 1 11 -
Jl I .. I~ ) :) } ) _2 .2 . 2 .1 -2 1 J 1 1 2l
JoO .~ -1 ) } ).:1 1 1 . , ·1.2 1 1 J i l l ." -
.u
21
I , .)
1'" .) . , . ) .) .)
I' -)
_ " _ _ 1'_·)_ _ ) __ l _ J _ J~22:1_·1--.!'1......!'2-..!2 _ 1 _ 1_1~1 _ _
J Jo ;) -2 .2 _1 -- 2 --2.1 1 1 11
,·~·1·1·1.2.1.2 -2 1 21
" 106 .) .) to,.) ,. ) , . 1 _ 2 . , . , _1 .1 "" . , ,~
ZJ
' II
,., 1" .) .). . ) . ,
h a~ .) . , . . ) )
I'll .) .) .) . ) .)
} ;) ) -1 .2 ., ., .1 _1 ., .2 10
;)
J
,
,
, . , -2 ., .2 ., ·2 .1 10
) . 1 . 2 . 2 . , . , __ 2 Oil 20
- " --1'- · )- ·)-·'- · )-·' - " ~ ) )
"- · '- "'1- . 1- .1- .,2 - .1 20
11 1_ . 'J. .) .) . , . ) . ) ,) ,) l . l . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 10
10 I'll . ) .) .) . 'J. . ) . ) ) ) " 1 . 1 . 2 . ' . ' . 1 20
l ' . . I'll . ) .) .) .) .) .).~ ,) 1 " l . l . 1 . ] . , 1'9
11
h
1'" .~ .) .) .) .) .).. ) ;) l .) " ' . ] . ' . 2 I t
_ " _ _ 1. _. )_.)_.)~)-..!)_.' _. ~ _ ) _ ,, _ ' _ l _ :) _ )
1• • ) ., .) .) .) .) . ) . ) l J l l " " ••
_'-L' __
1, ._ .) .) . ) . ) .) .) . ) . ) ) l ) ) l 1 l'
I... 1_ . ) . ) . ) .) . ) .') .) . ) . ) ) " , l ).,
I, ..... ) .) . ) .) .) . , . ) . ) . ) 1 ) ) " ) 1'9
11 I"" . ) . ) . ) . ') .) .':1 .) . ) . ) . " ) ) ) )."
_ 1\ _ _ I. _·) _·)....: )_· ) _· )_ ·, _·) _· )_ · )_·" _ l_ R"~._ A"" _ lL--
10 I • • ) .) .) .) .) . '.1 .) .) .) .) "''''' H" A... ,.. I'
I"" . ) • ., .) . ) .) • ., .) .~ .) • ., III .... " IA ... A... 1'1'
._ ." .) . ) . ) .) . , . ) .) .) ." th ill' R_ All" I,
.'" . ) . , . ) . ) . " . ) . ) . ) . ) . , . ) IU IA" III ... U
• 1 ..... ) . ) ." ." .) .) .) .) ." .) . ) . ) J '1)
_ L _ _ l"_ · ~.)~. ) ..! ) _.)_ . >.-' 1....·..) _·) _ ·.}_·) _.)_ .)_..l _ l l -
.. 1. . . ) .) .) . ) .) .) . ') .) .) . ) .) . ) . , 1 I)
I' . ) ., . ) .) .) ., . ) . ~ .) .) .) . ) .) ,. I)
1 .... ) .) . ) .) .) .) . ) .) . ) . ) .) . ) .) .) I)
11 11 11 12' 11 11 11 11 11 .1 11 11 11 II 11 Jl
Fig. 4.5.3. Map for the attribution of each grid and each zone.
require the calculation of boundary values, such as furnace center, layer

top, furnace wall and furnace bottom, and the numerical calculation
was allocated according to these numbers.
4.5.3. Outline of Results of Calculation

Figure 4.5.4 shows examples of calculated burden distribution and
stream lines of gas.
101 Colculoted burden Ibl Slreom lines 01 gos

disIl"ibuhon
Fig. 4.5.4. Two-dimensional gas flow in blast furnace considered from the
cohesive zone (effect of the cohesive zone height).
In general, the gas at the furnace top tends to flow toward the center
due to the inclination of the burden top surface. Lower in the furnace,
the flow resistance of gas through the cohesive zone is high, and
therefore the average flow resistance of gas through the bed increases.
As a result, radial distribution of gas takes place in this zone.
4.5.3.1. Effect offlow resistance of gas in each part of blast furnace

Figure 4.5.5 shows changes in gas flow with varying flow resistance in
each part of the furnace. The flow resistance is given by changing the
void fraction of the packed beds. The conditions used are shown in the
table included in Fig. 4.5.5 where 8 0 and 8 e represent the average void
fraction of ore and coke layers upon charging respectively.
The following comments can be made, comparing with case (b). An
increase in the gas flow resistance of the cohesive zone increases gas
flow in the radial direction near the cohesive zone (case (a) ). When the
flow resistance of gas in the deadman is increased, the gas flows toward
the coke layers between the cohesive zone and the deadman (case (c) ).
laJ Ibl lei
Void Iroc lion

Cohesi .... e
zone Cohesive
Deadman
zone
101 0.3 C 0 Cc
Ibl High 07 Co ce
lei 07 Co 0_6 < c
Idl 0.3' 0 'e
low
lei 0.3 < 0 06 <,
'0 : Void fraClion o f Ore layer
! c : Void rrcction of coke loyer
IdJ leI
Fig. 4.5.5. Flow patterns of gas flow in the blast furnace with various void
fractions in cohesive zone and deadman.
The stream line distribution in the lumpy zone is almost the same in
all the cases (a)-(e). This means that the velocity distribution of the gas
stream flowing from the cohesive zone rapidly changes in the lumpy
zone according to the radial distribution of flow resistance.
4.5.3.2. Effect of ore/coke distribution upon charging

Cases I-III in Fig. 4.5.6 are examples of burden distribution when the
radial distribution of layer thickness ratio of ore and coke upon
charging is changed.
If case II is regarded as the standard condition, case I represents the
burden distribution when the ore/coke ratio at the center is large, and
Case I Case II
Case III Case IV
Fig.4.5.6. Various aspects of burden distribution.

case III the burden distribution when the same ratio is small. Figure
4.5.7 shows the radial distribution oflayer thickness ratio corresponding
to cases I-III.
Figure 4.5.8 illustrates the distribution of calculated values of mass
velocity at the top of the furnace. The flow rate distribution along the
burden top surface is represented by A. and B represents the flow rate
distribution along a line 0·5 m below the burden top. The radial
difference in mass velocity is larger at plane A than at plane B. This
shows that the gas quite near the furnace top flows towards the center
due to the effect of the burden top surface. The difference in flow rate
4.0 r - - - - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - . ,
(D Case I
CZ; Case II
1u
3.0
CD Case III
..c
w _i
L
b u 2.0
=~
a ~
a
;§ 1.0
2 3 4 5
Center Wall
Distance from the center (ml
Fig.4.5.7. Distribution of Ole at the furnace top.
8
Case I.@
°0 2 3 4 5
Center Wall
Distance from the center (m)
Fig.4.5.8. Distribution of mass velocity at the furnace top.

distribution between case I and case III is caused by the difference in

radial layer thickness between ore and coke layers which brings about a
radial distribution of gas flow resistance.
4.5.3.3. Effect of height of cohesive zone

Cases II and IV in Fig. 4.5.9 show examples of gas flow distribution in
which the radial distribution of burden is the same and only the height
of the cohesive zone is changed.
Case I
4 Case II, IV
~
o
OJ
'0 ~
~ NE
·u . . . . . .
~ ~ 2
>
:!i (')
o
L
OL---~----~--~-
o 2 3 4 5
Center Wall
Distance from the center 1m)
Fig.4.5.9. Distribution of mass velocity at the furnace top.
The existence of the cohesive zone strongly affects the gas flow in the
lower part of this zone. However, both cases show the same tendency in
the upper part of this zone.
It seems that the gas that has flowed out of the cohesive zone rapidly
changes its course of flow to suit the gas flow resistance in the lumpy
zone.
4.5.3.4. Radial flow velocity distribution at each height in furnace

Figure 4.5.10 shows calculated values of flow velocity at various heights
in the furnace. Under isothermal conditions, the gas temperature in
each zone is fixed: at 600°C in the lumpy zone, 1300°C in the cohesive
zone, 1500°C in the deadman, and 1600°C in the dropping zone. Under
non-isothermal conditions, gas temperature values are set only for the
lumpy zone, ranging from the furnace top temperature to the cohesive
zone temperature according to height. In other zones, gas temperatures
are set at the isothermal values as under isothermal conditions. In this
50 , -- - -------,
(.e •...,
j tl'
Fig.4.5.1O. Radial distribution for gas flow velocity and mass velocity.
figure, (a) shows the actual radial flow velocity distribution, and (b) the
radial mass velocity distribution.
The difference between the isothermal and non-isothermal conditions
becomes small when the radial distribution is expressed in terms of
mass velocity.
The radial difference in flow resistance is small in the lumpy and
dropping zones. At the furnace top, the effect of the inclination of the
burden top surface is observed in the gas flow velocity distribution. The
gas velocity is high on the inner side of the cohesive zone, whereas it is
low within the cohesive zone.
4.5.3.5. Effect of shape of cohesive zone

Studies on the shape of the cohesive zone have so far dealt mainly with
the inverted V shape. However, when the shape of the cohesive zone is
estimated by taking heat transfer into account, the results of calculation
do not always show the inverted V shape. Further, it is desirable that the
gas flow can be calculated for various shapes of the cohesive zone.
Figure 4.5.11 shows an example of calculation of gas flow in the

W-shaped cohesive zone. Figure 4.5.12 shows an example of calculation
of gas flow in the V-shaped cohesive zone. A characteristic difference is
observed in the gas flow near the cohesive zone.
Although it is questionable whether the V-shaped cohesive zone
shown in Fig. 4.5.12 can be actually formed, the results of calculations
show that such special shapes can be dealt with by the method
presented above.
Fig. 4.5.11. Example of calculation of gas flow in the W-shaped cohesive zone.
Fig. 4.5.12. Example of calculation of gas flow in the V-shaped cohesive zone.
4.5.4. Concluding Remarks

It has been demonstrated that it is possible to calculate the gas flow to
suit various conditions in the blast furnace, such as height and shape of
the cohesive zone, radial distribution of O/C, flow resistance of gas in
various parts of the furnace, and temperature distribution. In the future,

it will be important to develop a total blast furnace model in which solid
flow, reactions and heat transfer are taken into consideration.
4.5.5. Notation
Cb coke weight per charge (kg/ch)
Dp particle diameter (m)
foe weight ratio of ore to coke (-)
Fl viscous term in Ergun's equation (kgwt·s/kg 2·m)
F2 inertial term in Ergun's equation (kgwt·m·s 2/kg 2)
G mass velocity of gas (kg/m2 ·s)
p pressure of gas (kgwt/m 2)
r radius (m)
z height (m)
Rb radius of furnace body (m)
U gas velocity (m/s)
U mf minimum fluidization velocity of gas (m/s)
Vo volume of ore layer (m 3)
Ve volume of coke layer (m 3)
a inclination angle of burden surface (deg)
ao inclination angle without gas flow (deg)
Pp apparent density of a particle (kg/m 3)
Pg gas density (kg/m3)
Pb apparent density of bed (kg/m 3)
& void fraction (-)
¢ shape factor (-)
ljI stream function (kg/s)
J.l g viscosity of gas (kg/m·s)
4.6. FLOW OF GAS AND LIQUID IN THE DROPPING ZONE
In the upper part of the dropping zone, gas and liquid flow upwards and
downwards, respectively (counter-current flow region). In the lower part
of the dropping zone or around a raceway, gas and liquid flow across
each other (cross flow region). Attention has been paid to liquid flow in
the dropping zone in relation to abnormal phenomena in this part such
as hanging due to flooding. 61 As mathematical models are developed,
full information on liquid flow is required to understand the flow
distributions ofliquid and gas behaving respectively as consumers and
suppliers of heat in the lower part of the furnace, and the kinetics of
reactions such as Si transfer into metal in the dropping zone.
The features of gas and liquid flows through this zone, which is
divided into two regions - counter-current and cross flow - are
discussed here.
4.6.1. Counter-current Flow Region

In packed beds irrigated with liquid counter-current to nsmg gas
stream, gas and liquid flows interact with each other in a complicated
manner. As gas flow rate increases under constant liquid flow rate,
liquid holdup remains almost constant at first, and then begins to
increase substantially after the gas flow rate exceeds a critical value
determined by hydrodynamic conditions; such a critical point is called
'loading'. As gas flow rate increases further, the liquid holdup increases
at an increasing rate and then the flow rate ofliquid descending through
the bed becomes less than that supplied and accumulation of the liquid
continues until it is blown upward; this is called 'flooding'. Because gas
pressure loss increases rapidly with the approach of flooding, it has
been pointed out62 that coke layers may fluidize before liquid starts to
flood in the blast furnace, since liquid density is much higher than coke
density.
In comparison with flow conditions in chemical plants, for which
many studies have been carried out, those in the blast furnace are
characterized by the following points besides those mentioned above:
(1) The cross-sectional mean liquid velocity is very small.
(2) No coke is wetted by liquid.
(3) There are two liquid phases, slag and metal, which have different
physical properties such as viscosity and density.
For example, item (1) causes the dynamic holdup (0'3-0'8%62) to be
much less than static holdup (3_5%62.63) without gas flow. It is therefore
questionable whether the results obtained by chemical engineers can
be applied immediately to the blast furnace, and it is thus necessary to
carry out experiments under conditions similar to those in the furnace.
4.6.1.1. Holdup
(aJ In the absence ofgas flow. Total holdup (h I) may be expressed as the
sum of static holdup (h s), independent of liquid flow, and dynamic
holdup (hd) caused by liquid flow in the absence of gas flow.64 Although
equations for hs and hI correlated with physical properties of both the
liquid and packed bed have been proposed by chemical engineers,65-70

only a few experiments have taken into account the above-mentioned
conditions for the blast furnace.62.71-73
Fukutake et al. 62 have evaluated the influence of solid wettability (by
. measurements of liquid contact angle, ()) on the basis of experiments
that were carried out under the conditions of the above-mentioned
items (1) and (2), and have derived the following generalized correlation
equations:
hs = [ 20·5 PIg</J;dp2
+ 0·263 O"T(1 + cos(})(l _ e)2
J- I
(4.6.1)
2
hd = Ao JO.648[
6·05 [ PIVI d p'l's p,gd p'l's JOA85[ PilJd p </J2s JO.097 (1
3Ao3
+ cos (})0648
(1-e)f11 (l-e)3f1f O"T(1-e)2 (4.6.2)
where d p is the diameter of particle (m), g is the acceleration due to
gravity (mN), VI is the superficial liquid velocity based on empty
column (m/s), e is the void fraction, f11 is the viscosity ofliquid (Pa's), PI
is the density ofliquid (kg/m 3), O"T is the surface tension (N/m), and </Js is
the shape factor of particle.
Measured values of h s for metal in a dissected furnace were estimated
rather well by eqn (4.6.1) at () = 90° (see Fig. 4.6.1). Holdup values of
10
Metal PI =6800 kg/m 3
,.-..
0 cf=1.1 N/m
~ 0
~s=0.65
0
~
VI
0
E= 0.43
0
a. 0
:J
-0 5
0 0
.c. e
0°
.- u 0
90°
....":;j
(j) 0
OJ B 125°
%0
cPO 0
o 0
0 60 ~o 0
0
25 30 35 40 45 50
Harmonic mean diameter of coke dp (m m)
Fig.4.6.1. Relation between static holdup of metal and coke diameter, both
sampled from a dissected blast furnace; the lines represent calculations using
eqn (4.6.1).63
more than 5% were measured in coke layers between irregular softened

layers. At large particle diameters, measured holdup values are
obviously less than calculated; this may be partly attributed to the large
coke particles, mostly found in the center of the furnace, not being
irrigated for a sufficiently long period to be saturated.
Measured values of hs for slag deviated markedly from calculated
ones. 63 This could be caused by the fact that conditions between
softening layers were different from those obtained experimentally
using uniform physical properties, and also that slag viscosity increased
and exceeded the experimental range on cooling. Further examination
of slag holdup is therefore necessary.
Holdup in the furnace is evaluated not from eqn (4.6.1) by using
average physical properties of slag and metal, but by the sum of the
holdups calculated separately from eqn (4.6.1). This suggests that both
slag and metal flows in the furnace are nearly independent of each
other.
(b) Under the injluence ofgasjlow. With gas flow, h t remains constant or
increases a little, up to the loading point. Therefore, in this range of gas
flow rate, h t can be evaluated by the sum of hs and hd calculated from
eqns (4.6.1) and (4.6.2).
Above the loading point, correlation equations or values for holdup
have been proposed in the chemical engineering field,7L 74. 75 but they
cannot be applied immediately to blast furnace conditions. In this
region, h t increases rapidly as gas flow rate rises, and consequently it is
necessary to estimate h t and gas pressure loss simultaneously. Flow
conditions in the blast furnace are estimated to be between loading and
flooding. 76
Fukutake et al. carried out both experiments 62 and analyses 77 on the
counter-current flows of gases and liquids in packed beds under
conditions similar to the dropping zone of a blast furnace; the influence
of gas flow on h t was taken into consideration by using the following
pressure loss term:
(4.6.3)
where
(4.6.4)
and h to is the total holdup in the absence of gas flow, !1L is the height of
the bed (m), !1Pw is the pressure loss with irrigated liquid (Pa). The
holdup calculated from eqn (4.6.3) by using the experimental value of

f:1pw reproduced the measured holdup within ± 25%.77
4.6.1.2. Pressure loss of gas

Gas pressure loss with irrigated liquid is greater than that without
liquid, because the effective space for gas decreases and surface area per
unit bed volume increases. There are many reports72. 74. 76. 7S-SI in which
the ratio of the former pressure loss to the latter is expressed as a
function of h b but these results fail to agree with one another. 77 Fukutake
et al.77 analyzed the pressure loss as follows.
Ergun's equationS for the pressure loss of gas through a dry bed (f:1P d) is
f:1P 150(1d - £)2f../gV g + 1·75 -d-PgVg

1- £ 2J It: 3
d _
A L - [
(4.6.5)
~ p¢s p¢s
where Vg is the superficial gas velocity based on empty column (m/s),f../g
is the viscosity of gas (Pa·s), and P g is the density of gas (kg/m3). The
coefficients 150 and 1·75 were respectively replaced by variable
constants k 1 and k2 because of their dependence upon particle form and
packing conditions, S2 and £ and d p¢ s were substituted with (£ - h t) and
effective particle diameter de, respectively, on account of the existence of
liquid. The resultant equation for pressure loss of gas through an
irrigated bed (f:1P w) is
f:1P w
f:1L
£ + h t )2
= [kl( 1 - de f../gvg +k2
1- £
de
J
+ h t PgV 2
g /(£-h
3 (4.6.)
t)
6
Here de is defined by
l-£+h t 1-£ h
= - - + -t (4.6.7)
de dp¢s dl
where d l is the virtual diameter of a liquid drop given by
dIVPlg/(JT = 6·828(~ - 0·891)2 + 0·695 (4.6.8)
Since the measured pressure loss f:1Pd can be written as
f:1P d /f:1L = AVg + Bv~ (4.6.9)
the coefficients k 1 and k 2 for various particles and packing conditions
can be calculated from
kl = A (dp¢s )2£3 (4.6.10)

f../g 1 - £
k2 = B dp¢s 83 (4.6.11)
Pg 1 - 8
Holdup h t is already shown by eqn (4.6.3), and finally !l.Pw/!l.L can be
evaluated from eqn (4.6.6) at given values of v g (see Fig. 4.6.2).
.-.. 5.0
-E
ttl
a..
~
3.0
0
0
Experiments
by Gardner
- - Calculation
......,
<l 2.0
........
~
<l 1.5
-c
<11
1.0
1J
ttl
~
0.7
(]I
<11 0.5
~
:J
(/)
(/)
<11
a.. 0.3
~
0.2
0.15
0.15 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.5
Gas veloci ty Vg (m/s)
Fig. 4.6.2. Comparison of pressure gradient measured by Gardner71 with that

calcula ted. 77
For the dropping zone of a blast furnace where two liquid phases
exist, h t in eqn (4.6.6) is replaced by (h ts + htm), de is redefined by
(4.6.12)
and k 1 and k 2 are respectively estimated as 190 and 1· 7 on the basis of

work by Yamada et al. 82 (subscripts: s, slag; m, metal). Figure 4.6.3
exemplifies the resultant relation between I:!.PwiI:!.L and v g • Comparison
between I:!.Pwll:!.L and I:!.Pdll:!.L shows that the former is twice as much
as the latter at low gas flow rates and that, as gas flow rate increases, the
ratio rises - up to 3-5 in the loading region where h ts increases rapidly.
20~----------~------------~
dp 4>s= 0.015 m
£ = 0.459
Flooding
VIs =7.0·1O-5 m/s
-5
Vlm =8.6·10 m/s FI ui d iZatiOnv
-E
It!
a.. .......
;;-
o
10
III s = 1. 0 Pa·s
III m = 0.005 Pa·s
I
I
/
6.Pw /
E
6.L /
~
..c:: /
/
Ci'1-J
<l<l ~
5
1.
..c::
~I-J
<l<l
6.~ .'_
6.L ••• -
----- ---- ---- --------------
OL-~~~-L~~--~~~~~~
1.0 1.5 2.0

Gas velocity Vg (m/s)
(1973K. 405 kPa)
Fig. 4.6.3. Variations of calculated gas pressure gradients through irrigated and
dry beds (~Pw/~L, ~Pd/~L), gravity force on liquids and packing (Fg), and
total holdups of slag and metal (h tS' h toJ with gas velocity in the dropping zone
of a blast furnace. 77
4.6.1.3. Flooding and fluidization

(aJ Flooding. Much attention has been paid to flooding phenomena in
packed beds irrigated by liquid flowing counter-current to a rising gas
stream,61. 62.74.75.83-89 and theoretical analyses of flooding have also been

slowly developed. 77.90-93
Since Elliott et al. 61 suggested that flooding might be an important
factor in causing irregular blast furnace operation or hanging, the
following experimental studies have been carried out in order to
examine the applicability of the so-called84 'flooding diagram' proposed
by Sherwood et al.: 83 examination of the influence of wettability,86
experiments using high density liquid S7 and slag,S5 and experiments at
room temperature under conditions similar to those in the blast
furnace. 62
The results, plotted on the Sherwood diagram, are shown in Fig. 4.6.4.
The points are scattered but have a certain trend, and they are about
twice as high as the line given by Lobo et al. 84 in terms of flooding factor
for a given fluid ratio. Noting that flooding factor (the ordinate) is not
dimensionless.
Mersmann 75 presented a full dimensionless flooding diagram on the
basis of hydrodynamic considerations. Fukutake et al. 62 modified the
10'
~
d,.. 5
<II
t1.
~.~
M
'0 2
..=. o 6> ~o
...cl
100
00 0&~*'e~6b~
F
5
~ ~ 8a~
...~~
Published works ... •
_M
2 - Lobo ~
" w --- Standish
:>:01
.
0
10-' •
o
"l
Elliott
Shavrin
Szekely
v 5
.!! Present work
01 • Wetting flow
C
"0 2 o Non -wett in g flow
0
~
LL
Fl u id ratio (VII Vg)~ (-)
Fig. 4.6.4. Plot of flooding data 61. 62. 84-S7 on Sherwood diagram; at is the surface
area per unit volume of bed (m2/m3), 1'/ is the viscosity of liquid in cP
(lO-3Pa·s).62
abscissa of this diagram by taking into account the influence of

wettability, expressed as cos 2 (e/2), and showed that their diagram (see
Fig. 4.6.5) represented the data better than Fig. 4.6.4.
10°
7
c:C 5
.....en
~
"- 3
cC'
<l
2 0
0
III
III
0 10- 1
...:>
GI
7 - - - Mersmann's correlation
III
III 5 - - Proposed correlation
~
a. • Wetting flow
I/l 3 o Non-wetting flow
III
GI
c: 2
o
III
c:
~ 102~--~~--~~~~__~~__~~~~__~~~~~~
a 10- 6
. d . ,~VI(l-e:) (cos~)2
Modified dimensionless irrigatIon enslty 3,f PI g2 dp £ 2
Fig.4.6.5. Plot of flooding data on modified Mersmann flooding diagram. 62
Considering flooding to be caused by flow instability due to

interaction between pressure loss and liquid holdup, Hutton et al. 92
presented the following expression a priori as the onset condition of
flooding:
(4.6.l3)
Fukutake et al.77 showed theoretically that the above and the following
equations expressed the onset condition of flooding:
(iJv1/iJGPW)Vg = 0 (4.6.14)
(iJviiJht)vl =0 (4.6.15)
(iJvg/iJGPw)vl = 0 (4.6.16)
where GPw is the pressure gradient of gas with irrigated liquid

== !J.Pw/!J.L. It was shown that the gas velocity at flooding calculated
from eqns (4.6.6) and (4.6.16) agreed rather well with measured values. 77
It should be noted that the flooding point marked in Fig. 4.6.3 has also
been estimated from eqns (4.6.6) and (4.6.16).
Standish et al. 89 showed from their experiments that, when the
position of the gas inlet was changed from the bottom to the side, the gas
velocity at the flooding point increases, and the flooding factor became
about four times as large. Hatano et al. 94 also reported that, in the case of
a side gas inlet, flooding took place at a larger flooding factor than that
given by Sherwood et al. 83 However, since the latter data are within the
range shown in Fig. 4.6.4 and the former data are open to question,95
further studies on the cross flow region are clearly required.
(b) Fluidization before the onset of flooding. It has already been
suggested62 in the introduction of Section 4.6.1 that solid particles may
fluidize before liquid floods, when the liquid density is much larger
than the particle density. Figure 4.6.6 shows the results of the
experiment carried out by Fukutake et al. 62 with a dense liquid
(PI = 1920 kg/m 3) and low density packing (Ps = 920 kg/m 3). At high
liquid velocities, the gas pressure gradient !J.Pw/!J.L and total holdup h t
increase as gas velocity rises and flooding takes place (see 1':-..). At low
liquid velocities, however, !J.pwI!J.L and h t become almost constant as
gas velocity exceeds a certain value and flooding does not take place (see
0, <». This is because the bed height (or void fraction) begins to increase
at a critical gas velocity (as mentioned above) and subsequently
increases as gas velocity rises; this is the onset of fluidization.
A diagram showing the regions of bed instabilities was presented by
Fukutake et al. 62 on the basis of the results of their experiments at room
temperature (see Fig. 4.6.7). This figure shows that fluidization readily
occurs as the ratio of particle density to liquid density and/or liquid
velocity decreases. It is also estimated from the region of slag flow
marked in this figure that fluidization of the coke bed is likely to start
before the onset of flooding by slag.
Elliott et al.61 explained the cause of hanging as follows. If flooding
takes place in some locations in the furnace, liquid might be carried
back upwards. The liquid moving into the colder regions solidifies in
the voids of the coke bed. This reduces the permeability of these
locations to gas flow. In this way the flooding region would increase in
an accelerating manner and hanging would occur rapidly.
On the other hand, if the furnace instability were caused by
.......
E
- 7.5,-----------------------------~
~
...:
-.J 6.0
<1
.......
~
<1 4.5
III
III
o
3.0
...
CII
~
III
:::
... 1.5
a.
III
~ OL_~_L~_ _L_~_L~~_ _L_~_L~_ _~
(!)
10.5r-------------------------------~
Particle density: Ps= 920 kg/m 3
....... 9.0
*'
:
PI =1920
=0.0016 m/s
I::. : VI
;;! i 0: 0.0025
.c: ! <> : 0.00006
7.5
a.
~ ~
"0 ,tj.
"0 6.0 t::r •• ,'
.s::. 1::.-------
-
0
111
I-
4.5
3.0L-~~~--~~~~~~~~~~--~
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Gas velocity Vg (m/s)
Fig. 4.6.6. Variations of gas pressure loss and total holdup with gas velocity for
experiments with liquid of high density.62
fluidization, as suggested above, the circumstances would be as

follows. 62 Because there are lumpy and softening zones above the
dropping zone, fluidization of the whole coke bed would be difficult.
This means that a dynamically unstable layer with high voidage will be
formed. Such a layer will collapse even with slight variations of gas flow
path or gas flow rate and slip will occur.
0.5
Q o
w CXD
-
dn
I
o
0.4
'0
C1>
.0 Flooding
C1>
-
.L:
0 0.3 o
:>.
• \
()
0
o
\
til
c Fluidization
C1>
'0
til
til
C1>
c 0.2
0
til
C
C1>
Slag flow in
E blast furnaces
0
0.1
10-6 2
Modified dimensionless irriga.tion density 3 OCp~\ VI(l-E)(COS~2)2

1~ dpE
Experimental points:
0: normal flooding
(): fluidization together with flooding
.: fluidization before onset of flooding
Fig.4.6.7. Diagram showing the regions of bed instability.62
Figure 4.6.3 shows that the gas pressure gradient (!),Pwl!)'L becomes
equal to the gravity force on liquids and packing,Fg, at a gas fluidization
velocity slightly lower than the flooding velocity, and that !).Pwl!)'L is
larger than Fg at higher velocities. Fluidization rather than flooding of
the coke bed is therefore expected to take place.
Although there has been no direct evidence for occurrence of

fluidization, examples of slipping63 and channeling88,96 considered to be
due to such phenomena have been reported, and an attempt has been
made to explain the mechanism theoretically,97, 98
4.6.2. Cross Flow Region
4.621. Experimental studies

Flow phenomena in the cross flow region have received considerable
attention lately for the above-mentioned reasons. Redistribution of
liquid flow around a raceway and the possibility of liquid inflow to the
raceway are discussed here.
(a) Dry zone. Kamoshida et al. 99 carried out cold model experiments
with liquids of various densities and showed that liquid did not flow
into the vicinity of the gas inlet (see Fig. 4.6.8). Hatano et al.94 also
indicated from their water model experiments that a dry zone, into
which no liquid streamed, existed in front of the gas inlet. In these
experiments there was no raceway in front of the gas inlet, while Narita
et al. loo and Nakagome et al.101 carried out water model experiments with
raceways using plastic particles, and confirmed the existence of the dry
zone (see Fig. 4.6.9). From experiments with a coke combustion
furnace,102 only a small amount of liquid was found in the raceway.
From chemical analysis of gangue components of materials in front
of the tuyeres, sampled from operating lO3 and dissected 63 blast furnaces,
Isobar ------
Boundary of dry zone

Fig.4.6.8. Schematic view of isobars and boundary of dry zone in the case of
liquid irrigated from the top, air blown from a tuyere, and without a
raceway.99
Water - - ::::;::::;:::::;::::;;:::::;:::;::::::;::::::;=r=;:::;=:;::::;=;::::;:::::;=;:::::;:=;=::;=::;;:= -- water

: ::; : :: i ! :! :
: I : : I : : I I I I I
! : : : :
I I I : I
~
mflTTqmm'r rr;l7Tm~777Tm fTI t~ f
I
I I
I !: I I
I /
/
f I: I /
I \ :' / /
\ \ / /
\
\\
\. . /
/
A\
---\-t-i l' -j\--fA
I
\ :' I,,
\:' I:,
I ,
!:: ("
o
580
~
(b)
t I
/--------1-----\
5 ,/' '"
I \
~ 0 O"'-";:'~--'-----1f_---'-',.:.::~""-......:.-.:..:--'--..J-
(a) (b)
Flow rate of liquid Q[ Wmin) 1-5 '·5

Flow rate of gas Q9 (m 3 ( min) 0·26 0-40
Raceway depth D (em) 3·5 8·5
Fig. 4.6.9. Experimental apparatus, streamlines of water, raceway shWe, and

flow distribution of water at the bottom; dimensions in mm. l
all gangue was not considered to be derived from coke ash. Inflow of
slag to the raceway was therefore estimated to take place, and the
amount of influx was shown to be dependent upon operating conditions
and the particular situation of the furnace.
As stated in the last section, the occurrence of flooding in a blast
furnace is considered to be impossible. However, even if it is possible, a
certain amount of liquid will drop, according to the gas flow rate
through the bed and to packing conditions. This is why the absence of
liquid flow into the raceway and its vicinity cannot be attributed to
flooding. Liquid dropping into the raceway and surrounding area
should be treated as a problem of redistribution ofliquid in and around
the raceway or in the cross flow region.
(b) Liquid flow distribution. Narita et a1.,100 Nakagome et a/. 101 and
leschar et a1. HJ4 showed, from their raceway model experiments related
to liquid flow distribution, that the peak of liquid volume flux shifted
towards the center as gas flow rate and/or liquid flow rate increased (see
Figs 4.6.9 and 4.6.10) and that the position of the peak became almost
unchanged above certain values of gas or liquid flow rates.
...... Qg = 0.7 N m3/min

Eu t::;. Q1 = 1200 cm 3/min
-
ME
u
0.15
o
o
600
300
x
~
0.10
ell
E
:l
0.05
0
>
"0 ..... -0--0--0--0--0
:l
CT 0.0
....J
t Distance
Tuyere
Fig. 4.6.10. Liquid flow distribution measured for the raceway. 10 I
Basic experiments in which water was dropped from the top of a bed
and gas flowed sideways were done by Ohno et al.,105 and the liquid
stream was observed by a visualization technique. The displacement
distance and variation ofthe liquid flow pattern increased as liquid flow
rate was raised (see Fig. 4.6.11). Such behavior is considered to result
from liquid holdup, and consequently actual gas velocity, increasing at
high liquid flow rates.
Kondoh et a1. 106 estimated, from the results of liquid holdup
distribution measured in the lower part of a dissected blast furnace, that
liquid velocity would be a maximum at the center and would decrease
toward the wall in the counter-current flow region. This was based on
the fact that the thickness of the ore layers in the vicinity of the wall
decreased with increase in cross-sectional area as burden descended
through the shaft. Liquid holdup distribution, shown in Fig. 4.6.12, was
--- Q( =5 l/h
15
25
Q g = 100 Nm3/h
Fig. 4.6.11. Variation of liquid flow pattern with liquid flow rate. 105
In\\\1
I V \ \ \ \
/ \\1\1
I A \'1 \ I
II U \ \\ \ I I I ~
>
~
3 3 4 4
8 6 5 6 0.4
~
2 2 2
5 10 7 6 6 a.
>-
6 7 5 0.2 Z
41)610 a.
>
....Ql 3 3 3 8 9 6 8 8 0
-
0 .0
nI
18 18 8 6 7 6 8 7
.c
16 17 7 5 8 5 6 6 01
0.2 'iii
.c
66 18 17 12 7 8 8 6 III
III
43361219 7 7 6 4 0.4 a.
0
0 C
0
~
25 18 14 9 9 5 6 6 'iii
l- c
II 18 21 2219 23 4 6 0.6 a.
E
I I I I I I I
i5
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Dimensionless distance from tuyere
Fig. 4.6.12. Distribution ofliquid holdup measured in and around the raceway
of a dissected blast furnace. 106
considered to be the result of maldistributed liquid being swept around

the raceway.
Ohno et al. 107 carried out experiments with a two-dimensional model
in which the flow of liquid dropping from softening layers was taken
into account (see Fig. 4.6.13), and observed such liquid flow behavior as
shown in Fig. 4.6.9-4.6.11.
In summary, based on these results, liquid is considered mostly to
bypass the raceway.
1 Air
Water
75 Nm3/h
60 II h (total)
1
Fig. 4.6.13. Observed flow pattern ofliquid coming from one cohesive layer. \07
4.6.2.2. Theoretical studies

In the analysis of the cross flow region by Nakagome et al.,101 the two-
dimensional Ergun8 equation and an equation for two-phase flow94
were used as equations of motion for dry and wet zones, respectively,
together with the equation of continuity for incompressible flow. Figure
4.6.14 shows the calculated stream lines and isobars.
~
I
E
u
2.0
6.0
E
u
Il">
~
10.0
14.0
18.0
E
u
o
('oj
22.0
60 em
Fig.4.6.14. Calculated isobars and stream lines, 101
Kajiwara et al. 108. 109 analyzed the same subject using the following
equations:
Gas phase
Equation of continuity:
o (4.6.17)
Modified Ergun8 equation:
- gradP (1 - t://.l + 1·75 (1 - t:)p 1;- IJ

=;- [150 d~(t: g g
(4.6.18)
g g - h )3 t dp(t: - hti g
Liquid phase
Equation of continuity:
o (4.6.19)
Modified Darcy equation:

(1 - &)2/-11 --
- grad PI = 180 d 2
p(&-h t)
3V + PIg-- (4.6.20)
Liquid holdup:IlO
ht = hs + hd = 0·03 + 0·147v?·676 (4.6.21)
The boundary of the dry zone was determined experimentally. Figure
4.6.15 compares the calculated water flow distribution at the bottom of a
bed with experimental data.
O.2.---------------------------~
-
........
11)
____ Calculated
E
u 0---0 Measured
:>. 0.1
u
o
Qj
>
...
....<IItil
~ O.O~~--~----~----~----~--~
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Dimensionless distance from tuyere
Fig. 4.6.15. Water flow distributions at the bottom of a bed.108
Hsieh et al. lll modified eqns (4.6.17)-(4.6.21) by adding inertia terms

to eqns (4.6.18) and (4.6.20), exchanging eqn (4.6.21) for eqn (4.6.3), and
so on, and analyzed the three-dimensional case.
Ohno et al. lOS presented a liquid dropping model based on the law of
probability, because liquid descending through interstices in a bed
would be discontinuous and would have free surface. Simulated liquid
flow patterns agreed with experimental data (see Fig. 4.6.11) within
errors of ± 15% and ±30% in displacement and variation, respectively.
Moreover, Ohno et al. lll coupled the above-mentioned analysis with a

mathematical model for gas flow in a blast furnace in order to
reproduce liquid flow in the dropping zone. Calculated liquid velocity
distributions closely simulated the experimental data in the two-
dimensional cold model I07 (see Fig. 4.6.13). The liquid flows in the
regions near the tuyere and between the softening layers are strongly
affected and deviated by the high horizontal component of gas velocity.

Model experiments on gas and liquid flows in the dropping zone for
moving burden have not yet been reported. Effects of the movement on
static holdup h" influx of liquid to raceway, and other parameters are
interesting subjects to be studied in the future.
Except for this problem, gas and liquid behavior in the counter-
current flow region has been clarified by a series of studies carried out
by Fukutake et al. 62 . 63. 77. 97. 98 Further experiments and analysis of the
cross flow region, including burden motion, should be made in
conjunction with an analysis of the raceway.
4.7. FLOW OF SLAG AND METAL IN THE HEARTH

DURING TAPPING
Iron and slag accumulate in the hearth and are tapped out of the
furnace through a tap hole. Although production is continuous, tapping
is discontinuous and hearth drainage has been one of the major
concerns of blast furnace operators, since good drainage and the
resultant dry hearth are essential for good furnace operation. Blast
furnace operators frequently experience a sharp increase in blast
pressure followed by irregular burden descent when the amount of
residual liquids in the hearth increases. Excessive accumulation of
liquids is pointed out to be one of the causes for large slips which are
followed by disastrous hearth chilling. ll3
In the cast house practice of a modern blast furnace, the cinder notch
is not used any more and all molten products are removed through a tap
hole. During tapping, slag and metal in the hearth flow towards the tap
hole and then out through it. Although the possibility of flow induced by
natural convection has been pointed out,"4 forced flow during the
tapping period dominates flow phenomena in the hearth since tapping
is done more or less continuously in modern blast furnaces. Although
both liquids flow simultaneously during tapping, investigations

published so far were conducted either on the metal flow alone oron the
slag flow alone. The slag lies on the metal pool and the interface
between the two liquids was assumed to be flat irrespective of the flow
conditions of the metal and the slag.
The shape of the slag surface changes during tapping. Tapping is
normally ended just before furnace gas starts to blow through the tap
hole. The flow characteristics of the slag, through their influence on the
shape of the slag surface, determine the time that the slag surface
reaches the level of the tap hole, and the residual amount of slag in the
hearth after tapping.
The metal flow, on the contrary, is related to the wear of hearth
refractories rather than hearth drainage problems, since it influences
the heat load on the hearth wall and hearth bottom.
In this section, the flow of slag as well as that of metal will be
considered. Before discussing the flow problems, the current under-
standing of the state of the coke bed in the hearth, which substantially
influences flow phenomena in the hearth, will be presented.
4.7.1. State of Coke Bed in the Hearth

As shown in Chapter 1, the dissected blast furnace investigations
revealed the state of the hearth fairly clearly. The coke bed, or dropping
zone, underneath the cohesive zone extends downward beyond the level
of the tuyeres and in some cases reaches the hearth bottom. The metal
and the slag accumulate in the hollow space underneath the coke bed or
in the void of the coke bed. In other words, the coke bed penetrates into
baths of molten slag and metal. It was found in the dissections of the
blast furnace that the coke bed either sat on the hearth bottom or floated
in the iron bath, and the bed penetrated deeper into the iron bath at the
center than at the periphery.
The penetration depth of the coke bed into the slag and iron baths in
the hearth is determined by a balance of forces,lls namely the gravity
force and the buoyancy forces of gas and liquid. Since downward solid
pressure is counterbalanced by the buoyancy force of rising gas in the
region above the raceway, and the liquid buoyancy force increases with
increase in the penetration depth of the coke bed, the penetration depth
is determined by the following two factors:
(1) The relative size of the raceway zone in the cross-section of the
hearth
(2) The amount of liquids in the hearth
The size of the raceway does not change substantially with blast
furnace size and the relative size of the raceway zone decreases as the
furnace size increases. Therefore the coke bed is more likely to sit on the
hearth bottom in the case oflarge furnaces, and more likely to float in
the case of smaller furnaces.
It is estimated that, in the hearth of modern blast furnaces, the coke
bed is more likely to penetrate deep into the metal bath. However,
quantitative evaluation of the penetration depth is difficult and the
results of the dissections could be different from those of operating
furnaces.
Although no direct observation was made on the state of the hearth,
the study of flow phenomena in the hearth by use of a radioactive
tracer I 16 revealed that both states of the coke bed, sitting on the hearth
bottom or floating, existed in the same furnace, but at different periods.
It was also found that the penetration depth of the floating coke bed was
such that it penetrated through the slag into the iron, i.e. the slag always
accumulates and flows in voids within the coke bed.
Thus, in the case of large blast furnaces, as shown in Fig. 4.7.1, the
state of the coke bed is such that
(i) slag flow can be treated as flow through porous media;
(ii) metal flow can be treated as flow in a container that is partially
filled with solid particles and has a free flow channel underneath
the packed bed (Fig. 4.7.1 a); the depth of the flow channel can be
decreased to zero to form a complete packed bed (Fig. 4.7.1 b).
Coke.rree flow C onnel
o Flooling co e bed wilh coke·lree b. Co e bed sitting on fhe hearth bottom

now chonnel
Fig.4.7.1. Schematic representation of the state of the coke bed in the blast
furnace hearth.
It is noted, however, that penetration depth could be significantly

smaller for small blast furnaces, so that even slag may flow through the
coke-free flow channel under the bed of coke. lIS
4.7.2. Flow of Slag During Tapping

The flow of slag during tapping is a three-dimensional and unsteady
flow through a packed bed.l17 The flow was simulated in a small-scale
experimental model. As can be seen from Photo 4.7.1, originally flat
liquid surface becomes inclined towards the outlet, the tap hole, until
the gas in the model blows out through the outlet; this is the time when,
at the blast furnace, the tapping would be stopped. Due to the formation
of the inclined surface ofliquid, a substantial amount ofliquid remains
undrained in the model hearth when the gas blows out.
Model studies l17 were conducted to demonstrate the quantitative
influence of tapping conditions such as tapping speed, bed structure,
slag viscosity etc. Slag flow was simulated in the model under the
assumed conditions of constant tapping speed and a uniform coke bed.
Experimental results are shown in Fig. 4.7.2 as the relationship
between residual ratio, a, and flow-out coefficient, F L- The residual ratio
is the ratio of slag remaining in the hearth to that at the beginning of slag
tapping. The flow-out coefficient is defined by
FL = 180 (1 - 3 S)2 _1_

2 2
f.ll ~ (DM)2 (4.7.1)
s ¢sd p PI g HM
1.0
1/
-;)1;;-
Ry
.
" 0.8 r-- 0 <2.5
o /). 2.5-5.0
'206 r--- 0 5.0 10.0 ,
-I--
o (r 10.0<
~ 04
:D
'"
oo~I
0.2
--- .. -......... ~~ ca
... - ... -- ---- -- -

o 10- 3 2 5 10- 2 2 5 10- 1 2 5 10 0
Flow out coefficient FL
Fig. 4.7.2. Relationship between residual ratio and flow-out coefficient.
where s is the bed porosity (-), ¢s and d p are respectively the shape
factor (-) and the diameter (m) of coke in the hearth, f.ll is the liquid
viscosity (Pa's), PI is the liquid density (kg/m3), Vo is the liquid velocity
(m/s) averaged over the empty cross-sectional area of the hearth, g is the
gravitational acceleration (mN), and DM/HM is the ratio of the hearth
diameter to the depth of the liquid layer of the model.
~
~
~
~o
~
~
Liquid outlet
~'.
Photo.4.7.1. Inclined liquid surface formed during liquid drainage in two-dimensional (left) and three-dimensional
U.)
(right) models.
:g
It can be seen from Fig. 4.7.2 and eqn (4.7.1) that the residual ratio, a,
increases as
(i) the velocity, Vo, of the liquid increases,
(ii) the liquid viscosity, /Jb increases, and
(iii) the permeability of the coke bed decreases.
Since the viscosity of pig iron is 1/100 that of slag, the residual amount of
pig iron is considered to be significantly lower than that of slag.
The relation shown in Fig. 4.7.2 was combined with a mass balance of
slag in the hearth to estimate the influence of tapping conditions on the
residual amount of slag. 118 As an example, the influence of slag viscosity,
/J" and slag tapping rate, P" on the amount of residual slag, Wn at the
end of tapping is shown in Fig. 4.7.3, and on the depth of the slag layer,
H" at the beginning of slag tapping in Fig. 4.7.4. These figures show that
both the amount of residual slag and the depth of the slag layer increase
with an increase in either slag viscosity or slag tapping rate. An increase
in the number of tappings is effective in decreasing the depth of the slag
layer. Figure 4.7.5 illustrates that the depth of the slag layer is kept
constant by an increase in the number of tappings when the slag
tapping rate is increased; for a constant number of tappings, the depth
of the slag layer increases with the slag tapping rate.
Quantitative evaluation of the influence of tapping conditions is
made by using the approximate correlations I 18 shown by the following
two equations
~ 2001--+----+--+---+-----1 Ps
4.0
:i 1--+----+--+-:7""=+---=....-4 3.5
g 3.0
:;;; 1501--+-----;;>....qc:;7"'-=--+-:;;....-=t------:::;j 2.5
o
~
~ 2.0
~
a
c 100 1----=--+::....-=\---+---+--==-1 1.5
o
E
«
50~_~_~ __ L-_-L_~_~
3.0 5.0 7.0 9.0

Viscosity of slag, IlS Ipoisel
Fig. 4.7.3. Influence of slag viscosity and slag tapping rate on the amount of
residual slag.
Viscosity of slag, ItS (poise)
Fig. 4.7.4. Influence of slag viscosity and slag tapping rate on the depth of the
slag layer.
>- 40
"
"0
iii Ws
] 30
-- 2400
---------- 2100
---- 1800
--
.'
Z 1500
<Ii 1200 ,.-"''''''
20
01
C
& ----- ----

... -:,...-
.8 10
"0
~
'E"
.n 0
::J 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Z
Rate of slag tapping. Ps (t/min)
Fig.4.7.5. Relationship between number of tappings and slag tapping rate to
keep Hs constant.
Hs A (NtD T ) -(}4757(l440Ps/W s - 1)03834J0;7378,u~2598 (4.7.2)

Hr = A'(Nt D T )-OI288(1440P,/Ws - I)02569J0;5645,u~4377 (4.7.3)
where Hs andH r are the depth of the slag layer at the beginning and at
the end oftappihg respectively (m), Nt is the number of tappings (l/day),
DT is the hearth diameter (m),P sis the slag tapping rate (t/min), Ws is the
slag production rate (t/day),,us is the slag viscosity (poise), andA andA'
are proportionality constants. The influence of coke bed permeability is
evaluated by substituting ,us for the flow resistance,A, of the bed:
1
(4.7.4)
Equations (4.7.2) and (4.7.3) show that good drainage is achieved by

observing the following conditions:
(1) Low tapping speed which results in long tapping time
(2) Low slag viscosity
(3) Good permeability of the coke bed in the hearth
When these conditions cannot be fulfilled the number of tappings is
increased to keep the liquid level low.
Analysis of operational results revealed that approximately 50% of
the slag accumulated at the beginning of slag tapping remains in the
hearth at the end of tapping. The residual pig iron is insignificant if the
tap hole is closed at the time of blow-out of gas.
4.7.3. Flow of Metal During Tapping

The flow of metal in the hearth was studied under steady state flow
conditions. 116. 119. 120 The assumption of steady state flow was made on the
basis of modern tapping practice in which nearly continuous tapping is
performed by the use of several tap holes in turn. The assumption is
expedient since metal flow in the hearth is related more to erosion of the
hearth wall than to hearth drainage, and the flow pattern or velocity
distribution is more relevant than the change in the shape of the slag-
metal interface.
It was shown that there are two different flow patterns as a result of
different states of the coke bed in the hearth: the 'floating' coke bed and
the 'sitting on' coke bed.
In Fig. 4.7.6 flow patterns are schematically shown for the 'floating'
coke bed and for the 'sitting on' coke bed. In the case of the floating coke
bed, there exists a flow channel under the coke bed and all the metal that
drops further than point P from the outlet 0 flows through the channel.
By the formation of the channel, the liquid velocity near the hearth
bottom increases significantly with the possible result of an increased
rate of erosion of hearth wall and bottom.
Figure 4.7.7 shows the relationship between the dimensionless
residence time T* and the dimensionless parameter S* of the dropping
position of the metal in the hearth cross-section. T* and S* are defined
as follows:
T* = Residence time/Mean residence time (4.7.5)
Area of hearth cross-section covered by a circle whose
center is at the outlet and whose radius is the
distance between the dropping position and the outlet
S* (4.7.6)
Area of hearth cross-section
B~--~--~----.-----.--.----__---r--~A
101
B~__~G____~___F.-____~~____. -__~__~A
G'
0--- c
Ibl
Fig.4.7.6. Flowpattem of iron in the hearth for~aJ. 'sitting on' coke bed and (b)
the 'floating' coke bed. 1 ,120
A linear relationship between T* and In(1 - S*) is observed in the case

of the 'sitting on' coke bed while a peak is observed in the case of the
'floating' coke bed, The value of S* at the peak corresponds to the
position P in Fig, 4,7,6,
Investigation 116 of metal flow by the use of a radioactive isotope tracer
revealed that there are two types of relationship between T* and S* for
operating blast furnaces, These results show that both states of coke bed
in the hearth can exit and that the state changes alternately during
operation. The same tracer technique was applied to the slag flow and a
linear relationship was found between T* and S*. This shows that slag
flowed through the coke bed and that there was no coke-free flow
channel for slag flow,
From the observed change in hearth brick temperature, this change
of the state of the coke bed is related to growth and decay of the
solidified layer on the hearth bottom. A model study of the growth and
decay of the solidified layer showed an important role of the flow
channel underneath the floating coke on heat transfer to the hearth
bottom.
5
I
101
4 -
3 - oj
I
•.....
2 - r-=-In (1- 5")
1 - /0
t:.0
~
0 1,' I. I I
0 0.5 0·9 0·95 0.99
s·
Ibl
C10
E
..... e
ClI
E 6
.....
ClI 0
g 4
j
ClI
-0
'in
ClI 2
a:::
0
0 0·5 0·9 0.99
s·
Fig.4.7.7. Relationship between residence time and the dimensionless
parameter S* for (a) the 'sitting on' coke bed and (b) the 'floating' coke
bedY9.120
The results of the model study l16 are shown schematically in

Fig. 4.7.8:
(i) When there is no flow channel, the heat load on the hearth
bottom (solidified layer) is low and the bottom tends to rise
until the heat balance is established.
(ii) When the packed bed is raised to form a narrow flow channel,
the liquid velocity and hence the heat load increases so that the
solidified layer starts to become thinner by melting.
(iii) The melting of the solidified layer is continued until the brick
surface comes into direct contact with the flowing liquid.
Iii
lilll
::::::::::::::::: lnsulotor :;::::::::::::::::::

Cooli ng plale
Fig.4.7.8. Schematic explanation of the results of model experiments showing

the melting process of the solidified layeron the hearth bottom due to formation
of a narrow void (a coke-free flow channel).
It is difficult to define precisely when the state of the coke bed

changes; the change from the 'sitting on' to the 'floating' coke bed can be
initiated by an increase in the amount of liquid products in the hearth
since this will increase the buoyancy force. Thus good control of hearth
drainage is important also for the control of the heat load on the hearth
bottom.
4.7.4. Mathematical Simulation of Hearth Flow

Thus far slag flow and metal flow have been studied independently of
each other. Furthermore, simplified flow conditions, e.g. constant rate
of tapping, uniform coke bed etc., were assumed to make experiments
manageable.
As explained earlier, a slow rate of tapping is essential for better

drainage. This has been obtained by increasing the tapping duration to
the degree that modern blast furnaces are now tapped almost
continuously.
The continuous tapping operation as it is now is not exactly a steady
process, since one tap hole is closed when the other is opened. If one
obseIVes a particular tap hole, the volumetric rate of tapping increases
with time until it is closed. At the beginning, the tapping rate is less than
the production rate and liquid accumulation proceeds in the hearth.
During the period towards the end of tapping, the tapping rate exceeds
the rate of production. In this period the inclined liquid surface as
shown in Photo 4.7.1 develops and a certain amount of slag remains
undrained in the hearth. Since this situation is outside the scope of the
previous studies I 17. 118 the influence of variable tapping rate under the
conditions of almost continuous tapping needs to be known for optimal
control of hearth drainage.
Numerical simulations of hearth flow have been carried out to study
the influences of more complicated flow conditions as well as to
substitute for experiments.
Because of the low Reynolds number of flow in the hearth, Darcy's
-
law is applied:
Kv
VI - - grad <I> (4.7.7)
fJI
The equation of continuity is shown by
-
div(v I) =0 (4.7.8)
where -; I is the superficial liquid velocity (m/s); Kv is the permeability of
the bed defined by
Kv = £3<p;PIg/[180(l - £)21 (4.7.9)
<I> is a potential function defined by

<I> = (P - Po)/Plg + hv (4.7.10)
where P is pressure (Pa), Po is pressure at a reference point, and h v is
vertical height (m) from a horizontal reference plane.
Equations (4.7.7) and (4.7.8) are combined to give
div(Kvgrad<I» =0 (4.7.11)
for constant fJI
Equation (4.7.11) is integrated with appropriate boundary conditions.

From the distribution of cP, the instantaneous velocity distribution, or
steady state velocity distribution, can be obtained by using eqn (4.7.7).
The change in the shape of the liquid surface is calculated by the
following equation:
oHM _ OHM oHM
at - VI +Vz - Vx ox - Vy oy (4.7.12)
where H M is the height of the liquid surface.

This type of problem is similar to the flow of underground water121 in
which the water surface is a free boundary.
Various methods of integrating eqn (4.7.11) are reported: the finite
difference method; the finite element method; the boundary element
method;122 the integrated penalty method.
It must be noted that the simple forward difference scheme is
not appropriate for the integration of eqn (4.7.12) to calculate unsteady
change ofthe free surface location. Instability of the free surface would
follow due to the non-linear characteristic of eqn (4.7.12). Implicit or
semi-implicit schemes in which the influence of the change in the free
boundary location is taken into account were tried and reported to
improve stability in the integration.
Numerical approaches to the hearth drainage problem were tried by
some researchers. Ichihara and Fukutake 123 simulated the slag flow in a
three-dimensional coordinate system. They used the finite element
method to solve eqn (4.7.11), and eqn (4.7.12) was solved by the method
of quasi-linearization. 124 As shown in Fig. 4.7.9, the inclined liquid
surface develops in the course of drainage. Although the calculated
residual ratio (a = 0'36) compares favorably with experiment (a = 0·4),
they concluded that their computation scheme is not sufficiently
efficient to be applied for practical use. Because of computational
instability in solving eqn (4.7.12), it was difficult to increase the time
increment, and computer time was prohibitively long.
Burgess et al.125 calculated the flow in two-dimensional rectangular
space. They used the finite difference method to solve eqn (4.7.11), and
eqn (4.7.12) was solved by the method of implicit finite difference. 126 A
good agreement of the shape ofthe free surface between calculation and
experiment was obtained.
A significant influence of the variable tapping rate is reported 127 on
the basis of numerical simulation in two dimensions by use of the
integrated penalty method. 128 It was estimated that the residual ratio of
o. Change in the shape of liquid surface
b. Velocity vector in the vertical section
c. Velocity vector on the liquid surface
Fig.4.7.9. Results of numerical calculation in three dimensions (after Ichihara

and Fukutake).
the slag for constant tapping rate would be significantly smaller than
that for variable tapping rate, when the average tapping rate was the
same for both cases.

Despite all the theoretical and experimental work on hearth flow
problems and improved tapping practices, there is still ample room for
improvement. For example, proper control of the rate of tapping would
further significantly decrease the amount of residual slag.
A more accurate simulation by simultaneously taking into account
the flows of slag and metal would help define the flow phenomena in the
hearth more fully. Development of further mathematical simulation
models would be one of the major objectives for a better understanding
of hearth flow under the complicated conditions of semi-continuous
tapping.
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S64.
46. M. Amatatsu, M. Zen, A Yoshizawa and M. Tate, Tetsu-to-Hagane,
57(1971), 1461.
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T. Nishi, Report of 54th Committee of Gakushin (Japan Society for
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Gakushin (Japan Society for Promotion of Science), Report No. 1484
(1979) (in Japanese).
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Mayekawa and H. Kanayama, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 64(1978), S551.
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66(1980), S639.
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55. K Takeda et al., Tetsu-to-Hagane, 65(1979), S566.
56. M. Kuwabara et al., Tetsu-to-Hagane, 64(1978), S5.
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58. c. Y. Wen et al., Am. Inst. Chern. Eng. J., 12(1966),610.
59. M. Nakamura et al., Tetsu-to-Hagane, 63(1977), 28.
60. N. Miyasaka et al., Tetsu-to-Hagane, 58(1972), 18.
61. J. F. Elliott, R A Buchanan and J. B. Wagstaff,J. Metals, 194(1952),709.
62. T. Fukutake and V. Rajakumar, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 66(1980), 1937; Trans.
ISIJ, 22(1982), 355.
63. T. Fukutake, M. Kondo, Y. Konishi, K Okabe and S. Hashizume, Tetsu-
to-Hagane, 65(1979), A13.
64. H. L. Shulman, C. F. Ullrich and N. Walls, Am. Inst. Chern. Eng. J., 1(1955),
247.
65. T. Otake and K Okada, Kagaku Kogaku, 17(1953), 176.
66. H. S. Dombrowski and L. E. Brownell,Ind. Eng. Chern., 46(1954), 1207.
67. J. F. Davidson, Trans. Inst. Chern. Eng., 37(1959), 131.
68. D. M. Mohunta and G. S. Laddha, Chern. Eng. Sci. 20(1965), 1069.
69. J. E. Buchanan, Ind. Eng. Chern., Fund., 6(1967), 400.
70. H. Gelbe, Chern. Eng. Sci., 23(1968), 1401.
71. G. C. Gardner, Chern. Eng. Sci., 5(1956), 101.
72. N. A Warner, Chern. Eng. Sci., 11(1959), 149.
73. N. Standish, Chern. Eng. Sci., 23(1968), 51, 945.
74. S. Uchida and S. Fujita,Kogyo Kagaku Zasshi, 39(1936),876; 40(1937), 538;
41(1938), 563.
75. A Mersmann, Chern.-Ing.-Tech., 37(1965),218.
76. R Jeschar. W. Patke, V. Peterson and K Polthier, in Blast Furnace
Aerodynamics (Ed. N. Standish), Austral. Inst Min. Met (1975), p. 136.
77. T. Fukutake and K Okabe, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 66(1980), 1947.
78. H. Brawer, Chern.-Ing.-Tech., 32(1960),585.
79. F. Morton, P. J. King and B. Atkinson, Trans. Inst. Chern. Eng., 42(1964),35.
80. T. Teutsch, Chern.-Ing.-Tech., 36(1964),496.
81. J. E. Buchanan, Ind. Eng. Chern., Fund., 8(1969), 502.
82. T. Yamada, M. Sato, N. Miyazaki, H. Shimamura and S. Taguchi,
Kawasaki Steel Tech. Rep., No.6 (1974), p. 16.
83. T. K Sherwood, G. H. Shipley and F. A L. Holloway, Ind. Eng. Chern.,
30(1938), 765.
84. W. E. Lobo, L. Friend, F. Hashmall and F. Zenz, Trans. Am. Inst. Chern.
Eng., 41(1945), 693.
85. S. V. Shavrin, I. M. Zaharov and B. V. Ipatov,Izv. vuz. Cher. Met., No.9
(1962),54.
86. N. Standish and J. B. Drinkwater, J. Metals, 24(1972), 43.
87. J. Szekely and J. Mendrykowski, Chern. Eng. Sci., 27(1972),959.
88. C. Nakane, Y. Kuwano, K Suzuki, K Otani, K Honda, T. S. Chan, M.
Matsuzaki, C. W. Kim and M. Tate, Trans. ISIJ, 13(1973),247.
89. N. Standish and L. Colquhoun, in Blast Furnace Aerodynamics (see
reference 76), p. 20.
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91. A G. Cetinbudaklar and G. J. Jameson, Chern. Eng. Sci., 24(1969), 1669.

92. B. E. T. Hutton, L. S. Leung, P. C. Brooks and D. J. Nicklin, Chern. Eng. Sci.,
29(1974), 493.
93. T. Usui and M. Ohmi, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 67(1981), S754; Trans. ISII,
22(1982), B12.
94. M. Hatano and Y. Kajiwara, Report of 54th Committee, Japan Soc. for
Promotion of Sci. and Technol., No. 1412 (1977).
95. W. Hyslop, in Blast Furnace Aerodynamics (see reference 76), p. 176.
96. Y. Kuwano, S. Yamamoto, K Ohtani, K Honda, T. Chan and C. Nakane,
97. T. Fukutake and K Okabe, Report of 54th Committee, Japan Soc. for
Promotion of Sci. and Technol., No. 1508 (1979).
98. T. Fukutake, Doctoral Thesis, Kyoto University (1981).
99. T. Kamoshida, T. Fukushima and R. Ando, paper presented at discussion
on Behavior of Combustion Zone of the Blast Furnace, at 87th meeting of
ISU (1974), 12.
100. K Narita, M. Maekawa, M. Deguchi and T. Saito, Tetsu-to-Hagane,
61(1975), S384.
101. M. Nakagome, Y. Kuwano and M. Tate, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 61(1975), S385.
102. M. Tate, Y. Kuwano, M. Matsuzaki and H. Tsuji, Report of 54th
Committee, Japan Soc. for Promotion of Sci. and Technol., No. 1362
(1975).
103. T. Inatani, T. Fukutake, H. Hamada, M. Kondo and K Okabe, paper
presented at discussion on Behavior of Combustion Zone of the Blast
Furnace, at 87th meeting of ISU (1974), 1.
104. R. Jeschar, W. Potke, C. Zellerfeld, K-P Ehlert and M. Mavroudis, Stahl u.
Eisen, 100(1980), 623.
105. Y. Ohno and M. Schneider, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 65(1979), S625; Trans. ISII,
20(1980), B307.
106. M. Kondoh, Y. Konishi, Y. Morioka, S. Tomita and S. Hashizume, Tetsu-
to Hagane, 65(1979), S597; Trans. ISII, 20(1980), B252.
107. Y. Ohno and K Kondo, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 66(1980), S89; Trans. ISII,
20(1980), B494.
108. Y. Kajiwara and 1. Szekely, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 64(1978), S33.
109. J. Szekely and Y. Kajiwara, Trans. ISII, 19(1979), 76.
1I0. S. Goto and J. M. Smith,Am. Inst. Chern. Eng. J, 21(1975),706.
1I1. Y.-S. Hsieh, M. Kuwabara and I. Muchi, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 67(1981), S54;
Trans. ISII, 21(1981), B387.
1I2. Y. Ohno and K Kondo, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 66(1980), S90; Trans. ISII,
20(1980), B495.
113. K Okabe et al., Kawasaki Steel Technical Reports, No. 1I (1980), 34
(in Japanese).
1I4. F. Yoshikawa and 1. Szekely, Ironmaking and Steelmaking, 8(1981), 159.
1I5. T. Fukutake and K Okabe, presented at Blast Furnace Hearth and
Raceway Symposium, Newcastle, Australia, 1981.
II6. 1. Ohno et al., presented at Blast Furnace Hearth and Raceway
Symposium, Newcastle, Australia, 1981.
II7. T. Fukutake and K Okabe, Trans ISII, 16(1976),309.
118. T. Fukutake and K Okabe, Trans ISIJ, 16(1976),317.

119. Y. Hara and M. Tachimori, Report of 54th Committee of Gakushin
(Japan Society for Promotion of Science), Report No. 1457 (1978)
(in Japanese).
120. Y. Hara and M. Tachimori, Report of 54th Committee of Gakushin,
Report No. 1485 (1979).
121. K R. Rushton and S. C. Redshaw, Seepage and Groundwater Flow, John
Wiley and Sons Ltd. (1979).
122. J. A Ligett, J. Hydraulics Div., 103(1977), 353.
123. K Ichihara and T. Fukutake, Systems, publication of Japan UNIVAC
Users Association (1979), p. 39.
124. R. T-S. Cheng and C-R. Li, J. Hydrol., 20(1973),49.
125. J. M. Burgess et al., paper presented at Eighth National Chemical
Engineering Conference, Melbourne, Australia.
126. W. V. Pinczewski and W. B. V. Tanzi1, Chern. Eng. Sci., 36(1981), 1039.
127. T. Fukutake, K Ichihara, H. Kawarada and M. Natori, presented at 101
ISH Meeting, Lecture No. 41, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 67(1981), S55.
128. M. Natori and H. Kawarada, Report Compt. Centre Univ. Tokyo, No.5
(1976), 1.
CHAPTER 5
High Temperature Properties of Iron Ore

Agglomerates
5.1. REDUCTION BEHAVIOR IN LUMPY ZONE
5.1.1. Estimation of Reducibility in Lumpy Zone

There have been several attempts to determine the reducibility of iron
ore quantitatively in order to have a measure for blast furnace
operation: (i) estimation through blast furnace operation by the JIS
reduction degree; (ii) determination of the reaction rate constant of
reduction and comparison with blast furnace operation.
Fundamental experiments on the degradation during reduction have
been carried out and a model for the degradation phenomena during
reduction in the blast furnace has been developed. I. 2 Moreover, the
suitable JIS reduction degree has also been discussed in relation to the
degradation during reduction.
Figure 5.1.1 shows the measured results for size degradation after the
drum test under simulated abrasive conditions to the blast furnace.
Samples used in this test were prereduced under the various reducing
conditions by varying the size, reducing temperature and reducing gas
compositions.
From the above experimental results, the degradation of size due to
the reduction process may be given by the following equations:
= DS o - bls + a!;
DS (5.1.1)
(when dDS/dis> 0, DS = DS o - b 2/4a)
where a and b are constants which are decided by the kind of sinter,
sample size, reducing temperature and size degradation index during
reduction (RDI).
414
HIGH TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES 415
E 15 0) E
E ,525 b) In~I~~~~~
800·C c:
~==o~~.... - - . ----0- el5-2o.mm
-°_0_ 700.C
.Q
,g
t:
~~ -0 2 0. £l10.-15mm
0,
~ ... 8-lo.mm
o lo.~""""""C) '0
D 5- 8mm
-6 ~~ - 6OO·C ~15
...
~... ~o
-'-o().... 575·C
..... ~Io.
o ,.~
o~
~~
5 550·C
Q)
N
-,525·C .~ 5
'iii t:
c: " o.~::-±-::...."....,="",,,+~,.,.J
o ~ 0. 0..0 5 0..10. 0..15 0.20
~ 0.o.~""'o..~o.5=-=-o..':-:lo.~o..""15:-o.::'20=-Co.=':.2::::5""'o.::".:.30:-=-:o.='=.35:-:-::o.~40=-' Reduction degree f5 (- )
Reduct ion degree f 5 (- )
E E
,5 25 C) Co.% ~25 d )Gos flow ltIlelNIitnIn)
c: 020. .Q 05
2o 20
.25 ~ -Y' elo.
030. ~"" 0 15
~- £I 35 .., £120.
~ 15
... )5 ... 40.
045 ~
... 25
030.
=o _ 50.
~IC~-o
Q)
:!l
'iii
.~ 5 ")f"6~
c: t: t:
g 0. g 0. a< o.~::-±-::""""""""",.-J:,-~~
::;: 0. 0..05 0..10. 0..15 0.20 ::;: 0. 0..05 0..10 0..15 0.20 ::;: 0. 005 0..10. 0..15 0.20.
Reduction degree f5(-) Reduction degree f5(-) Reduction degree f5(-)
Fig.5.l.l. Size degradatio.n of sinter under various conditions.
T:> 798K
a = exp( -9' 55 + 12200IT)(DSo/12'75t31(RDI/25-7t57 (5.1.2)
b exp( -8-08 + 10 2101T)(DS o /12'75)180(RDl/25'7)165 (5.1.3)
T < 798K
a = (3'10 X 102)(DS o /12-75f31(RDl/25-7)2.57 (5.1.4)
b (1'11 X 1Q2)(DSo /12'75Y89(RDl/25'7r5 (5.1.5)
These equations were applied to the blast furnace simulation model
which was obtained by assuming uniform heat and material flow in the
radial direction, and the size of sinter was calculated at the lower
boundary of the indirect reduction zone. The calculated results were
compared with the blast furnace operation and the relationships shown
in Figs 5.1.2 and 5.1.3 were obtained.
20~----------------------------~
-,.,
o
15
~
,,~
"" E
~ E
..
.0
~
10
~
o o
"
.. N
£: o"
a t;
o 5
~ f
V> "o
-u;c:""
~;:::
., 0
~
°1'::5---::2:'::0--::2:'::5,....--:3::LO~-:3,J:5~-4.,.0"....----J4L,,-5-....J50L----J55
R0 I (- 3 mm % )
Fig. 5.1.2. Relation between the sinter size at the shaft level and ROI.
16
4_
,
... .,\. . -.. . V
.A
480
•• !t
f.: •.. ,1.4
J1 470 ~
.•.,.• ...... r-,if.
N
0
iE'i •. ~ 12
~'I1~r.-=--:"
.~
............. .
0
~460 u
-.Fl. ~.. 0
';450 .~,. 10
.=
'g440 .
~
0
U "'08
~ 430
0 0
~
u ~
420 060
0 5 10 15 20 5 20
Sinter si ze 01 Ine lower boundary of Sinter si ze 01 Ihe lower boundory of
indirect reduction reaction zone indirec I reduction reaction zone
(mm) (mm)
(0 ) ( b)
Fig.5.1.3. Effect of sinter size at the shaft level on the fuel rate and the top gas
ratio.
As shown in Fig. 5.1.2, the sinter size at the indirect reduction zone is
large when the degradation index during reduction (RDI) is small and
the reducibility (JIS reduction degree) is low.
When the permeability has to be improved, a larger size of sinter is
required at the indirect reduction zone. Hence, the quality of sinter must
be low in JIS reduction degree and also low in RDI. On the other hand,
as shown in Fig. 5.1.3, the fuel rate becomes lowest when the sinter size is
at the specific value of 10-12 mm at the lower boundary of the indirect
reduction zone.
Therefore, if one can control the TIS reduction degree and the value of
RDI to satisfy the above condition, the fuel rate will be expected to
become low. For example, when the RDI is 40%, the suitable JIS
reduction degree is in the range of 67· 5-70%.
This is just an example; if the relationship is investigated in more
detail corresponding to the actual furnace, it will become possible to
estimate the suitable sinter quality corresponding to the blast furnace
conditions.
5.1.2. Determination of Reaction Rate Constant of Reduction and

Comparison with Blast Furnace Operation
There is another convenient method for estimating the quality of
burden materials by using the reaction rate constant. The reaction rate
constants at the constant temperature of 900°C have been obtained by
the assumption of the thermal reserve zone in the blast furnace, and the
relation with the blast furnace operation has been discussed. 3
Results obtained under the test conditions shown in Table 5.1.1 were
applied to eqn (5.1.6) which was derived by assuming that the reaction
rate was controlled by the reaction at the interface. Table 5.1.2 shows the
calculated values of ko (reaction rate constant for the particle size shown
in Table 5.1.1) concerning typical burden materials.
1 - (1 - 1,)113 == dk t (5.1.6)
po
Ideally, the value of k should not depend on the particle size.

However, k actually increases apparently as shown in Fig. 5.1.4 caused
by augmentation of the internal surface area due to increase in the
particle size in the case of the porous ores. In this case, ko is corrected by
the equation k' == k o(17' 5y-l (n == 2/3 in the case of sinter and n == 3/4 in
the case of lump ore) and thus the reaction rate constant can be
TABLE 5.1.1
Testing Conditions for Reduction
Kawasaki method lIS method
Kind of sample Sinter, pellet and Sinter, pellet and

lump ore lump ore
Apparatus
Electric furnace Vertical type Vertical type
Reaction tube inner dia. (mm) 68 75
Balance sensitivity (g) <0'5 <0'5
Sample
Particle size (mm)
Sinter, lump ore 15-20 19-21
Pellet 10-13 11-13
Weight (g) 500 500
Reduction temperature eC) 900 900
Reduction time (min) 100 180
Reducing gas
Compositions (%) CO, 30; N 2 , 70 CO, 30; N 2 , 70
Flow rate (Nl/min) 40 15
Form of result Reaction rate Reduction
constant, ko (mm/h) degree (%)
TABLE 5.1.2
Calculated Values of Reaction Rate
Constants
Kind of ore ko (mm/hJ
Chiba sinter 2'60

Philippine sinter 2'68
Algarrobo pellet 2-61
Nibrasco pellet 1-81
Marcona pellet 1'48
Mt. Newman ore 2'40
Hamarsley ore 2-39
Goldsworthy ore 2·99
Iscor ore 1'37
Romeralore 0'85
estimated regardless of particle size. The rate constant (k) for any
particle size (d po ) can be obtained from the equation k = k'ld~o-l.
Average reaction rate constants have been calculated for the usual
burden materials by eqns (5.1.7) and (5.1.8):
(5.1.7)
(5.1.8)
The relationship between the gas utilization ratio in the blast furnace
and the mean reaction rate constant was introduced by the use of Rist's
diagram; they were also compared with the actual operational data.
The actual relationship between the change of kay due to the kind of
lump ore (~kav) and the change of the gas utilization ratio in the blast
X Sinter
o Goa ore
3.0 e India ore
.c:
"-
E
E
->:: 2.0
-
c
~
<I)
c
0
u
~ 1.0
0
0::
Rate constant corrected by
part i c Ie size
--0-------0------------ 0 - -
--x------- x------,.;0----- X--
--e- ------e------
O~------_L ________
e-----e--
L ________L______~
5 10 20 25
Particle size (mm)
Fig. 5.1.4. Effect of particle size on the rate constant.

furnace (~1]co) is shown in Fig. 5.1.5. The results are in comparatively

good agreement with the calculated data. Figure 5.1.6 shows the effects
of the chemical composition of sinter (FeO) on the reaction rate
constant. These are notable examples of the quantitative determination
of the reducibility when the burden properties are changed.
Research on the reducibility at the softening-melting zone has been
carried out by Yoshii et aZ.,4 Kondo et aZ.,5 Yamaoka et aZ.,6 and Okabe et
aZ./ by the softening and melting tests under load at elevated
temperature. Quantitative determination will follow after the analyses
of these results.
A"lCQ (%)
Qbserved va lue •
• Chiba NQ.3 SF 2
0. Chiba NQ.6 SF
~--1-----+-~--~----+·~---+--~Akav
-0..2 0..1 0.2 (mm Ihr)
Increase in Iscor - -Decrease in Iscor

ore ore
Fig. 5.1.5. Relationship between the change o.f rate constant (~kav) and the gas
utilizatio.n ratio. (~l1co)'
5.2. CHANGE OF MINERAL PHASES IN BLAST FURNACE
5.2.1. Changing of Mineral Phases During Reduction8, 10, II, 14, 16,20
After charging into a blast furnace, iron ore agglomerates such as pellets
and sinter, change their structures, as shown in Photo 5.2.1. In the upper
part of the furnace, the agglomerates are reduced by gas topochemically;
~ ~
..~
.§
o 3.0-
~
8 k 0 =-0.171 (FeO l+ 3.89
~ 2.0-
o
0::
I I _ _.l...-_...1...._......I.
1.0 L..-_...I...._--l. I I I_ _.l...-_-'
I
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fe 0 (%) ins i n t e r
Fig.5.1.6. Effect of FeO ('Yo) in sinter on the reaction rate constant.
the outer shell of the particles is converted to metallic iron, wustite and
gangue minerals, while the inner core is composed of wustite and
gangue minerals. When heated at high temperature, the metallic iron
and wustite undergo grain growth, and some melt is generated, which
produces phenomena such as retardation of reduction, softening and
cohesion. Furthermore, on reaching the higher temperature zone in the
furnace, a considerable amount of molten slag with a low melting point
exudes from the particles (due to the load), filling the voids in the layers
of burden material. This causes a decrease in the fractional void
volume, and results in a high pressure drop in the cohesion zone. Next,
because of carburization of the metallic iron, the agglomerate particles
melt down, and at the same time slag/metal separation takes place.
The above process is greatly affected by the kinds of burden
materials, and their chemical composition and mineral phases.
Therefore many investigations have recently been carried out into the
behavior of burden materials from reduction to melt-down. In this
section, in order to understand this behavior from a microstructural
422 BLAST FlJRNACE PHENOMENA AND MODELLING
U
10 IO~
....ex:>
III
MM
..... ;
......
......
U
10 10 0
....r-- N~
-
~
U
10 .00
0
<.0 O~
~e
Photo S.2.1. Example of macrostructure of burdens in a blast fumace. 16

point of view, the fundamental change in mineral phases and the melt
formation process will be described first, dividing them into several
stages such as induration, wustite formation, metallic iron formation
and the overall reduction process during heating.
5.2.1.1. Induration 9
Figure 5.2.1 shows equilibrium mineral components as a function of
basicity (CaO/Si02) and MgO content, when synthesized samples of
MgO-A1203-Si02-CaO-Fe203 systems are heated in an air atmosphere
at l250°C. According to Fig. 5.2.1, with an increase in CaO/Si0 2 the
amount of calcium ferrite increases, but amounts of hematite,
magnetite-magnesioferrite solid solution (M phase), and glassy silicate
MgO-AI,03-SiO,-CaO·Fe,03 system
100
S
50 MgO=2.0% H
t2
1
0
100
M
S
----
u
0 50 MgO=15%
en H
~ M
"6 0
S; 100
a
-"
Q.
a 50 MgO=IO%
~ H
E M
0 0
c 100 S
~
0
U 50 MgO=05%
M
0
100 S
50 MgO=O%
H
0
10 1.3 16 19 2.2
CaO/SiO, T.Fe = 60%, AI,03·- 1.5%
Fig. 5.2.1. Equilibrium mineral components in an induration stage of the

MgO-AlPrSi02-CaO-Fe203 system. 9
decrease. At the same value of CaO/Si02 , the maximum amount of

calcium ferrite phase is obtained at a MgO content of about 1·5%. With
an increase in MgO, phase M increases gradually.
5.2.1.2. Wustite jormation 9

Figure 5.2.2 shows melt formation in the wustite stage for synthesized
samples offourtypical compositions (CaO/Si0 2 = 1·3,1·6; MgO = 0·5,
1·5%) corresponding to iron ore agglomerates. Each has wustite as
primary crystals and dicalcium silicate (C2S) as secondary crystals.
From Fig. 5.2.2, it can be seen that the solidus temperature varies in the
vicinity of 1200 0 C and tends to rise gradually with increase in CaO/Si02
and MgO, and that, the higher the basicity (CaO/Si02 ), the smaller the
amount of melt produced at the solidus temperature due to the presence
ofC2 S (secondary crystals) and the higher the temperature at which C 2 S
disappears. On the other hand, the liquidus temperature depends
largely on the MgO content, rather than on CaO/Si02 • Therefore, if
MgO is added to iron ore pellets, the amount of melt produced at about
BOOaC, measured by the amount of unreduced core which flows to the
surface of pellets in the reduction test under load, decreases markedly.
AI,O,,=, 1.S%, T.Fe ... 60%

Indurated at 12S0°C ~ Reduced at 900°C in
100~======~===c==~C_0r-C~0~'_IS~0~S~01
so CaO/SiO,= 1.6 W
MgO=lS%
1 C,S
~ so w
<1> CaO/SiO, = 1.6
" MgO=O.S% "
~ 01-.-'>-----+-----+-------"-+1
a liq
c c,s
~ SO" W
E CaO /SiO, = 1.3
<{ MgO= 1.S%
Ohr~>-----+-----+-----+l
liq
,
O~~~---~--__- L_ _~'WU
1200 1250 1300 1350
Temperature lOCI
Fig.5.2.2. Melt formation process in a wustite stage of synthesized samples.9

5.2.1.3. Metallic iron formation 9

Figure 5.2.3 shows melt formation for synthesized samples, reduced to
metallic iron, of four typical compositions (CaO/Si0 2 = 1'3, 1·6;
MgO = 0'5, 1'5%). The melt formation temperature is taken to be the
temperature at which the grain size of metallic iron grows suddenly. In
this reduction stage, the melt formation temperature is very much
higher than that in the wustite stage. At CaO/Si02 of 1· 3, a large amount
of melt is formed when C 2S disappears, but at CaO/Si0 2 of 1'6, C 2S has
the effect of decreasing the amount of melt, because of its existence up to
a higher temperature.
Indurated at 1250'C Reduced at II OOT in

100
,
CO IN2 130/70)
- ---
50
C~S Li~ slag
CaO"Si02=1.6 M.Fe
MgO= 15%
0
# --- -- --
1 /
S~lid silicate
50 C,S
:li
0 CaOiS,O,=1.6 M.Fe
-"
D-
MgO=05%
'0 0
c - ---
"E0 /
C;S Solid silicate
I
Llq slag
« 50
CoO. SiO, = I .3 M.Fe
MgO=15%
0
----;------Tl
.i /
.
C,S Solid silicate
/
Liq slag
50
CaO/SiO,= 1.3 M.Fe
MgO=O.S%
0
1300 1350 1400 1450
Fig. 5.2.3. Melt fonnation process in a metallic iron stage of synthesized

samples.9
5.2.1.4. Overall reduction process during heatint

In an actual test of reduction during heating, the melt is formed with a
change in mineral phases. Figure 5.2.4 shows an example of the change
in the phases as well as the melt formed when dolomite-fluxed pellets
are reduced during heating. According to Fig. 5.2.4, the amounts of
hematite, magnetite-magnesioferrite solid solution and calcium ferrite
decrease, and wustite and metallic iron increase as reduction proceeds;

over a limited temperature range, liquid with a low melting point is
present.
100
-- ---
Oxygen
~ Hematite
-
/
.1
/
/
~-
~
~
/
/
Shell-core ')
/
:ll /
/ boundary,j'
Magnesioferrite-/
1 Magnetite s.s //
Wustite
"- 50 /
'0 /
/
c ,/
0
E
/
/
--Calcium ferrite
«
\ag----
O~-=~~~--~--~--~--~ __~
800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Temperature lOCI
Reducing gas: COIN, 130/701, 21/min
Heating rate : R.T --lOOO°C, 10°C/min lOOO°C-1500°C,5°C/min
Fig. 5.2.4. Change of mineral phases of dolomite-fluxed pellets in reduction

during heating_ 9
5.2.2. Mineral Phases in Reduced Iron Ore Agglomerates

In Section 5.2.1, fundamental changes of constituent phases in the
reduction process have been discussed_ In this section, some examples
of structures and mineral phases of iron ore agglomerates after reduction
will be described_
5.2.2J Distribution of metallic iron after reduction

The distribution of metallic iron phases is one of the important factors
influencing softening, cohesion and melting_ This depends on particle
shape, porosity, mineral phases and gangue mineral content of the
agglomerates, as well as reduction conditions such as temperature,
heating rate, etc.
Photo 5.2.2 shows lO the macrostructure of a vertical section of a
packed bed, and microstructures of the metallic iron shell and
unreduced core of Hirohata pellets after a reduction test, in which the
pellets were prereduced to a reduction degree of about 30% in 60 min at
1000 °C and then reduced with CO gas at 300 mllmin, at a heating rate of
4°C/min under a load of 0-5 kg/cm 2 _
From the point of view of macrostructure, the reduced pellets consist
of an external metallic iron shell and an unreduced core. Metallic iron
reduced at 1200 °C is like a sponge and is finely dispersed, but at 1300°C
the grain sizes of metallic iron and wustite grow and the two phases
Photo 5.2.2. Macro and microstructures of vertical section of packed bed lO (a)
1200 DC (core + metallic shell); (b) 1300 DC (metallic shell); (c) 1360 DC (surface);
(d) 1360 D C Qeft: core, right: surface). White: M.Fe(M); grey: wustite (W); dark
grey: slag (S); black: pore.
become clearly separated. Furthermore, at 1360 DC a slag melt flows out

to the surface and then metallic iron develops a network of sintering. On
the other hand, slag phases are not clearly recognized at 1100 DC, but at
1200 D C they are recognized among wustite grains in the core. It is
observed that, at 1200 D C, a small amount of slag melt flows into a
metallic iron layer near the boundary of the core and the shell, and at
1360 DC the slag melt is exuded to the surface. The exudation of slag and
wustite makes cavities between the core and the shell. At 1360°C, the
FeO content in the slag phases of the core is in general less than 10%,
except for a few large coagulated slag areas containing 20% FeO.
5.2.2.2. High temperature reduction ll

It is the high temperature reduction by gas that is influenced by the
distribution state of metallic iron, its sintering and melt formation. Here
the relationships between retardation of reduction and microstructure

of pellets will be described.
Table 5.2.1 shows the chemical composition of four types of iron ore
agglomerates used in this test. Figure 5.2.5 shows the results obtained in
the reduction test at constant temperature (900-l250°C) and during
heating, using samples prereduced to the wustite stage. In reduction at
constant temperature, a considerable retardation of reduction is found
for pellets E at temperatures in the range 1200-1250°C. On the other
hand, from the reduction CUlVes of pellets F, which have a similar
basicity to, and a lower slag content than, pellets E, only a modest
retardation of reduction occurs at l200°C and 1250°C.
c
o
.~
~
60 120 180,0 60 120 180,060 120 180,0 60 120 180
Time Imin.1
(a) at constant temperatures
Ibl during heating
Fig. 5.2.5. Reduction curves of various pellets and sinter at high temperatures. II
For pellets G, with a lower slag content and a lower basicity, the
reduction rate is greatly reduced at l200 0c. Furthermore, the reduction
behavior of self-fluxed sinter H is similar to that of pellets, and a
decrease in reduction rate is obselVed at temperatures of 1200-1250°C.
However, the degree of retardation is smaller than that of pellets E.
With regard to heating rate, every sample shows retardation of
reduction at rapid heating rates, especially 7°C/min, but the retardation
degree depends on the burden material.
Figure 5.2.6 shows the influences of basicity and slag volume on the
retardation of reduction.
Photo 5.2.3 gives the microstructure of pellets E which were reduced
at 1250 °C for 30 min and which show a strong retardation of reduction.
It was found that metallic iron particles were sintered to a thin shell at
::r::
TABLE 5.2_1 0
-
Chemical Composition of Samples ll ::r::
...,
m
Chemical component (%) ~
"tl
Mark Sample CaOlSi02 Slag m
T_Fe FeO SiD 2 CaO Al20 3 MgO concn. (%)
E Self-fluxed pellets 60-20 0-20 4-50 5-50 2-10 0-40 1-23 12-10 ~
~
F Self-fluxed pellets 63-50 2-83 3-42 1-35 0-13 1-21 7-60 "tl
G Acid pellets 63-18 0-79 4-20 0-82 2-41 1-19 0-20 7-48 ::tI
H Sinter 55-15 8-60 6-45 10-09 2-40 0-59 I-56 18-94 0
"tl
m
~
m
rJl
~
100
EI 5.C.=7% E2 5.C.= 10% E35.C.=13%
80 B=1.0 B=1.0 B=1.0
60
~ 40
Q)
~
CJ)
20
Q)
"0 0
"
.Q
100
U 80
::>
"0
Q)
'" 60
40
Time Imin.!
S.c. : slag content B :bosicity
Fig. 5.2.6. Effects of slag content and basicity on reduction. 11
Photo 5.2.3. Microstructure of pellets E reduced at 1250 DC for 30 min,u

the pellet surface and molten slag with fine wustite particles was
generated near the inner surface of the shell.
The retardation of reduction is related to the state of the metallic iron
shell and the slag melt which blocks pores in the agglomerates.
Accordingly, the reduction behavior of pellets at elevated temperature is
different, because of the differences in the slag level and composition.
5.2.2.3. Softening behavior

The softening behavior of agglomerates is an important factor which
has a large influence on the formation of the cohesive zone and on
furnace permeability. Consequently, many investigations of this
property have been carried out
Photo 5.2.4 shows microstructures of pellets with four kinds of typical
bonding structures, reduced up to 1260°C under a compressive load of
0·8 kg/cm2, and the temperatures for 60% bed contraction. 12 The
bonding structures ofthe four types are defined as follows: (A) hematite;
(B) hematite and silicate slag with low basicity; (C) hematite and
Temperature of 60 i. shrinkage (oC)

1292 1220 1346 1322
....
I/)
I...
o
0.
QI
.c
tI)
....
I/)
I...
o
0.
QI
I...
o
U
Type : A Type: B Type: C Type: 0

T~p..:s of boltciins SlrUClurc
Photo 5.2.4. Microstructures of pellets with typical bonding structure, reduced
up to 1260 °C by softening test under load 12
calcium ferrite; (D) hematite, silicate slag with high basicity and
calcium silicate.
From Photo 5.2.4, it is clear that the grain size of metallic iron grows
by coagulation in the external part of pellets A, and slag melt exists
among these metallic iron grains. In the case of B, a thin compact
metallic iron layer is formed, and the boundary of this layer and the
unreduced core is clearly visible. In the case of C and D, metallic iron
phases do not grow by coagulation, but remain finely dispersed. Only a
small amount of slag melt is observed in D.
On the other hand, from the results obtained by EPMA on slag
phases of the core (Fig. 5.2.7), it is clear that fayalite (2FeO. Si02 ; m.p.
1200°C) and iron calcium olivine (2(Ca xFe l -xO)Si02; m.p. 1100-
1150°C) are formed for pellets A and B, respectively. Slag phases of
types C and D consist of dicalcium silicate containing 4-9% FeO and
21-25% FeO, respectively, with corresponding melting points of about
2000°C and 1400-1500°C, respectively.
5iO,
Fig. 5.2.7. EPMA analysis of the slag phase in pellets with typical bonding
structure, reduced up to 1260°C by softening test under load.'2
As mentioned above, the retardation of reduction and the softening

behavior are very dependent on the melt generation temperature and
the amount of melt produced in the reduction process, both of which are
related to the bonding structures in the agglomerates. Consequently, in
order to improve the softening behavior, it is necessary to control the

gangue level and composition.
However, it must be noted that the degree of contraction in the
softening test is also affected by other factors, such as porosity,
reduction degree and distribution of metallic iron produced, and the test
conditions, etc.
5.2.2.4. Effects of MgO

Since dolomite-fluxed pellets have been developed and used in blast
furnaces, the effects of MgO on the high temperature properties of
agglomerates have been studied extensively. In this section, the main
effects of MgO will be described.
(a) Low temperature disintegration. 18 If MgO is added to superfluxed
pellets, the disintegration in the early stage of reduction, caused by the
transformation of hematite to magnetite and by the decrease in calcium
ferrite bond strength due to reduction, is counteracted. The reason for
this is that magnetite-magnesioferrite solid solution, (M&Fe l -x)O.Fe203,
which is produced among the iron oxide grains, acts as a strong bonding
phase, and magnetite stabilized by MgO is hardly oxidized to hematite.
Consequently, the disintegration of pellets containing magnetite-
magnesioferrite solid solution is very low.
(b) Softening behavior. The contraction of pellets in the reduction test
under load up to 1100°C has been decreased from about 35% to about
12%, as shown in Fig. 5.2.8, by the addition of MgO to ordinary lime-
fluxed pellets. '9 The explanation for this is as follows.
40
35 ~
§' 1\0
_ 30
~
., 25 c\
\e
<::
.o
"
~ 20
<::
o
~
..
U 15
o~fo
10 "00.
5
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
MgO content (%)
Fig.S.2.S. Effect of MgO content on contraction (llOO°C) of pellets. 19

As mentioned above, magnetite-magnesioferrite solid solution is

formed by the addition ofMgO. The chemical composition of this solid
solution varies from (Fe()'IMg()'9)O.Fe203 to (Fe()'4M~6)O.Fe203,13.21
according to the induration conditions, MgO content, etc. Also, MgO is
contained in the calcium ferrite phase at levels of about 2·7%.
Figure 5.2.9 shows the softening behavior of several mineral phases
synthesized using chemical reagents. Table 5.2.2 shows the chemical
composition and the synthesis conditions for these mineral phases.
According to Fig. 5.2.9, magnetite-magnesioferrite solid solution has
o ____ _
" :). Mf
_ 20 ',,f \ J I, \ "
~
Ql
g'
I Hemotlte ore
40 M F MognoSiofernt.
J low bo,Iclly ,log
\ \ :.
\ ' : K
~.J
II
\
\ I
'>
r "
'S 60 J' low bosiclly "og IMgO 9 9%1'. ...... :-... \ ..
~ K Middle 00"'1)' , og IMgO I 8%1 \1, \ -- /' - - - =:: ~
l Colciumferrlte '~, • t
80 L' CO!clUmferfll. lMgO 4%1 \ \.
100 N H,gh bo,.c'ty slog , "-
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
TemperOlure 1'0
Fig. 5.2.9. Shrinkage curves of hematite ore and synthesized minerals. IS
TABLE 5.2.2
Synthesis Conditions of Sample Minerals ls
Chemical reagent (wt%) Synthesised

Mineral
Temp. Time
Fe203 CaO Si02 MgO CaO/Si02 tC) (h)
I 99'8 1300 5
MF 90·0 10·0 1300 5
J 30·2 24'3 45'5 0'53 1300 5
l' 24·1 22'5 43' 5 9·9 0' 52 1300 5
K 15'3 41'7 41'2 1·8 1·01 1300 5
L 78·4 18·7 2'9 1220 5
L' 75'3 17'9 2-8 4·0 1220 5
N 24·3 43-5 31'7 1-37 1300 0'17
I, Hematite are; MF, magnesioferrite; J, 1', low basicity slag; K, middle basicity
slag; L, L', calcium ferrite; N, high basicity slag.
good softening characteristics, similar to the high basicity slag N. The

softening characteristics of calcium ferrite are greatly improved if it
contains, for example, 4·0% MgO.
On the other hand, the softening characteristics of low basicity slag
become worse if it contains 9·9% MgO, and the medium basicity slag K
with 2% MgO is a little better than 1.'5
From the results it is concluded that magnetite-magnesioferrite solid
solution and calcium ferrite containing MgO improve the softening
characteristics of iron ore agglomerates during reduction under load.
However, above 1100°C, at which temperature the contraction of the
agglomerates becomes great, magnetite-magnesioferrite solid solution
and calcium ferrite phases are reduced to wustite containing MgO.
Therefore the softening characteristics of wustite-MgO solid solution
are also considered to contribute to an improvement in the softening
behavior of the agglomerates during reduction under load.
From Fig. 5.2.10, which shows the softening characteristics ofwustite
containing different levels of MgO and CaO/Si02 , it is clear9 that the
softening behavior of wustite is improved if the MgO content is
increased from O' 5% to 1· 5%, at the same level of basicity. This
phenomenon is explained by an increase in the liquidus temperature of
wustite with increasing MgO content, as shown in Fig. 5.2.11.14
5 ¢ Y 51 briquette indurated at 1250'c' reduced at 900'C for 3hr in CO/CO, 150/50)

load 2.5 kg/em', Graph,te,Pt crueihle in Ar, 10K/min
0r----r------~~~-r------------,---------~--r_--_,
T. Fe =60%
AI,O:l~ 15%
~ CaO/SiO,MgO wustite
(, 16,0.5 51ntered at 1280'C
u 1.6,1.5 In CO/C0 2 150/50)
~0 50
U
t> solidus temperature
... C£S vanishing temperature
IOOL---~I~IO~0----------~1~20~O~----------IS~0~0---------L-1~40-0--~
Temperature ICC)
Fig. 5.2.10. Shrinkage curves of synthesized samples in a wustite stage. 9

(c) Melting and dripping characteristics. Figure 5.2.12 shows T b, T ms and

Tmf as a function of MgO content and pre reduction degree, when a
mixture of pre reduced pellets and coke particles is heated at4 °C/min in
a nitrogen atmosphere. Here, T b , Tms and Tmf are the temperatures at
which the reaction with coke commences, and dripping commences
2800
2600 "",,"-,,- liquid
"-
2400 "-
e~
2200
"-
"-7tz- "-
"-
~ x "-
0 2000 (' "\
"
'\
a. '\
,,
E '\
~ 1800
>- "\
1600
Mognesio-Wustite \
1400
1200
o 20 40 60 80 100
MgO FeO
Fig. 5.2.11. System FeO-MgO in contact with metallic iron. 14
Be!J,nnu"l9 of reachon Ihl Beg,.'(lIng of dropping IT m~l F'I'IIs:!"t of dfopplng IT ,I
J-li-
1600
101 Ibl lei
1500
2
~ 1400 - ~~ Ak
£1
~ ~
;;
~
0.
j 1300 -
0--0 MIIMgO:06S1
1200
.........
<>---<> M2 IMgO : I 101
M3 11-.'90 : 2251
M4IMgO:3<181
.....-...
~
M5IMgO:.411
1/00
o w ~ W WOW ~ W MOW ~ W W 100
Prered1JCllon degreE" t%I
Fig. 5.2.12. Relationships between prereduction degree and Tb , Tms, Tmf·

and finishes, respectively. From Fig. 5.2.12, T ms and T mr are greatly

affected by MgO content, and Tb and T ms by reduction degree.
The mechanism of melting and dripping of prereduced pellets is
considered to be as follows.
(i) For relatively low reduction degrees, in the early stage of the
melting process, slag and wustite phases melt, flow out through the
metallic iron shell, and dripping commences. Consequently, T ms
depends not only on the melting points of slag and wustite phases
contained in the unreduced core, but also on the thickness of the shell
layer.
For example,14 Photo 5.2.5 shows a half-molten state after heating of
prereduced pellets with a reduction degree of 50-60% up to 1300°C in a
nitrogen atmosphere. It is clearly observed from the photograph that, in
the case oflime-fluxed pellets (P), slag and wustite contained in the core
melt and flow out to the surface to partially fill voids in the bed.
Consequently, the central part of the pellets consists of cavities.
However, unreduced cores of pellets (Q) containing MgO do not melt
and flow out to the pellet surface. This is because MgO in pellets is
concentrated in the reduction process into the magnesiowustite solid
solution, and the melting point of this phase rises, as shown in
Fig. 5.2.11.
(ii) In the melting and dripping process, for highly reduced pellets
with considerable metallic iron even in the central core, the ease of the
coagulation of metal and slag phases is considered to have an influence
on the melting and dripping behavior. Photograph 5.2.6 shows the
influence ofMgO on the coagulation of metallic iron and slag in almost
completely reduced pellets. This test has been done by heating samples
up to the given temperature in a nitrogen atmosphere, and then
quenching.
Photo 5.2.6 shows that the coagulation of metal takes place easily at a
MgO content of 0·65-1·1 %, and becomes difficult when the MgO
content increases to 2·25-4-41%. This phenomenon can be explained
from the section of the phase diagram for CaO-MgO-Si02-Al203 at an
Al203level of 15% (Fig. 5.2.13) in which Ml, M2, M3 and M4 are plotted.
According to Fig. 5.2.13, if the MgO content increases from 0·65% to
1·1 %, the liquidus temperature decreases a little, and if the MgO content
increases to 2·25-3-48%, the liquidus temperature rises again. Therefore
coagulation of metallic iron is considered to take place easily in a slag
matrix of low melting point.
~
00
1:1:1
c §
E
o i
Q
w ~
::I:
~
~
~
>
c ~
E ~
o
0')
~
Photo s.z.s. Cross-section of prereduced pellets and sinter after heating up to 1300°C.14
Heatin~ temperature COC)
0
rl
rl
N
V)
"..
N
U
N
"0
<J
0
~
...co
""
Photo 5.2.6. Effect of MgO on coagulation of metallic iron and slag.
5.2.3. Cbange of Gangue Minerals
5.2.3.1. For synthesized samples

The main rnineral phases contained in iron ore agglomerates containing
CaO and MgO are hematite, magnetite, magnetite-magnesioferrite
solid solution, herni-calcium ferrite, dicalcium silicate, melilite, iron
gehlenite and glassy silicate slag.
These mineral phases change during the reduction process and
finally melt For example, when sample U with a high basicity,17 shown
in Table 5.2.3, is reduced to the wustite stage, we can detect wustite
phases containing Ca and/or Mg reduced from the iron bearing phases,
5i0 2
WEIGHT %
Fig. 5.2.13. Phase diagram of CaO-MgO-SiO r AlP3'
melilite and calcium silicate as gangue mineral phases. Furthermore, if

this sample is heated and held at several temperatures, we can see that
amorphous silicate melts first at a temperature in the range 1200-
1220°C, and then melilite, a part of the dicalcium silicate and wustite
melt at 1220°C; the rest of the dicalcium silicate melts at 1240°C as
shown in Fig. 5.2.14. We will consider the melting of unreduced core
(wustite stage) using Fig. 5.2.15. Assuming that the main gangue
components in the sample U are CaO, SiOz and Al z0 3, we use the
diagram of the Ca. Si02-2CaO.Al 20 3 •Si02-FeO system. The composition
of glassy silicate in the induration stage, which is regarded as a residue
which solidifies after the solidification of primary crystal minerals, is
located near the eutectic line of CaO. Si02 and melilite in the diagram.
Amorphous silicate melts at 1220°C and the composition of this melt
varies along the eutectic line to the point L, dissolving melilite and
dicalcium silicate. Furthermore, when the temperature rises, melilite
TABLE 5_2_3 ::I:
Chemical Composition of Samples 5::I:
....,
Chemical component (%) MgO- tTl
Type Sampli' containing ~
'1:l
T.Fe FeO MgO AlP3 Si0 2 CaO CaO/Si02 material tTl
Sinter U 54-30 8-12 2-00 2-68 5-74 10-60 1-85 Dolomite ~

V 57-47 11-23 1-60 2-32 7-06 7-98 1-13 Dolomite ~
tTl
W 55-59 15-93 0-28 2-79 6-97 11-94 1-71 '1:l
Pellet X 60-61 <0-10 1-49 1-47 4-11 5-60 1-36 Dolomite ~'1:l
tTl
aSample sinter U and pellet X were made with industrial apparatus_ Others were made with a testing pot. §
tTl
(Il
t
-
disappears and the composition of the melt varies along the two-
components eutectic line of2CaO.Si02-FeO to point M. At this point,
2CaO.Si02 disappears and the composition of the melt becomes the
mean chemical composition N of the unreduced core.
room temp.
Qi -ci}
~ ~
1220·C ~
1240·C
W :Wustite
Mel: Melilite
C,S: Dicalcium silicate
30 35 40
28 (Degreel
Fig. 5.2.14. X-ray diffraction figures (eu K,. radiation) for sinter U reduced to
wustite after magnetic separation. 17
_2CoO.5iO, 60 FeO
1380
Fig. 5.2.15. System 2CaO.Si02-2CaO.Al20 3 .SiOr FeOY

In the case of sample V with low basicity (Fig. 5.2.16), kirschsteinite

(CaO.FeO.Si02 ) and melilite exist as crystalline silicates and both
mineral phases melt in the vicinity of 1160°C.
0;
room temp.
2 ~
0;
2
1150'C
.£ 0;
c 2
~
1160'C
1170'C~_ _ _ _~
W : Wustite
Mel: Melilite
Kir : Kirschsteinite
30 35 40
2 a {Degreel
Fig. 5.2.16. X-ray diffraction data (eu Ka radiation) for sinter V reduced to
wustite after magnetic separationY
5.2.3.2. For samples taken from a blast fumace 16

Figure 5.2.17 shows an example of the change in mineral phases of
burden materials taken from a commercial blast furnace. According to
Fig. 5.2.17, the following mineral phases are observed: melilite from
shaft to bosh; wollastonite (a-CaO.Si0 2) in the upper part of the
furnace; and larnite (,B-2CaO.Si0 2) in the lower part of the furnace. Also,
with the appearance of metallic iron, merwinite (2CaO.MgO.Si0 2) is
formed in the slag phase, especially for pellets.
Alkalis (K20, Na20) are concentrated in the softening-cohesive zone.
Kalsilite (K20.Al 20 3 .2Si0 2) is detected in samples taken from this zone
by EPMA. The mineral phases containing alkalis except kalsilite are
melilite and glassy silicate. The alkali content (K20 + Na20) in melilite
is comparatively small, about 3·2% maximum. On the other hand, the
level in glassy silicate reaches a maximum of about 10%. Consequently,
it must be noted that the actual melting temperature of burden materials
is different from that measured in a laboratory test. From Fig. 5.2.18, the
melting point ofthe glassy silicates present in lump ores taken from the
blast furnace is estimated to be about 600-700°C, which is low in
comparison with values obtained from laboratory tests.
No .of Mag - Wus- M · f e Mel i- Wall a- lar- Merw- Ka lsi-

are netite tite lile stonite nite inite lite
layer
36 0 p S
~,
~ 31 ,
26 :
2: 22 .., P P S
Qi
.D
19
17 r ! :,, t t,,
16 " 0
0 p S
1I
0
15 ,; 0
0 t
0
14 .t- o
..c 0
..!'"
13
0
.D 12 .. M M M
iO
8
slag 1
,I
,:.
I
P : p e llets, S : sinter, M : mix
Fig. 5.2.17. Change in mineral phases of pellets and sinter In a blast

furnace. 16
G lassy silicate
of lumpy ore
SiO:
tl7131
Fig. 5.2.1S. Plot of composition of glassy silicate in ores to phase diagram of

K20-Na20-Si02 system. 16
5.3. FLOW RESISTANCE OF GAS THROUGH THE FUSED

PACKED BED
It is important to analyze two-dimensionally the gas flow in the blast

furnace where there is nonuniform flow resistance. This problem is
especially important in an area where beds having very different
resistances to the flow of gas are adjacent to each other, such as near the
cohesive zone.
The two-dimensional gas flow in the blast furnace is calculated by
combining a continuity equation for gas with an equation of motion. 22.23
Ergun's equation 24 for the pressure drop in the packed bed has so far
been used in the form extended to two dimensions as the equation of
motion relating to gas flow.
However, it has not yet become apparent whether it is possible to
apply Ergun's equation to packed beds where particles are fused to each
other, such as the fused bed in the blast furnace.
The resistance to the flow of gas through the fused bed in the blast
furnace has been studied by Ono et al. 25 who assume that the empirical
formula (5.3.1) relating to the pressure drop in the lumpy zone is
applicable also to the cohesive zone.
!l.P = KG 17 p;1J.103L (5.3.1)
In this case, the flow resistance coefficient, K, in eqn (5.3.1) is arranged
for the fused bed as given by eqn (5.3.2) from the relationship between
the flow resistance coefficient before shrinkage, Ko, and the degree of
shrinkage, Sr.
(5.3.2)
However, eqns (5.3.1) and (5.3.2) were statistically obtained by
experiment, and hence the mechanism offlow resistance for gas was not
taken into consideration.
To clarify the gas flow resistance through the fused packed bed, many
problems are still to be solved: how to formulate the change in physical
properties associated with fusion and the phenomenon of fusion itself,
clarification of the mechanism that generates the pressure drop in the
packed bed, and so on.
With a view to obtaining fundamental knowledge of the flow
resistance of gas through the fused bed, Sugiyama et al. 30 measured the
flow resistance of gas through artificially fused particles of furnace raw
materials, and examined the mechanism of pressure drop generation.
5.3.1. Measurement of Pressure Drop in Fused Packed Bed30

Figure 5.3.1 illustrates an apparatus for measuring the flow resistance of
gas. A fused bed 50 mm in outside diameter that has been fused to a
predetermined degree of shrinkage is housed in an iron cylinder. The
outside surface of the fused sample is sealed with urethane. Air at
ambient temperature was caused to flow through this packed bed in the
Reynolds number range of 400-6000, and the pressure drop for each
flow rate was measured with a submerged manometer. Photo 5.3.1
shows the appearance of the fused samples.
The degree of shrinkage of the fused bed is defined by
(5.3.3)
Meanwhile, the characteristic values for the fused bed (particle

diameter, D p , and void fraction of the bed, eb) were separately measured.
Table 5.3.1 shows the physical properties of the fused bed used for the
measurement of pressure drop.
L- ~
~-
Fused packed bed

::---..
Ii
Packing
0
~
I
::::JI
Perforated plate
X
2"
c= ~54¢-F
~-
J
~ -Air
Fig. 5.3.1. Apparatus for measuring the pressure drop in the fused packed
bed. 3o
(a) (b)
Photo 5.3.1. Appearance of fused particles. (a) Pellet (Sr = 0'3); (b) Sinter
(Sr = 0-3).
TABLE 5.3.1
Physical Properties of Samples Prepared for the Pressure Drop Measurement
Degree oj Void Average Ratio oj

Run No. Sample' shrinkage, fraction, diameter oJ diameter.
Sr(-) Eb(-) particle, Dp (em) y(-)
I PL, RIOO 0 0-50 1'44 1'0

2 SP, RlOO 0 0-48 1·06 1'0
3 ST, RIOO 0 0-56 1'01 1'0
101 PL, Rl00 0'38 0·49 1·23 0'86
103 ST, Rl00 0-29 0-56 0-97 0-96
104 PL, R60 0·31 0·54 1'32 0'92
110 PL, R60 0-47 0-47 1-32 0-92
112 ST, RlOO 0'46 0'57 0·95 0'95
113 PL,R34 0-44 0-51 1'26 0-87
apL, Pellet; SP, self-fluxing pellet; ST, sinter; R, degree of reduction.
5.3.1.1. Examination a/measured results

The pressure drop of a gas flowing through the packed bed has so far
been expressed by the following correlation:
y = !l.P gJ)~ c~
(5.3.4)
L Uf.l (1 - cbi
X Rep/(l - Cb) (5.3.5)
Rep = pguDp/f.l (5.3.6)
The above-mentioned Ergun's equation can be expressed by
y = 150 + 1·75X (5.3.7)
The data obtained from this experiment were arranged in the form of
eqns (5.3.4) and (5.3.5), as shown in Fig. 5.3.2.26.27 For the unfused raw
material, the pressure drop obtained is almost in agreement with the
value calculated by use of Ergun's equation. In the case of the fused raw
material, however, the pressure drop increases markedly with increasing
degree of shrinkage.
Although changes in particle diameter, D p , and void fraction, Cb,
associated with shrinkage are considered in eqns (5.3.4) and (5.3.5), the
pressure drop in the fused bed does not agree with any of the known
empirical equations.
50000
~I-
II
500 1000 2000 5000 10000 20000 50000

X I Rep II - tbll
Fig. 5.3.2. Pressure drop correlations for packed beds having fused and
unfused iron ore.
Eqn (5.3.8) is a theoretical formula based on the assumption that the

pressure drop in the packed bed can be simulated by the pressure drop
of a gas flowing through a bundle of round pipes.
l::..P
L
= Ib(_l)(~)(pgU2)
IjJDp Cb 2gc
(5.3.8)
Furthermore, eqn (5.3.8) means that the pressure drop in the packed bed
is governed by the frictional resistance between the total surface of the
particles and the fluid. 28
The resistance coefficient, Ib, of 3·5 corresponds to the friction
coefficient under the turbulent flow of Ergun's equation.
In eqn (5.3.8), variables that change due to fusion are Cb, D p , IjJ andA
However, Dp, IjJ and Cb do not show a large change resulting from fusion
when the degree of shrinkage ranges from 0 to 0'47, and the specific
surface area, Qp' that includes them changes only a little relative to the
degree of shrinkage.
(5.3.9)
Eu 4
II=: Sinter
Pellet I
"
~
0 3 X X
0
"'"
Q)
0 0 0
2 0
u
iu
~
u
Q)
"-
<f)
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Degree of shrinkage Sr I-I
Fig. 5.3.3. Effect of the degree of shrinkage on the specific surface area of fused
particles. 30
The reason why the void fraction, Cb' does not change with shrinkage
of the packed bed is that the shrinkage of the bed is due to shrinkage of
the component particles when the degree of shrinkage is up to approxi-
mately O· 5. Therefore the effect of fusion is closely related to the

resistance coefficientib, so far as eqn (5.3.8) is used (Fig. 5.3.4).
The effect of shrinkage onib is given by the equation
ib = 3'5 + 44S;4 (5.3.10)
20
I 15
x : Sinter
o : Pellet
5
Ergun
0.2 0.3 04 0.5

Degree of shrinkage Sr (-I
Fig. 5.3.4. Relationship between the friction factor and the degree of shrinkage. 30
A practical equation for calculating the pressure drop in the fused

packed bed can be obtained by combining eqns (5.3.8) and (5.3.10). By
this analysis method, however, it cannot be said that the mechanism of
pressure drop in the fused bed has been clarified, because the
mechanism of pressure drop cannot be explained by the frictional
resistance between the fluid and the particle surface.
Martin 29 measured the pressure drop in packed beds into which
spherical particles were regularly packed in various arrangements, and
confirmed that different pressure drops occur even if there is no
difference in void fraction. These packed beds have different minimum
fractional open areas even if their void fractions are the same. From this
finding, it is considered that the pressure drop in the fused bed is
affected by the change in the fractional open area associated with
deformation of the particles.
Accordingly, Sugiyama et al. 30 the author considered that the
clearance between particles became narrow due to fusion and that a
pressure drop occurred due to the compression and expansion of a fluid
flowing between the particles as if passing through an orifice.
5.3.2. Numerical Calculation of Gas Flow Resistance through a Fused

Packed Bed by Use of an Orifice Model 30
5.3.2.1. Assumptions
This model was made based on the following assumptions. A
cylindrical packed bed of height Lo and diameter D is packed with
spherical particles of diameter Dp and radius rp. These particles shrink
to 2b in the compression direction and expand to 2a in the cross-section
direction when they are softened and fused (Fig. 5.3.5).
101 Ibl
Fig. 5.3.5. Model of packed bed having (a) unfused and (b) fused particles. 30
The change in the packed bed upon shrinkage and the pressure drop
take place based on the following assumptions:
(1) The pressure drop takes place in the narrowest clearance

between particles. The opening area in the cross-section
direction can be replaced with an equivalent orifice of diameter
Do·
(2) The side view of a particle after shrinkage is elliptical in shape,
with minor axis 2b and major axis 2a. The cross-section of the
ellipse is circular.
(3) The particles are so arranged as to form a cubic structure that has
a void fraction closest to that of the packed bed before
shrinkage.
(4) The particles do not move radially by shrinkage.
5.3.2.2. Model offlow resistance of gas

When a gas flows through an orifice of opening diameter Do at a velocity
v, the pressure drop at the orifice is given by
(5.3.11 )
If the fractional open area ofthe orifice is expressed by m, the effusion

coefficient C is given by
C = 0·597 - O'Ol1m + 0-432m 2 (5.3.12)
If eqn (5.3.11) is applied to a fused packed bed regarded as LolDp
orifices, and the actual velocity, v, at which the gas flows through the
clearance between particles is expressed as the superficial velocity, u,
then eqn (5.3.11) is transformed into
tiP
1;; =
(ICm )2(CPDp1)(p19cu 2
) (5.3.13)
Here the fractional open area, m, is expressed by

m = (Do/D)2 (5.3.14)
In eqns (5.3.8) and (5.3.13), the effects of particle diameter and gas flow
velocity have the same forms. The difference between eqn (5.3.8) and
eqn (5.3.13) arises from whether the effect of shrinkage of the packed
bed is expressed as the void fraction or the fractional open area.
Equation (5.3.13) shows a pressure drop that corresponds to a change
in the local minimum fractional open area of the packed bed.
5.3.2.3. Fractional open area

As shown in Fig. 5.3.5, half the minor axis, b, is given by
b = Dp(1 - Sr)/2 (5.3.15)
In the fused packed bed, the particles shrink simultaneously. The
ratio of the average particle diameter after shrinkage, Dpm , to the average
particle diameter is expressed by
(5.3.16)
From the relation between the volumes of one particle before and
after shrinkage given by eqn (5.3.17), half the major axis, a, of the
particle after shrinkage is expressed by eqn (5.3.18).
(5.3.17)
(5.3.18)
Supposing the number of particles per unit cross-sectional area is

expressed by n, then the fractional open area of the packed bed before
shrinkage is given by
mo = I - n (~D~) (5.3.19)
The fractional open area, m, of the fused bed after shrinkage is

expressed by
(5.3.20)
In a round-pipe model in which the pipe is assumed to be uniform in

cross-section, the relation between the void fraction, 8 0 , and the
fractional open area, mo, of the packed bed before shrinkage is given by
mo = 8 0 , For the orifice model, this relation is expressed by eqn (5.3.21)
because the whole space is not always related to the pressure drop.
(5.3.21)
The value of a that satisfied eqn (5.3.13) was determined for actual
furnace raw materials, and the results are shown in Table 5.3.2. It is
approximately 0·8 in all the materials tested. To confirm experimentally
that a = 0·8, a pellet-packed bed was solidified with resin, ten sections
were polished, and the fractional open area was measured using a
quantitative television microscope (QTM) (Photo 5.3.2).
TABLE 5.3.2
Relationship between the Fractional Open Area and the Void Fraction of the
Packed Bed Before Shrinkage
Fractional
Run No. Raw material open area, Void fraction, Coefficient
mo(-) eo (-) a (= mole o) (-)
1 Pellet 0'43 0'50 0'86

2 Self-fluxed pellet 0'38 0'48 0'79
3 Sinter 0'44 0'56 0'79
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Photo 5.3.1. Appearance of cross-section of unfused packed bed (self-fluxed
pellet). (a) mo = 0'32; (b) mo = 0'38: (c) mo = 0'41; (c) mo = 0'45. 30
As shown in Table 5.3.3, the minimum fractional open area, a, is near

to 0·8 in most of the samples, so this value seems to be correct.
From the relationship among eqns (5.3.l9), (5.3.20), (5.3.21), the
fractional open area, m, of the fused bed is derived as given by
m = 1 - (1 - 0.860) - - r (5.3.22)
1 - Sr
Next, the particle diameter ratio, y, is given by eqn (5.3.23) from the
relationship to the degree of shrinkage, S" as shown in Fig. 5.3.6.
y = 1 - 0'25Sr (5.3.23)
Figure 5.3.7 shows the relationship between the fractional open area,
m, calculated with eqn (5.3.22) and the degree of shrinkage. The degree
of shrinkage, S" is 0·58 at a fractional open area 60 = 0'5, for example;
this means that the gas flow through the fused bed stops completely.
TABLE 5.3.3
Fractional Open Area Measured by QTM (se1f-
fluxed pellet, Sr = 0, eo = 0-42)30
Observed fractional Coefficient

Sample No. open area, mo (-) a (= moleo)
I 0'38 0'90
2 0·32 0·76
3 0'42 0'98
4 0·41 0'98
5 0'45 1·06
6 0·39 0'91
7 0-41 0·97
8 0·46 1-08
9 0'35 0'82
10 0·46 1-08
10~
- x
f2"E 0.9 o~
o 0
0
II
0.8
0.7 '-------'----'------'-----'---'------!
o 0.1 ~2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Oh
Degree of shrinkage Sr (--I
Fig. 5.3.6. Change of particle diameter with shrinkage?O

0.5
E 0.4
oQ)
(;
c 0.3
Q)
"-
o
o 0.2
(5
t 0.1
.g
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
DeQree of shrinkage Sr (-I
Fig. 5.3.7. Relationship between the degree of shrinkage and the fractional
open area.
5.3.3. Equation of Pressure Drop in Fused Packed Bed 30

By substituting the relation between eqn (5.3.22) that gives the fractional
open area and eqn (5.3.3) into eqn (5.3.13), the equation for the pressure
drop in the fused packed bed can be expressed by means of
~p
L = em
(I) 2( I
l/>Dp(1 - Sr)
)(p~gcu 2
) (5.3.24)
Figure 5.3.8 shows the relationship between the (~PIL)cal calculated

by eqn (5.3.24) and the measured (~PIL)obs' The measured values satisfy
the relation of eqn (5.3.24) with ±30% errors. Equation (5.3.24) is
applicable to an unfused packed bed.
In this experiment, Reynolds numbers near the bosh of the blast
furnace were used as the Reynolds number of the particles. However,
when the ratio of the flow resistance of gas through the fused bed to the
same through the coke bed increases in the furnace, the gas flows
selectively through the coke bed of lower flow resistance, and hence
Reynolds numbers of the particles in the fused bed are expected to
decrease. It is further expected that viscous resistance may have an effect
in an area that has a high gas temperature and a small Reynolds
number. These points remain as important subjects in the future.
Conclusion
The flow resistance of gas through the fused packed bed, which is
necessary for the calculation of the gas flow near the cohesive zone in
the blast furnace, has been measured.
,/
102
10
.,y't
•• 0 • •
.' .~.D
.~;;r-
• 0 •
."
<1»-1 0
,. "e(a
,/
10
, ..
/'(1
'"' N. S'
0
•
0 I Pel"
2 Sell fl"'ed P 0
,k(
n
! 3
101
S""'t!I.
P.'Ie'! 038
6 103 S, .. ••• 019
031
:
0 lO- p.!!..
110 Pe'l~ 0"
112 S·", .. 0 ..
. . 113 PIIII~ 0«
10-
10-' 10 ' 1 10 10'
IM /lI", {= [Lr [ ¢dp l~ -S(I] [P2·g~2]

Fig. 5.3.8. Comparison of observed pressure drop with calculated pressure
drop for fused and unfused packed bed.
The flow resistance of a gas through the unfused packed bed can be
calculated with Ergun's equation. It is difficult to apply Ergun's
equation directly to the calculation of the flow resistance through the
fused bed. For practical purposes, however, it becomes possible to use
this equation by putting 1·75 + 22S~4 in place of the internal resistance
coefficient of 1·75 in it.
The flow resistance of gas through the fused packed bed cannot be
explained by the theory that it is caused by the frictional resistance
between the particle surface and the fluid. Instead the pressure drop
takes place due to the compression and expansion of the fluid that flows
between the particles whose clearance has become narrow so as to form
an orifice. In this case, the pressure drop is affected by the fractional
open area of the fused packed bed.
Notation
specific surface area of particle (l/cm)
effusion coefficient of gas (-)
particle diameter (cm)
diameter of tube (cm)
Do diameter of hole (cm)

Dpm diameter of particle after shrinkage (cm)
fb friction factor (cm2/g)
G mass velocity of gas (g/cm's)
K flow resistance coefficient (-)
L bed height (cm)
Lo bed height before shrinkage (cm)
m fractional open area (-)
mo fractional open area before shrinkage (-)
n number of particles per unit area (l/cm 2)
p pressure (gwt/cm 2)
rp radius of particle (cm)
Rep Reynolds number for particle (-)
Sf degree of shrinkage (-)
u superficial velocity (cm/s)
r ratio of particle diameters (-)
eo void fraction of bed before shrinkage (-)
eb void fraction of bed (-)
¢ shape factor (-)
J1 viscosity of gas (g/cm's)
Pg gas density (g/cm3)
5.3.4. Quantitative Determination of Softening Properties
5.3. 4.1. Quantitative detennination by the use ofnon-dimensional temperature

Sugiyama et al. 30 used a prereduced sample with known degree of
reduction and investigated the softening behavior by the use of the
softening test in a nitrogen atmosphere.
The sample layer was placed in an electric furnace as shown in
Fig. 5.3.9 and nitrogen gas at 30 Nl/min was introduced through it under
a constant load of 0·86 kgf/cm 2 by the graphite rod. Figure 5.3.10 shows
the heating conditions for the test. The shrinkage curves up to the
shrinkage degree of about 0·5 are illustrated in Fig. 5.3.11.
The temperature at the start of softening is not markedly different for
the sample of reduction degree 1·0. On the other hand, when the
reduction degree is low, it is notable that the beginning temperature of
softening shifts towards low temperature.
Based on this fact, the beginning temperature of softening (Tms) is
defined as the temperature at which the degree of shrinkage (Sf)
becomes 0·02. The beginning temperature of softening is given by the
following equation which is a polynominal equation of the second

order involving the degree of reduction (is).
(5.3.25)
The non-dimensional temperature (T*) is defined by eqn (5.3.26) in
order to determine Sr quantitatively. The degree of shrinkage can be
represented by eqn (5.3.27), which is the polynomial equation of the
third order involving the non-dimensional temperature.
T* =: (Tern - T ms)/To (5.3.26)
Sr =: Ao +A1T* +A 2 T*2 +A 3 T*3 (5.3.27)
Water
Weier
Fig. 5.3.9. Apparatus for the preparation of the softened bed of iron ore.
1600 r--------------------------,
/
/
~,,/
1400
------------
1200 " -----
....
----
/
/
/
I
I
/
-
~
~
CI>
a.
800
I
/
I
I
E 600 I Present condition (Gakushin method

CI>
I
I-- Observed ~periPheral' Central zone
( Hirohata)
NO.1 SF Intermediate zone
o 5
Ti me
Fig. 5.3.10. Heating conditions for the softening test.
The starting point of softening is coincident with the beginning

temperature of softening (Tms) and the shape of the shrinkage curve is
represented by the non-dimensional temperature (T*).
Figure 5.3.12 shows the analytical results of the relationship between
T ms and the degree of reduction Us) by the least-squares method.
Generally, the beginning temperature of softening (Tms) rises as Is
increases. Sinter and basic pellet show similar behavior with regard to
T ms; in the case of acid pellet, T ms is relatively low. As the degree of
reduction becomes high, the effect of the type of burden material on the
beginning temperature of softening becomes small.
The analytical results for the relationship between the degree of
shrinkage and the temperature are shown in Figs 5.3.13-5.3.15. Although
a scattering is observed for both pellet and sinter, a single curve is
satisfactory for the same charged material regardless of the degree of
reduction. This means that the shrinkage curve can be represented by
the non-dimensional temperature based on the beginning temperature
of softening and that this is quite effective for the quantitative
determination of the softening characteristics.
Shri nkage degree: Sr (-)
0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 o
T ---T - - - T ~--- T ------T ~--T ---T-
§ HE
HE
E
HE
-(1)(1)"'0 :~
~.:l:!~ r: :~
lEI
o(J)(J) lEI
(I) eli -. "'0
cO -~ (I) '~
..,~~=
~::!!~~ ~~
SEM
.., ~
o_(I) :0 .l4~
0
a;Ci' Q. cr s·~E~
:0"'0 (I)
\II .s-'~ J ~~
~ (I) :0 .,...;;,_S- ,"I EM
~ 8 c:- - _ 'U ~' S )/1 EI
....
.... oro <
...-+ ~ III 1..',;'; ~I
[J) o· js- , ..... 1,;..-· lEIEI
~
::r
oVI r J .>,,,,s v
::l. ~.r H~I
::l -t
;.;' CD J;t H~EI
~
(1) 3
(') u A~'
CD III
c
_ r\) yY~.y ~ g:1
..... ()
en r "I1 ..
,-II
~
Vl
o
-+ o _ (J) ~,'t.. / ~~I
o
....., c § (J)III --I )iJi. E~J
.....
"0 CD _--10 --.-- E;:/
~ III ().j"'---
_x----- I-t'J1." 1~
~ (J) ~ (J1-H ____ ,w' EM
0..
C o ;;r-u,--'" :b
(')
(1)
0..
-
()
().j EI M
EEM
o ~ E MM
§' E! M'
::l
o
~
II)
'w
().j
o _ (' E'_E'-;;;~' M','I.i
8 III'U
.-' ~,Y.~.:
_r "MM
,OM
p"M
b )A
MM
M'
I II
- M'
b M..,...... M·M
_cnr'
~
~--I
8 o
I 917 S3IDI3dO~d :;:HHUW3dW31. HDIH
1300 , . . - - - - - - - - - - - - . . . ,
Pellet (PU
u -<>- ms = 1085-224.9 fs + 369.7fs 2
!... rr = 13. 1°
Ul Self fluxed pellet: (S P )
E -- Tms=1I17-96.6fs+192 .6fs 2
..... rr = 5.1°
0>
c:: Sinter : (ST)
'2: -6- Tms = 1140 -153.61s+244.7 fs2
~ 1200 u"=ll.loC
g
-...
o
0>
--~
:::l
0>
ST
Co
E I 100 ...---=--=----
SP
--
0>
0>
c::
c:: PL _0
c::
'g.
III
Reduction degree fs (-)
Fig. 5.3.12. Effect of reduction degree on the beginning temperature of

softening of iron ore. 30
5.3.4.2. Quantitative determination by the use of softening viscosity

Isothermal softening tests under constant load have been performed in
order to evaluate the softening properties of burden materials in terms
of the softening viscosity. The softening viscosity represents the
resistance to softening and is determined from the relationship between
the shrinkage rate and the load as mentioned in this section.
The shrinkage rate of burden materials was measured at high
temperature by using tablet samples made of powdered pellet, sinter or
reagent?' The softening viscosity (17) defined by eqn (5.3.28) was
calculated for various materials, and the influence of composition of
raw materials on the softening viscosity was studied.
17 = W/(dSrldt) (5.3.28)
a a 005 010 015

~
~Ob~~'0. I ~g~ R
I 0 ,1 " ,
' 0 • .,.,
,~
•
0
LI
105
104
0 .34
0.59
10 I 1.00
in " ~ 113 0 . 34
0. 59
0 ,2 }~Cl 0 1 10
• 119 I. 00
... ,,
CI)
CI)
~~ 0
C'>
Q) 0 .3 .l!.C>t. O 0
• ~ ',o
"'0 ., 0
0.4 ~.
"
X " 0
CI)
0- ... ~
C
.><:
0:::: 0.5 ' ...." 0
.;::
.c.
(f)
I Sr~0D2-1 ,41 T"+96.17T"2-429.6 T*3
0 .0396
0
0.6 (1=
a 0.05 0 .10 0.1)

Dimens ionless temperoture T* (= (Tem-Tms)/To)
Fig. 5.3.13. Shrinkage curve obtained by numerical optimization (pellet).30
a a 005 0 10 0 15
cf)<
-cC>--6 ~bi>P~ I
..........
0. 1 C).... lIfI
......
..!.. eo"tfl...
....
(f) 0.2 ~ ..
A'lo~
Q)
...
CI)
0.3
' ...~.
0-
°
...
.....,
Q) '!I. . . . .
[II
"'0
~~~ R
~ -
0.4 -
° 1 14 0. 3 1 a
~ 11 6 0 . 60
.,. , ...
.
Q)
.-,
0 102 I. 00
0-
• 11 5 0.3 1
c
.><: 0.5 •.: l~ I ?~g
...
0::::
.c. Sr: 002+<l544T*+1205T"2+22 .80T*3 -

(f) 0" =00209
0.6
, , ,
a 0.05 0.10 0.15
Dimens ion less temperature T* (=(Tem-Tms/To)
Fig. 5.3.14. Shrinkage curve obtained by numerical optimization (self-fluxed
pellet). 30
o 005 010 015

Ode
-~O-~<»II'" • o.
,.,0."
c :t.t., c»
........... <»
0.1 o t......
,
....
<»
(j;
0.2 ~"
(]
0
Q) "
...
QI ~ o
,...',. ,. , ,
01
QI
0.3 ., ""
"
ZI ....
0
,
" RUN
NO
R eo
0 .4 I"- 0 108 0 . 35 ~. -
Q)
'" 106
103
0. 6 1
1. 00
•
01 0
0
.>t:
c 0.5 ..•• 107
II I
0 . 35
0.6 1
\
\
...
s:-
112 I. 00
Sr>O.02-Q251 T* + 26.69T"'':: - 12 . 1T*3
CI) CT= 0 . 0479
0 .6
0 0.05 0.0 1 0. 15
Dimension less temperature T* ( = (Tem - Tms) / To 1
Fig. 5.3.15. Shrinkage curve obtained by numerical optimization (sinter).3o
Furthermore, the softening viscosities for each mineral phase in ore

materials were measured and comparison ofthe resistances to softening
was carried OUt. 32 It is pointed out that the shrinkage rate is affected by
the types of mineral phase that appear during the reduction process of
ore materials and the composition of each mineral phase.
By the measurement of the shrinkage rate for the packed bed of
sintered ore, the quantitative determination of softening properties was
carried out in terms of softening viscosity.33 The sintered ore was
regarded as a mixture of various mineral phases with different softening
viscosities.
(aJ Influence ofprereduction degree on softening viscosity. The shrinkage
rate of pre reduced sinter was measured in an atmosphere of nitrogen at
the predetermined temperature by the use of the experimental
apparatus shown in Fig. 5.3.16.
The characteristics of the sinter sample are shown in Table 5.3.4. The
sinter size of 10-15 mm was selected to be as close as possible to the size
before charging into the blast furnace. The prereduction was carried out
by the use of the apparatus for the JIS reduction test, and sinter samples
with various degrees of pre reduction were prepared by changing the

reaction time.
The softening viscosities were calculated with eqn (5.3.28) as was
done by Sanbongi and his co-workers.32 The effects of the prereduction
degree and the reduction temperature on the softening viscosity are
shown in Fig. 5.3.17. When the degree of prereduction is relatively low,
the softening viscosity decreases with increase in pre reduction degree.
On the contrary, when the prereduction degree becomes higher, the
softening viscosity rises with increase in prereduction degree and there
==:d.====;= CD Load
@Stainless rod
@ThermocouPle
@) Pressure probe
@water sea I
® Reaction tube
®Sample
@Grid
®Electric furnace
@Gas mixer
/ (Q) Pre heater

@
Fig. 5.3.16. Experimental apparatus for the softening test?3
TABLE 5.3.4
Characteristics of Sample
Chemical composition (%)

Sample RDI
T.Fe FeO CaO Si0 2 AlP3 MgO (-3mm%)
Sinter A 56·3 5·6 9·6 6·5 1·7 1·7 0·4 25·7

I 0 '4
1\1
,
E
(,)
....... 10 '3
rn
Ii>
10 '2
~
>.
"U
>. I 0"
rn
0
()()~<&_~""""IIOOOc
'0
(,)
If)
>
10
0>
----15. . .
-
~
~~.....t) 1200°c
~
10 9
.~
Q)
.....
0
(f) e-e,1 250°C
10 8
0 1.0
P rereduct ion degree fso(-)
Fig. 5.3.17. Effects of prereduction degree and the reduction temperature on
the softening viscosity.33
exists a minimum softening viscosity, at a specific prereduction degree

at a given temperature.
(b) Change in mineral composition during reduction. and softening
viscosity of each mineral phase. The change in the amounts of mineral
phases in the sinter sample was investigated by X-ray diffraction.
Figure 5.3.18 shows the relationship between the amounts of mineral
phases and the reduction degree. With increase in reduction degree, the
amounts of hematite, magnetite and calcium ferrite decrease, and these
phases disappear around 0-4-0·5 reduction degree. On the contrary, the
amount of wustite rises as is expected.
In order to obtain quantitative insight into the softening behavior the
sinter is considered to be a mixture of mineral phases, determined by
X-ray diffraction. The mineral phases are connected in parallel as
shown in Fig. 5.3.19.
By application of the rheological concept of viscoelastic substances,
the response of the i-th mineral phase to a loading force is given by
dSr
W; = 'Ii dt + GiSr (5.3.29)
where Gi is the elastic resistance of the i-th mineral phase. Since the
elastic deformation is too small to be measured in this experiment, the
second term on the right-hand side of eqn (5.3.29) can be neglected and
the following equation is obtained:
dS r
Wi = 17i dt (5.3.30)
Since the total loading force is equal to the sum of the loading forces to
each mineral phase, one obtains
W = l:W
I
. I (5.3.31)
~ I" Me tall ic iron

~ Magnet ite ~
~ 70 'I,
"0
~
~ 50
60 Wustite ,
,"
§ 40.c. ............~ Hemotite "
'0 30 ~ ~ :\~ ____ _
c: 20 ....-t~J=M:
~ I ~ Calcium - ferr ite Slog
u 0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 OS 1.0
Reduct ion degree fs (-)
Fig. 5.3.18. Change in the amounts of mineral phases contained in sinter

during the reaction process. 33
Load
G, 7Jn
t ---
Load
Fig. 5.3.19. Rheological model of softening behavior. 33
Substitution of eqn (5.3.30) into eqn (5.3.31) results in
W dSr~
= dt -t,ryi (5.3.32)
On the other hand, eqn (5.3.28) is valid from the results of isothermal
softening tests under load. By combination of eqns (5.3.28) and (5.3.32),
the following is obtained:
(5.3.33)
where
(5.3.34)
As mentioned above, the overall softening viscosity of sinter (ry) and
the amounts of each mineral phase during reduction (XJ are
determined experimentally. By applying these results, the softening
viscosity of each mineral phase can be calculated by solving eqns
(5.3.33) and (5.3.34).
The temperature dependence of the softening viscosities of each
mineral phase is shown in Fig. 5.3.20. These relations are expressed by
eqns (5.3.35)-(5.3.40).
Inl1~e -6-41 + 44 190/T (5.3.35)
In1J~s - 15·85 + 53 540/T (5.3.36)
In1J~lag = -77,50 + 114540/T (5.3.37)
Inl1~ag = -8,82 + 48 760/T (5.3.38)
In1J~ema = -11-45 + 53 220/T (5.3.39)
Inl1~a_f = -17'83 + 55 790/T (5.3.40)
Since some empirical equations are combined in the calculation, the
accuracy of the results might not be so good because of the
accumulation of the individual experimental errors. However, it can be
said that the softening viscosities of mineral phases tend to decrease in
the order: hematite, magnetite, metallic iron, wustite, calcium ferrite,
slag.
(c) Interpretation of the existence of a minimum softening viscosity at a
specific prereduction degree. As shown in Fig. 5.3.17, there exists a
minimum softening viscosity at a specific prereduction degree. This is
explained by the difference in softening viscosity of each mineral phase
as follows.
Temperature (OC)
900 (\j
E
0
"-
rn
10 15
..,c:
Q)
30 "'C
f:' 10 10
..,
c: 20 rn
0
~ 0
rn
>
10 5
10 0>
-
c:
c:
Q)
0
(/)
Fig. 5.3.20. Relationship between softening viscositi~s of the mineral phases

and temperature. 33
At the beginning of the reduction, the softening viscosity decreases

due to the decrease in the amount of both hematite and magnetite which
have relatively large resistance to softening. On the contrary, when the
reduction degree exceeds about o· 5, hematite and magnetite disappear
and the formation of metallic iron becomes predominant because of the
reduction of wustite. The softening viscosity begins to rise, because the
resistance of metallic iron to softening is larger than those of wustite and
slag.
Therefore the high reducibility of sinter is profitable for the
improvement of permeability in the cohesive zone in the blast furnace
where the reduction degree of the burden materials is relatively
high.
If the change in the amounts of mineral phases for various ore
materials during the reduction process is determined accurately, the
relationship between the reduction degree and the softening viscosity
will become clarified and the quantitative determination of softening
properties will be performed more accurately.
(d) Investigation of the applicability of the results by the isothermal
softening test. The sinter charged into the blast furnace is reduced with its
descent and subject to softening at higher temperature zones. Since the
softening viscosity was introduced on the basis of the experimental

results of the isothermal softening test under constant temperature and
load, the applicability to the commercial blast furnace, where the
temperature and reduction degree change continuously, is still open to
discussion.
Therefore the applicability of experimental results was investigated
by comparison of the shrinkage degree obtained by the following two
methods:
(i) Continuous measurement by the use of the softening tester under

programmed elevation of temperature
(ii) Calculation by the use of the softening viscosity under constant
temperature
The former measurement of the shrinkage degree was carried out by

the use of the apparatus shown in Fig. 5.3.16 under conditions of
temperature, gas composition and load to simulate those in a
commercial blast furnace as shown in Fig. 5.3.21. The latter calculated
1600 60
1400 50 c::
0
1200 40 I/)
o ~
u a.!!..,
!!.., 1000 30 E
0
...
-
Q)
u
:::J
800 20
I/)
...
0
Q) 600 10
0
<.!)
a.
E
Q)
400 0 N
~
"C
E
u
0 -....
200 1.0 0 0>
...J .:6!
0.5
0 0
0 2 3 4
Time (hr)
Fig. 5.3.21. Experimental conditions for the softening test. 33

shrinkage degree was obtained from eqn (5.3.41) by integrating the

shrinkage rate with respect to the shrinking time.
STeal =
i-
lW dt
o T/
where the overall softening viscosity T/ was calculated by the use of eqns
(5.3.41)
(5.3.33)-(5.3.40).
Figure 5.3.22 shows an example of comparison between the calculated
shrinkage degree and that observed. It has been confirmed that the
shrinkage degree during the reduction process under conditions of
elevated temperature and gas composition change are in good
agreement with the values obtained by integrating the shrinkage rate
base on the softening viscosity with respect to the shrinking time.
These results reveal that the distribution of shrinkage degree in a
blast furnace under conditions of arbitrary distributions of temperature
and gas compositions can be estimated by the use of the softening
viscosity for various ore materials with the help of the mathematical
simulation model. Therefore it is believed that the application of
softening viscosity is quite effective in reflecting the softening properties
with the mathematical blast furnace simulation model.
0.1
0.2
.L 0.3
eli
., 0.4
~
.,
CI
0.5
-0
., o
CI
0 0.6
.><
o
.".r:."
(J)
0.7
o Actual result
0.8
- Calculated result
0.9
1.0
Temperature ( ·C )
Fig. 5.3.22. Comparison of calculated and actual degree of shrinkage. 33

5.4. EFFECTS OF HIGH TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES OF

BURDEN ON BLAST FURNACE OPERATION
5.4.1. Factors for Evaluating High Temperature Properties of Burden

The cohesive zone of a blast furnace has a large effect on gas flow and
reduction reactions in the furnace. The control of the location and
shape of the cohesive zone therefore contributes much to the stable and
efficient operation of the furnace. Since the formation of the cohesive
zone is affected by the high temperature properties of the burden, the
evaluation of the high temperature properties is of critical importance to
blast furnace operation.
It is generally considered favorable to blast furnace operation to keep
the furnace in its lumpy packed state until it is heated to as high a level
as possible so as to enable the process from the start of softening to melt-
down to proceed rapidly.34.35 Figure 5.4.1 schematically illustrates the
change of the shape of the cohesive zone when good quality burden
materials of a rapid melting type or poor quality ones are charged.36 The
picture on the left shows the case where good burden materials are used.
1
Properties of ore
/l High.temperature
cohering rapId
[law.temperature
cohering slow
J
melling Iype melting type
Cohesive
layer
.<iltI~t..- ' Roots"
Raceway
Shape of cohesive zone
Fig. 5.4.1. Schematic illustration of relationship between high temperature

properties of ore and cohesive zone in the blast fumace. 36
The cohesive zone formed is located at the lower part of the furnace and
is narrow. The picture on the right shows the cohesive zone formed with
the use of poor quality burden materials, which melt at lower
temperatures and at a lower rate. In this case, a cohesive layer of poor
permeability is formed at low temperatures. As a result, both the layer
thickness and the coke slit length are increased, leading to unstable gas
flow due to increased pressure loss. The formation of the cohesive zone
at a relatively low temperature region, i.e. at the lower part of the
furnace, reduces the volume of the lumpy zone, resulting in diminished
gas utilization rate. Furthermore, the delayed melt-down caused by the
'root' (the portion where the cohesive zone makes contact with the
furnace walls) makes burden descent unstable.
As yet, unified standards for evaluating the high temperature
properties of the burden have not been established. In recent years,
however, a number of testing devices for measuring the high temperature
properties of burden under load have been developed and installed in
blast furnaces for operation control.
The test results of the high temperature properties of burden under
load are usually expressed by the temperature-shrinkage, -pressure loss
and -reduction rate curves as shown in Fig. 5.4.2. The burden having
low shrinkage, low pressure loss and high reduction rate, as obtained by
comparing the curves in Fig. 5.4.2, is usually considered desirable.
Many attempts have so far been made to determine the standard values
for evaluating the high temperature properties by selecting those values
regarded as important for blast furnace operation from these curves. An
example of such standard values is given in Table 5.4.1.
o~ 100
0-
":i 400
.§ '--_--=-~~---I
::: 300 -'o"

.Q
50~ 50.~
~ 200
:~ ~
~
-0
100 Q; Q)
U
o ""
o'-----"'=-- -";"""'~~---Il 00 -- 0
1500
Temperature [OCI
Fig. 5.4.2. Comparison of high temperature proQerties between acid pellets and
self-fluxing pellets. 36
:!:J
.j::.
o:l
~
...,
TABLE 5.4.1
Criteria for Evaluating High Temperature Properties of Burden
Item Criteria
tT1
Shrinkage and
softening temperature
(1)
(2)
Temperature-shrinkage curve 37 -4Q,44
Semi-softening temperature defined as temperature at 20% shrinkage 43
I
'1:1
::r:
(3) Softening temperature defined as temperature when pressure loss reaches 100 mm Aq42 ~
(4) Softening temperature defined as temperature when shrinkage reaches 50%36
o
~
(5) Shrinkage expressed by temperature at 60% shrinkage43 tT1
Pressure loss (1) Permeability resistance index, K, obtained from permeability resistance equation: 34, 49, 51. 54 ~
tJ.PIL
~
tl
K=
pI - fJ "/1fJ " U 2 - fJ ~
o
K, permeability resistance index (MKS units); p, gas density (kg/m2); /1, gas viscosity tl
tT1
(kg/m" s); U, superficial gas velocity (m/s); {3, gas flow coefficient (-)
(2) Maximum pressure loss value and temperature at that time 36,47 ~
(3) Temperature range from start of softening to maximum pressure 10ss42, 45,46 o
Tempera ture-risel
reduction rate 38,40, 42
Melt-down temperature (1) Temperature at which slag or hot metal starts to melt down 36,4O.42,47-50
(2) Temperature range from start of softening to start of melt_down41.48
Integrated value of (l) KWO(h integrated value of permeability resistance during time from 1000 °C to maximum
pressure loss pressure 10ss46
K woo , mean temperature during above-mentioned time
K1OO , integrated value of permeability resistance during time from 100 mm Aq of pressure
loss to maximum pressure loss
K 1OO ' mean temperature during above-mentioned time
(2) S value :36. 52
S = J(E (Il.P - Il.PA ) de (kg· °C/cm2) :r:

Ts
o:r:
Il.PA, pressure loss when shrinkage reaches 50% (kg/cm 2); e, temperature (oq
;l
~ a::
"0
S tTl
III
III
.Q
~
~~
::J
III "0
III
..
t ~
"0
6PA 1- - - - - - - - - - --..,-
~ / / /\" tTl
~
tTl
rJ]
Temp.-+ (e)
~
Vl
5.4.2. Relationship Between High Temperature Properties of Burden

and Blast Furnace Operating Performance
5.4.2.1. High temperature properties of pellets and furnace operation

Ever since it was elucidated that the high temperature properties of the
blast furnace burden are an important factor for furnace operation,
studies have been intensively conducted to improve the high temperature
properties of agglomerates. As for pellets, such efforts have been
directed mainly toward increasing the basicity (CaO/Si0 2), adding MgO
and improving the porosity to raise the melting point of gangue
materials and improve reducibility. Satisfactory operating results have
been obtained by using such improved pellets in some blast furnaces.
Figures 5.4.3 and 5.4.4 show the test results on dolomite-containing
improved pellets charged into the Kakogawa No. I and No.2 BF.56
When the MgO content of pellets is increased by adding dolomite to the
pellets, the high temperature properties of the pellets are substantially
improved (reduced shrinkage, increases in softening and melt-down
temperatures in the test of high temperature properties under load), as
shown in Fig. 5.4.3. This results in increased gas utilization rate and
marked decreases in coke and fuel rates in blast furnace operation, as
seen in Fig. 5.4.4.
At the Amagasaki works, high porosity pellets with a porosity of
approximately 35% were produced by adding combustible substances to
1500
I I I
Melting down temp.
Ci
40 .... 1450 10-
35
\,,0 ci.
E
2
~,.p~
~ 0 3 1400
o V
30 " a'
~ 25
~ ~ 1350
c
o
~20
\0
\
1:.3 1250
~ ... ~.
...
Softening temp.
~o ci.
/'
~ ~ 1200
U 15 ~
10
o~
0
..r>n
g'
~
o
1150 V
'"
5 1100
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
MgO content (%) MgO content (%1
Fig. 5.4.3. Effect ofMgO content on the contraction (11 ()() C) and the softening 0
and melt-down temperature of pellets.56

510
500
/
•
/
/
F.R. /
490
.O~.
o· ,
·l
480
54
I I
Q. 470
_. ,-
• No.1 BF p~ .'~
53 - I- Z
'1 1 '.
o No.2BF 460
<lJ
~ 52 '§
o ] 450
I~~·
~.
• ~
C.R
..~
U 51
+ ~
.~~
o 0 440
r'" ,7
Ve6?'
<lJ
."
Sd 50 - '§
o 49 -
"-
.~ • <lJ 430
U f-e.
.~
.-
~
U ~?~
• 420
,'}l ~
",,_'0
48
.~
410
47
0 10 20 30 40 50 ~~ • No. IBF
Contraction 1%1 400 o No. 2BF

th
I I I 1 390 I
1.6 1.0 0.4 o 10 20 30 40
MgOI%1 Contraction {%l
1 1
1.6 1.0 0.4
MgOI%1
Fig. 5.4.4. Effect of contraction of pellets containing MgO on gas utilization,

coke rate and fuel rate. 56
increase the reducibility of pellets, and tested in the No. I BF. 55 As

shown in Fig. 5.4.5, the test results revealed that the fuel rate can be
reduced by increasing the blending ratio of high porosity, high
reducibility pellets. According to the test results, the use of high porosity
pellets improved the shaft efficiency to nearly 100%, with the consequence
that the rate of decrease in fuel rate was reduced at the blending ratio of
high porosity pellets of over 75%.
The Hirohata works produced a new type of pellet by adding MgO
and increasing CaO/Si0 2 to raise the melting point of gangue materials
and firing at low temperatures to improve porosity for improved
reducibility.36 An operation test was conducted in the Hirohata No.3
530
'.1 .I
Unstable
I
Stable
I
_ 510 ~ /' ;:
f ;; :-::
Optimum
~ r--... ;; /~
"
"'.
0
Q) 490 /-
~ ~
,~
]
~"""""r-...
ro. r--
-
470
450
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Blending ratio of porous pellets 1%1
Fig. 5.4.5. Relationship between the blending ratio of porous pellets and fuel
rate. 55
BF using the improved pellets. As shown by the results in Fig. 5.4.6,

improved high temperature properties of pellets resulted in stabilized
furnace operation, and increased gas utilization rate led to decreased
fuel rate. The decrease in fuel rate was 1·7 kg/t-pig per 10% of pellet
blending, as compared with pellets before improvement. In this way, it
has been proved in many blast furnaces that performance can be
improved by improving the high temperature properties of pellets.
5.4.2.2. High temperature properties of sinter and furnace operation

Measures for improving the high temperature properties of sinter
include the reduction of the gangue content of sinter by reducing Si02 ,
the improvement of reducibility by reducing FeO, and the raising ofthe
melting point of gangue materials by adding MgO, and so forth.
A systematic study was conducted on a blast furnace at the Kimitsu
works to investigate the relationship between the high temperature
properties of sinter and operating performance. 52 In the study, the high
temperature properties of sinter samples taken at each ore blending pile
were measured to analyze their relationship to furnace operation.
Figure 5.4.7 shows the relationships of melt-down temperature (at
which the burden starts to melt) to the utilization rate of CO gas and to
the temperature at 50% shrinkage. It can be concluded from the figure
that an increase in melt-down temperature causes the cohesion
temperature (at which the burden starts to cohere) to increase, and that
this causes the volume of the lumpy zone to increase, leading to
increased CO gas utilization. The test results indicated that the

utilization rate of CO gas increased at higher melt-down temperatures
even at the same degree of reduction as measured by the TIS
method.
1976 1977 1978 1979
I I
'1-
I I I I
"'"
I I I I
'I'
I I I
Bela.. Improved pellets
_I_Improvement .~.
MgO=1.5% MgO=1.75%
]
c
"' E
~
o ;;;-
20~
10
I ,-. • • ~
I
50
40
~ .- A
]; ~
Qi 0
30
\./ -...- ........
CL
2 20
10
0
~c,~~ 4
5oo,---------------1
2 ~ ~O~,--~--~-----~
2 ~
Q)~
~ =' 4 6 0 1 - - - - - - -.....f - -....._ .......
MOL-----------~
Fig. 5.4.6. General performance of Hirohata No.3 furnace (blast temperature

1140°C).36
55. 0 .----------~
~ 54.5
.~
c
.Q
0 54.0
/.
.~
=>
~
0 53.5
0'"
U 53.0
\2 1360
'"'"
~.;::
1340
./
•
.
~ /""
_.
1320
if.
0
~.~
'"0 1300 ......... ~.
~
0 1280
Q;
Q.
E
'"
f- 1260
1380 1400 1420
Melt-down temperature lOCI
Fig.5.4.7. Relationships among melt-down temperature, CO gas utilization

and temperature at 50% shrinkage.52
The relationship between permeability resistance in the blast furnace

and the high temperature properties of sinter is shown in Fig. 5.4.8.
The K value, the permeability resistance at the lower part of the blast
furnace, is defined as follows:
K = [(Blast pressure? - (Belly pressure)2]1(Volume of bosh gasy7
Furthermore, as an index to represent the high temperature
properties of sinter, the S value was adopted (refer to Table 5.4.1). As is
evident from Fig. 5.4.8, the lower the value of S the lower the value of K
representing permeability resistance at the lower part of the furnace. It
follows from this that the high temperature properties of sinter have a
significant effect on the permeability resistance at the lower part of the
furnace.
As an index to represent abnormal burden descent, (3 X slip + drop)
was adopted, the relationship of which to the temperature at the
beginning of melt-down is shown in Fig. 5.4.9. There exists a melt-down
temperature at which the abnormal burden descent index reaches its
minimum. If the melt-down temperature is higher or lower than that

point, slips or drops may take place. Abe et al. 52 estimated the reason for
this phenomenon as follows. An abnormal burden descent is believed
to occur because, at lower melt-down temperatures, the softening and
melting of the burden take place at a relatively early stage and the
1.9,------------------,
1.8
14 ,_ _-----'-_ _---'--_ _--L-_ _-"---_-----'

o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
5-value 1°C.kg/cm'l
Fig. 5.4.8. Relationship between S-value and permeability resistance in lower

region. 52
50,-------------
>- 40
a
<J
<IJ
~ 30
"
Q.
D
+
.~
20
Vi
X
M
10
O~-~--~~~L-_~ _ _~
1380 1400 1420
Melt-down temperature ITI
Fig. 5.4.9. Relationship between melt-down temperature and burden surface

descent. 52
cohesive zone is enlarged in width, resulting in variations in the

temperature for the burden to start to soften and melt; at higher melt-
down temperature, gangue materials of higher melting points in the
burden are left unmelted, causing variations in melt-down.
The relationship between the components of the hot metal and the
high temperature properties of the burden is shown in Figs 5.4.10 and
5.4.11. The figures indicate that variations in hot metal temperature and
the Si content of the hot metal are increased with increase in the S value,
and that poor permeability of the cohesive zone is responsible for
unstable melt-down.
-
~
20
/ ,
18
~
"0
iiiQ.
E 16
2
c
.g
(J) 14
[i
/
0
0
E 12
(J
Vi
10
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
S-volu81"C.kg/cm 2 1
Fig. 5.4.10. Relationship between S-value and sigma of pig iron temperature. 52
0.15
/.
.. j
.I /
013
~
c
~ 011
8
Vi
0
0
6,
009
/;
Vi
007 •
005 0
II
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
S-',olu81"C.kg/cm'l
Fig. 5.4.11. Relationship between S-value and sigma of Si content.52

As described above, the analysis of the relationships between the

high temperature properties of sinter and the performance of the
furnace reveal that the high temperature properties of sinter are closely
related to fuel rate, gas utilization, permeability resistance at the lower
part of the furnace, burden descending performance, and variation in
hot metal quality. The results also suggest that the S value and melt-down
temperature, among various indices for evaluating the high temperature
properties of burden, are of particular importance in furnace operation.
5.5. HIGH TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES OF BURDEN WITH

COHESIVE ZONE MODEL AND DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF
COHESIVE ZONE
5.5.1. Estimation of Cohesive Zone with Theoretical Models

A number of attempts have been made to estimate the location and
shape of the cohesive zone in the blast furnace using mathematical
models57 . 58 and the measurements obtained by various types of sensing
probe installed at the upper part of the furnace. 60- 62 However, no
mathematical models for estimating the cohesive zone taking into
account the high temperature properties of the burden have been
completed to date. This is due mainly to the fact that the high temperature
properties of burden have not been satisfactorily quantified in terms of
physical values suitable for practical use in theoretical or control
models.
It was, however, found that the gas flow in the softened packed bed
could also be expressed by an Ergun type of equation at each shrinkage
degree on the basis of the experimental results shown in Fig. 5.5.1.68
Then, the gas pressure drop can be expressed as follows:
(5.5.1)
Re' = pUo/J1 (5.5.2)

where K1 and K2 are the coefficients of gas flow resistance obtained from
the intercepts and the slopes, respectively, of the straight lines in
Fig. 5.5.1.
From the results for three kinds of sinter having the characteristics
shown in Table 5.5.1, the relationship between the coefficients of gas
flow resistance and the shrinkage degree is shown in Fig. 5.5.2. Both
Uo (m/s)
Range in the blast furnace
4
xlO 00 2 0.5
6~~--~----~~------~
Shrinkage
degree :Sr
4 /0.431
tY.
.
6.t1'
2 .,.#_ • __ ~0.384
......
1 I (P. uol."P )
Fig. 5.5.1. Example of experimental results from the gas permeability test
through the softened materials. 68
I
X 104 xl0 8
10~-----------O~ 5~------------~
8 OSinterB 0Sinter B I
}
4
.6SinterC .6SinterC
6 X Sinter D/x0 N 3 XSinter 0
4 x ~ 2
2 r-
a
,A:8~ /x
~,"oX I
oo 0./ 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Shrinkage degree Sr(-) Shrinkage degree Sr(-)
Fig. 5.5.2. Effect of shrinkage degree on the coefficients of gas flow resistance
(K J and K 2 ).68
::I:
TABLE 5.5.1
Characteristics of Sinters used for the Gas Permeability Test 68
5::I:
>-l
tTl
Chemical composition (%) ~
Sample RDI Reducibi/it)f (-) '"tl
tTl
T.Fe FeD CaD SiD 2 AlP3 MgO TiD2 (-3mm%)
Sinter B 56·53 7·64 9·96 6·24 2·02 0·84 0·14 48·2 0·873
Sinter C 55·23 7-18 1(}42 5·99 2·05 0·92 0·14 33-1 0·845
'"tl
Sinter D 56·08 6·88 9·26 5·88 2·30 1·39 0·85 38·1 0·839
I
~
'"tl
aMean reduction degree achieved at 1300°C. tTl
~
tTl
'JJ
""'00
Vl"
coefficients are related only to the shrinkage degree, irrespective of the

kind of sinter, and are expressed as a function of the shrinkage degree by
the following equations: 71
Kl = ICiexp(6'lSf) (5.5.3)
(5.5.4)
where ICi and K~ are the coefficients of gas flow resistance when
shrinkage does not occur.
Consequently, the distribution of the gas flow resistances in a blast
furnace can be calculated by evaluating the shrinkage degree (Sf) by eqn
(5.3.41) and substituting it into eqns (5.5.3) and (5.5.4). Furthermore, the
distribution of gas flow in a blast furnace can be evaluated by the use of
these results with the help of a mathematical simulation model.
A mechanism in which the pressure drop is attributed to flow
resistance through narrow slits between softened particles, likened to
orifices, has been described in Section 5.3.2.
5.5.2. Effect of Softening Properties on Gas Permeability

The evaluation of high temperature properties of burden materials from
the viewpoint of blast furnace operation has been tried through the
application of the softening test results to the mathematical gas flow
model.
As a trial, the cohesive zone is regarded as a zone of anisotropic
permeability. The permeability in the axial direction is evaluated by the
series connection of the gas flow resistances of the coke and ore layers,
while that in the radial direction is evaluated by the parallel
connection.
The computed results in Fig. 5.5.3 reveal the significant difference in
the gas flow in the furnace when the softening properties of burden
material are changed. 68• 70 When the gas flow resistance at high
temperature (10 - obtained from the softening test - increases, the
radial gas flow near the cohesive zone becomes apparent and the total
gas pressure loss is increased from 3·58 to 4·05 kgf/cm2.
The 20% increase in gas flow resistance in the furnace due to the
influence ofKby 1·0 X l<r kgf· s2/kg' m2·2 is predicted by the model as
shown in Fig. 5.5.4.
5.5.3. Evaluation of Softening Properties of Sinter

Sinter descends in the furnace with changing softening viscosity
depending on the reduction degree attained and the temperature. The
softening properties are expected to improve by the increased reducibility

at high temperatures. In respect of the mineral phase of sinter, the
formation of the slag and wustite phases, with high softening viscosity, it
is preferable to adjust the raw material for making sinter.
To investigate these points, softening tests under simulated furnace
conditions were conducted and the results are shown in Fig. 5.5.5. The
3.56
1400°C
Tuyere
3.58
3.89
K=0.33xI04 K=1.48 x 104
ML=I.O x Rf
Fig. 5.5.3. Effect of softening properties of sinter on the gas flow in blast furnace?O
(K = J).PIL K= _1 J\300 K dT).

tipi {Ju~ - {J 300 1000
Q)
Shape of the
0
co ~
+20 cohesive zone
o~
t;~
'"....
Q)
~ Q)
Eo 0
_0
co
'"o ....:::3
-
0>-
co
.-
Q)0
0>-
'" -20
co.Q
0
~co
u·-
1.0 2.0 X 10 4
Gas flo w re sis tan c e a t hi9h
temperature K
Fig. 5.5.4. Effect of softening properties of sinter on the gas flow resistance in
blast furnace.
high equilibrium melting point of gangue (which corresponds to the

liquidus of the phase diagram for the CaO-Si02-A120 3-MgO system69 )
in sinter and good reducibility at high temperature (increase of
reduction degree from 1100°C to 1300°C) are suitable to decrease the
shrinkage degree and are necessary conditions for superior softening
properties.
An example of the effect of the melting and dripping properties of
burden calculated by the theoretical model of reactions at the lower part
of the furnace is shown in Fig. 5.5.6. 53 An increase in melt-down
temperature reduces the dripping distance of the burden in the dripping
zone and shortens the time for the hot metal to make contact with SiO
gas in the dripping zone. 58 Consequently, a reduction in the Si content of
the hot metal can be expected by increasing melt-down temperature.
These calculations show good agreement with results from an operating
blast furnace, as shown in Fig. 5.5.6.
1.0.-------------------...,
at high
temperature (-)
_ 0.8
I
~ 0.6
~
'"'"
"t:J
~ 0.4
a
"'c"
0.2
0.55~ 0.60
OL-____~____~______~--~~~--~
1200 1400 2200
Equilibrium melting point of gangue(OC)
Fig. 5.5.5. Effect of equilibrium melting point of gangue and reducibility at

high temperature on the shrinkage degree of sinter.
" Temperature of pig iron,

~ J 460 .... 1500"C
] ~ f-----------~------=:O:--___j
:::
~ 0 7
~
.g 0.6
OJ
ijj 6. 0 5
10
OJ
1: ~] 8
OJ Q) Q)
i':o 0N 6
1300
Melt-down temperature lOCI
Ie K-BF, operation datal
Fig. 5.5.6. Effect of melt-down properties of burden on height of melting zone,

Si content in pig iron and fuel rate.53
Meanwhile, a method of estimating the shape of the cohesive zone

from the shaft pressure in an operating blast furnace has been
developed.59 Figure 5.5.7 shows a schematic illustration of this model.
The gas formed in front of the tuyere flows in the furnace wall direction
through the coke slits of the cohesive zone. The volume of gas passing
through each slit is distributed so that an overall balance is maintained
in accordance with the resistance of each portion. Since change in the
shape of the cohesive zone causes pressure loss at the furnace walls and
pressure distribution between shaft pressure gauges changes, it is
possible to estimate the shape of the cohesive zone. In calculations, the
shape of the cohesive zone is estimated by combining mathematical
models with shaft pressure distribution and using six temperature
values: the temperatures of the furnace top burden surface, of the
furnace top gas, of the gases outside (lOOO°C) and inside (1800°C) the
cohesive zone, of the flame in front of the tuyeres and at the tuyere
centers. The cohesive zone is defined by six points: the upper and lower
ends of the 'root', the origins of the inside and outside of the cohesive
zone.
101 r----, Ibl r-------,....- Stock line

frr,...,...,-rrI ~ Burden surface
01 top
Gas temperature
at top
Gas
flow
PI Outside
P,
Cohesive
layer Pressure
at shaft
P:i
Coke P.I cohesive

slit zone 1800·C
Fig.5.5.7. Schematic illustration of (a) gas flow around cohesive zone and (b)
gas temperatures for calculation. 59
5.5.4. Direct Measurement of Cohesive Zone

The sensing probe for determining the internal condition of the blast
furnace has been developed from a primitive type (which measures the
temperature and composition of gas at the upper part of the burden)
into a more sophisticated shaft probe which is inserted into the burden.
More recently, it has been made possible not only to obtain information
on furnace gas but also to measure the thickness and descent rates ofthe
ore and coke layers.63 Furthermore, as the result of efforts to bring the
measuring position of the probe downward from the upper part of the
shaft to the lower part of the furnace, it has been made possible to obtain
various data in the portions under the middle part of the shaft.64 • 65
Methods for indirectly estimating the internal condition ofthe furnace
from calculations with mathematical models are now widely employed.
On the other hand, attempts have been made to measure the cohesive
zone directly and continuously. A method has been developed66. 67 for
direct measurement using an electrically conductive cable as a vertical
probe which is inserted into the cohesive zone. A step voltage pulse is
transmitted through the cable and the time for the pulse to be reflected
from the cable tip is measured to calculate the length of the cable, i.e. the
fusion level. The cable, made of a material which melts upon contact
with the cohesive zone and is capable of positively reflecting the
transmitted pulse, is inserted continuously into the furnace to measure
the fusion level. Figure 5.5.8 shows typical measurements of the change
in fusion level with time, and how it fluctuates considerably, reflecting
changes in shaft pressure and blast pressure. Figure 5.5.9 shows the
relationship between the radial shape of the cohesive zone (mean value
for a few hours) and furnace operating conditions, and the distribution
of shaft pressure. The figure reveals that changes in fuel rate have a large
effect on fusion level.
Time Ihrsl
Fig. 5.5.8. Variation in fusion leve1. 67

25
No. FR Si
CD 460 40
<2l 490 50
(3) 540 80
E
o
.to 10
.
1:
.Ql
I 5F--=--I
'\
o \~'t.
L-J.----'---...J....{ I I I I
2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.6 3.7 3.8

Shaft and blast pressure
Fig. 5.5.9. Relationship between fusion and shaft pressure. 67
5.6. NOTATION
A o,A),A 2 ,A 3 coefficients in eqn (5.3.27) (-)

B o,B),B2 coefficients in eqn (5.3.25) (TWC)
a,b constants in eqn (5.1.1) given by (L)(mm)
eqns (5.1.2)-(5.1.5)
DS, DSo mean particle diameters of sinter (L)(mm)
after reduction and before
reduction
dpo mean particle diameter of ore (L)(mm)
/.'/.0 overall reduction degree and (-)
prereduction degree of iron ore
Gj elastic viscosity of i-th mineral (M·L- I ·C2)
phase
gc gravitational conversion factor (M . L· p-I . C 2 )
K gas flow resistance (p. M- ' . L -2·2. C 2 )
(kgf. kg-I. m-2-2 . S2)
K gas flow resistance at high (kgf. kg-I. m- 2·2 • S2)
temperature
K .. K 2 coefficients of gas flow resistance (-, L-'), (-, m- I)
K?,~ coefficients of gas flow resistance (-, m- I)
when shrinkage does not occur
k reaction rate constant by (L·C ') (mm·h- ')
convenient method given by

eqn (5.1.8)
ko,k' reaction rate constant of various (mm· h-')
particle size and rate constant
corrected by particle size
ki reaction rate constant of i-th (mm·h-')
kind of ore
kay average reaction rate constant (mm· h-')
of ore mixture
!1kav change of kay (mm· h-')
L,Lo heights of packed bed after (L) (m)
softening and before softening
ML average distance between (L) (m)
1400°C line and tuyere level
(average height of melting zone)
!1p pressure drop of gas in packed (F· L -2) (kgf· m- 2)
bed
Re Reynolds number (= d po . v . p / J1) (-)
Rr representative radius of blast (L) (m)
furnace
RDI size degradation index during (%)
reduction
Sr shrinkage degree of softened (-)
materials (= 1 - L/Lo)
Srea' calculated shrinkage degree (-)
Trn. beginning temperature of (T) CC)
softening
Tern temperature in softening test (T) CC)
To standard temperature (T) (= lOOO°C)
T* non-dimensional temperature (-)
given by eqn (5.3.26)
Uo mean superficial velocity of gas (L· C') (m· s-')
in packed bed
W load (M· L-'· C 2)
(dyn· cm- 2)
Wi load to i-th mineral phase (dyn· cm- 2)
Wi weight fraction of i-th kind of (-)
ore in burden mixture
Xi weight fraction of i-th mineral (-)
phase
f3 coefficient of gas flow (= 0'2) (-)

TJ softening viscosity which (M' L- 1 'C l )
represents softening behavior (dyn· s' cm- 2)
of burden materials
softening viscosity of i-th
mineral phase (= TJ?Xd
softening viscosity of pure i-th
mineral phase
.6. TJ co change of gas utilization ratio (%)
in blast furnace
f.1 mean gas viscosity (M' L-1'C I )
P mean gas density (M' L- 3 )
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CHAPTER 6
The Raceway
6.1. MEASUREMENT AND OBSERVATION OF THE BLAST

FURNACE RACEWAY
The first quantitative study of the raceway formed at the blast furnace
tuyere was conducted by Wagstaff and co-workers l in the 1950s.
Mterwards various measurements and blast furnace observations were
carried out by use of cold and hot models and experimental and
commercial blast furnaces.
6.1.1. Movement of Coke Particles in the Raceway

A cold model experiment was performed by Inatani et aZ. 2 with the aid of
a high-speed camera to investigate the dynamic behavior of coke in the
raceway.
The lines in Fig. 6.1.1 show the routes of movement of tracer particles.
In this figure, the letters Sand E represent respectively the start and end
points of tracer particles during the observation time. Each of the cuts
made on the lines represents 0·001 s.
In this figure, the raceway is divided into the five sections A-E
according to the state of movement of the particles. Section A is the area
at the tuyere nose, where particles have the highest speed as they are
blown in by the blast. The supply of particles to the blast is carried out
from a limited area in the upper part of the tuyere nose. In section B,
particles are more scattered than in other sections. This section is
thought to be wide because there is a high possibility of particle
disappearance from the field of view. Section C is an area in which
particles that fall toward the tuyere nose move laterally toward it before
498
THE RACEWAY 499
I
E12 (S1 C - Raceway
/;:---I ___ boundary
/' / '" 52
/ I S 13 E13',
/ S12/
\I Ell B I\ D
.......- 53'
I
El
_ *p J\
IE10~Sll _ E3 -
" ~ 0 '",- __ - -'57 54 Tuyere
\~~S6
\E7~
55
>----
E \, E2 E5
\'" E6 E4
---
Fig. 6.1.1. Coke movement in the model raceway.
falling. In section D, particles circulate densely and slowly round the

point P. Section E is a boundary section between the bed of stationary
particles near the raceway and the particles in the raceway. In this
section, the packing density of particles is high and a layer with a
thickness of three or four particles moves slowly upwards. Also, in an
experiment by Nakamura et al} it was observed that the movement of
particles in this section was intermittent.
From these experimental results, it is considered that the particles
and gases at the raceway boundary, except those in the upper part, are in
a state of semi-static dynamic balance.
An attempt was made to measure the movement of coke in the
raceway by inserting a water-cooled probe into a 4000 m 3 blast
furnace.
Figure 6.1.2 shows the relationship between the size and velocity of
coke particles in the raceway which was determined by Kase et al. 4 The
40r-----------------~========~
Blast volume
o
u " : 3,000Nm 3/min
:;; 30 o : 4,000Nm3/min
"-
i': 0: 6,200Nm 3/min
o
"~
<lJ
20
. . --2
<lJ
-t
u 10 o
o
0
0
0
--- ----6200Nm3/mlO
0'
~~
--'~~4,000Nm3/min
'" 0 i'!t>-'1!!s---, -A... 3,000Nm3/min
°0~--~1~O--~2~0----3~0----4~0----5~0~--~60~
Coke size Imml
Fig. 6.1.2. Relationship between the size and speed of coke particles in the
raceway.
smaller the coke size and the larger the blast volume, the higher the coke
velocity. Table 6.1.1 shows the relationship between the number of coke
particles that flow into the raceway and the blast volume. The quantity
of coke flowing in is far larger than the quantity of coke burned,
calculated from the blast volume. Further, bright and dark coke
particles exist, as shown in Table 6.1.1. Therefore it is assumed that a
large amount of coke circulates in the raceway.
TABLE 6.1.1
Number of Coke Particles Flowing into the Raceway
Particles measured
(number!charge) Particles Proportion
Blast flowing in of dark
(Nm3/min) Bright Dark Total (number/s) particles (%)
3000 88 92 180 103·4 51·1

4000 231 72 303 174·1 23-8
6200 290 134 424 272-4 38·8
6.1.2. Condition Near the Raceway

Figure 6.1.3 shows the condition near the raceway observed on
dissection of a blast furnace. In general, large coke lumps which are
considered to have fallen from above after the end of operation are
found just in front of the tuyere, and these are surrounded by round
small coke particles. Beyond and below this area of small coke particles
there is a space of low voidage made up of coke breeze of 5 mm or less,
slag and pig iron particles, which are considered to have been generated
in the raceway. Only large coke particles exist at the center of the
furnace.
As a result of observation of an experimental blast furnace, Tate et al. 5
reported that the packing density of coke in the upper part of the
raceway was low, that small coke particles were found fluidized by
upward flows of gas, and that the process of small coke particles
escaping from the combustion zone, remaining around the edge of the
raceway, and then being blown back into the combustion zone, was
repetitive.
Soga et al. 6 compared the results of the measurement of small
fluctuations of blast pressure at the tuyeres with those of the continuous
observation of the raceway by use of industrial television, and recognized
THE RACEWAY 501
Fig. 6.1.3. Horizontal section at tuyere level (Kukioka No.4 furnace).
that the falling of unmelted ore into the raceway and changes in the
brightness of the raceway agreed with the charging interval of the blast
furnace burden and that the cohesive zone affects the raceway.
From experimental studies, such as model experiments, it has been
considered that the raceway expands as the particle size of coke
decreases. Nakamura et at. 7 reported, however, that the raceway shrank
horizontally when very small coke powder was generated in the raceway
due to a decrease in coke strength and for other reasons, and
accumulated near the raceway. It has been confirmed in actual blast
furnace operations, as well as in experiments, that in such cases the
amount of gas flowing near the furnace wall increases.
In Fig. 6.1.4 the distribution of coke powder at the tuyere nose
obtained during operation with formed coke is compared with that
obtained during ordinary operation. The reason why the amount of gas
flowing near the furnace wall increases, as shown in Fig. 6.1.5, seems to
be that the accumulation of coke powder in the raceway reduces the
permeability in the coke bed in this area and, at the same time, makes it
difficult for coke to move as a result of the force of the flowing gas. As a
consequence, a wall comprised of fine coke bed is formed near the
tuyere nose and the refraction point of the gas flow changes.
2200 2200
2 W,"""N' WN'1 W,"",~'WN'~

~ 2000 2000
~0.
~
E
2
~ 1800 1800
0
u
1600 0 1600
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.5
12 12
10 10
Ordinary coke
°0-L---~0~.5--~1~.0--~1~.5~~2~.0~~2~.5 o oL---~0'-::.5--~I"-:.0,-----:I,..,.5~~2::':.0~----:02.5
Distance from furnace wall 1m) Distance from furnace wall 1m)
(oj Formed coke 50% IbJ Ordinary coke 100%
Fig. 6.1.4. Properties of coke sampled through the tuyere.
500
400
2 300
i" 500
-5 400
~ 300
E 200
.22 100
~ 300
Q)
u
200
,~ 100
~ 700
600
500
Nov. Dec. Dec. Dec.

29 7 9 19 21 28
'---0-33---50--33--0---'
Formed coke ratio 1%1
Fig. 6.1.5. Blast furnace shaft temperature during the experiment with formed
coke.
THE RACEWAY 503
6.1.3. Reactions in the Raceway

Only a few studies based on actual measurements have been under-
taken on the reactions in the raceway because of the high temperatures
involved, in excess of 2000°C.
At present, the 'theoretical flame temperature' is used as an
operational index for blast furnace operations. This is calculated from
the local heat balance near the raceway as a function of blast conditions.
However, the maximum temperature in the raceway measured in a
bench-scale raceway furnace depends, as shown in Fig. 6.1.6, upon the
reactivity of coke and is not determined by blast conditions only.7
2 2000
<1l
--..0__ Pitch coke
Carbon brick
<1l c Ordinary coke ........................ 0 Pellet coke
.2 8 1800 o 0....0' ..........
2C Weak coke Formed coke --_,_ Charcoal
~~
~ ~ 1600
;~
<1l <1l
o . . . 0 ........
--
~£ 1400
Io
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0
Gasification velocity II/hrl
Fig. 6.1.6. Effect of reactivity of coke on turbulent zone temperature.
According to the composition distribution of gases in the raceway as

determined by Hatano et al. 8 the solution loss reaction of coke, an
endothermic reaction, seems to take place mainly at the boundary
between the coke-filled bed and the raceway space, as shown in
Fig. 6.1.7. However, the point at which this reaction occurs is dependent
upon the coke reactivity and surface area, and this in turn affects the
temperature distribution in the furnace.
Figure 6.1.8 shows the composition distribution of gases during oil
injection, determined by Hatano et al. During oil injection the
maximum concentration of CO 2 decreases and, at the same time, the
position of the maximum concentration of CO2 approaches the tuyere
nose and an increase in the concentration of CO occurs near the
tuyere.
From these measurement results, it is usually presumed that coke and
gases in the raceway burn at first to form CO2, and that this CO2 is
reduced to CO in an area near the coke-filled bed. However, it seems
that during oil injection the reaction equilibrium shifts to the CO rich
IT uyere level I
800 800
~
.
0-
600
01
" I
600 ~
0-
<{
E
~
~
0 400
• 400
..
~
"-
"~
200~
E
~
., 200
a
0
0 0
0 0.4 0.8
Distance from the furnoce wall Iml
16 40
]
bl /C"o---
12 30 ~
"Oi>-l • • 11 I) • -£
~
1 0.8 boundary of
Ihe raceway
20 0
U
~
0 0.4 __ 6_
Hz
10 6
.D
---- ~
U
0
:E CO 2
CD 0
'0;
I
o 04 0.8 12 1.6 2.0 2.4

Distance from the furnace wall tml
Fig. 6.1.7. Combustion of cokes in the raceway.
side, since the heavy oil burns at the tuyere nose and consumes oxygen,
which brings about the result shown in Fig. 6.1.8.
The humidity and oxygen concentration of the blast affect the
composition concentration of gases and temperature distribution near
the raceway. According to the results of measurement in an experimental
blast furnace by Kodama et at} as shown in Fig. 6.1.9, the temperature
near the raceway decreases with increasing moisture in the blast and, at
the same time, the lines of equal CO2 content expand as the oxidation
zone expands. In an experiment with a bench-scale raceway furnace by
Nakamura et at,,? it was recognized that the raceway volume increases
markedly, as shown in Fig. 6.1.10, due to an increase in the moisture in
the blast. Although there are many unclear points in this mechanism, it
seems that it has some relationship to the above-mentioned expansion
of the oxidation zone.
Measurement in the raceway is difficult because of temperatures
above 2000°C. Therefore, to understand the raceway zone, there has so
THE RACEWAY 505
Tuyere level
800 800
V, : 903 INm1 m..1
~ 01
02: 3 !Nm 3 mini
...." 600 0;1: 57! I mini
0..
~
E 400 400 .~
o
iQ. ;:
~ 200
'-- .• -_.-x
200 i
(l
o O "L-~-~-~-~-~~ o
o
0.4 0.8 12 1.6 2.0 2.4
Di.lonce from the furnoce wall !ml
40
bl
]
~ 12 30 ~
'>" :£
~bOUndarY
E
~'" 08 of 20
0U
'>"
0
.0 04 ,,-
r~-~~~~Y
H! 10 c5
0 U
.<:
'"
'iii 0
J: CO 2
0 0.4 0.8 12 16 2.0 2.4

015lance [rom the [urnoce wall Iml
Fig.6.1.8. Effect offuel oil injection on the combustion in front of the tuyere.
D"lance from tuyere !mml

!ollbllcl: lone, of equal lemperature,
!a'llb'lIc'l : l ,ne, of equal CO, conlenls
Fig. 6.1.9. Effect of humidity and oxygen in blast on state of combustion zone
(blast temperature 800°C).
5000
1; 4000
~
>'"
"5 3000
o>
>-
o
~
B
o
2000
~
"" H20 + O 2 12.3%1

1000
50 100
Humidity Ig/Nm 3 1
Fig. 6.1.10. Effects of H2 in the blast on the raceway volume.
far been no other means than to put together the results of a range of
examinations and a series of assumptions to produce a general concept
model of the raceway.
In recent years, however, progress has been made in high temperature
measurement techniques, as mentioned in this section, and attempts
have been made to measure directly the raceway in a large blast furnace
in operation. It will not be long before the phenomena in the raceway
are clarified.
6.2. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF THE RACEWAY
As mentioned in the previous section, most of the research reported on

the tuyere zone so far has been confined to measurements and physical
behavior, and there have been very few attempts to provide a reaction
kinetics model for this zone.
Some attempts were made by Shimotsuma lO and Inatani et a/. l1 to
describe the kinetic behavior in the tuyere zone. One of the assumptions
made in their work was that the rate of the gas film diffusion around a
coke particle dominated the coke combustion rate. It was also assumed
that the gas stream passing through the combustion zone was a free jet.
THE RACEWAY 507
A more rigorous argument seems necessary to examine these

assumptions.
In this chapter one- and two-dimensional theoretical models of the
raceway are discussed. These models are based on the equations of
motion and continuity of gas and coke, and chemical kinetics. By use of
these models the effect of various blast conditions on the distributions
of gas components, gas temperature, and rate of coke consumption will
be discussed on the basis of a kinetic model of the tuyere zone.
6.2.1. One-dimensional Model 12
6.2.1.1. Overall carbon balance

Figure 6.2.1 shows a schematic view of carbon transport in the blast
furnace, together with the calculated fractional migration of carbon.
Total input of carbon is composed of metallurgical coke or oil. The mass
----------
Confi gurati on and fractional
migration of carbon transferred
Reaction zone in CO CO 2 C(coke) C(dust)

the blast furnace (48·6"10)(40.1"10) (92.3"10) (1.3"10)
Indirect reduction t---- ~ t l'

M.Oy+YCO-xM+YCOz
-----,
I I I
and ~---r
I ",,' :
Boudouard reaction I
~~
"
,I
:MO+ C-M+CO ~
Direct reduction *"""""---------<
I
Carburization
Hearth ~(10.0"lo)
Fig. 6.2.1. Schematic illustration of the transfer of carbon in a blast furnace

(D2-BF).
rate of coke combustion, W;, depends on the flow rate of oxygen

introduced with the blast, and can be formulated as
W; = Fb[2(0'21 + W Oz )/0'0224 - W oil Pc/ 12 + W.tfI8] (6.2.1)
where Fb is the blast volume (Nm3(dry air)/s), W02 is the oxygen

enrichment (Nm3(02)/Nm3(dry air», Woil is the fuel oil injection rate
(g(oil)/Nm3(dry air», Wst is the blast humidity (g(H 20)/Nm3(dry air»,
and Pc is the mass fraction of carbon in oil (-).
Figure 6.2.1 indicates that Wt amounts to approximately 65· 3% oftotal
carbon input, which is 70· 7% of C included in charged coke of 86% C.
Coke input to the raceway corresponds to some 74·8% of the total coke
input in view of the 29· 3% (= 100 - 65· 3/92· 3) conversion of coke before
being combusted. On the other hand, CO gas which evolves in the
tuyere combustion zone flows out of the region conveying 73· 0% C of the
total C input.
Such vital combustion phenomena as characterized above proceed
within a relatively limited region. Consequently, spatial nonuniformity
affects heat and mass transfer around the tuyere zone.
6.2.1.2. Gas and liquid flows around the tuyere zone

The characteristics of gas flow around the tuyere combustion zone
greatly affect the kinetic behavior of coke combustion. The experimental
study of the gas flow was conducted with a physical model to aid
visualization of the results.
Two-dimensional equipment (15 mm thick by 200 mm in width by
600 mm in height) made of transparent acrylic resin was used. Blue
silica gels of 6-8 mesh were used as packing. Air was allowed to enter the
bed through a slit tuyere of 6 mm wide and steam was introduced
through the five injection needles of 1 mm O.D. from the rear wall.
Figure 6.2.2(a) shows the gas streamlines visualized by whitened
silica gels at an air flow rate of 120 l/min. Gas flow patterns in this case
- --
can be theoretically represented by the following equations which were
applied to the blast furnace system: J3- 15
divF = 0 (6.2.2)
- = -U; + I~IF
gradP I)F (6.2.3)
where F is the molar flux vector of the gas, P is the gas pressure, and
li,f~are Ergun's coefficients.
THE RACEWAY 509
(a) (b)
l5
-a::
I
::: 1-0
0·0 '---_............
_---1
0·0 0·5 lO 0·0 0·5 lO

r IR (-) r/R(-)
Fig. 6.2.2. Streamlines and isobars of gas: (a) visualized streamlines; (b)
calculated streamlines and isobars.
Figure 6.2.2 represents the gas streamlines and the isobars obtained
by the computation for the present experimental system, considering a
raceway as a loosely packed bed. Fairly good agreement between the
predicted and the experimental streamlines verifies the validity of the
numerical treatment to determine the gas flow patterns around a
raceway.
Near the tuyere combustion zone, however, the molten materials pass
down countercurrently to gas flow. Szekely and Kajiwara 16 attempted to
elucidate the liquid flow patterns observed by the use of a two-
dimensional cold model having a tuyere and in terms of a continuum
theory of approximation. The set of equations used by Szekely16 were
basically analogous to the gas flow equations (6.2.2) and (6.2.3) except
that}; became zero and the gravity force was taken into account.
In this work, the experiment was conducted with a half-sectioned
cylindrical cold model (248 mm in diameter by 700 mm in length) made
of transparent plastic resin. Nine tuyeres of8 mm I.D. were installed to
reveal the three-dimensional behavior of gas and liquid flows around

the tuyere zones. The down flow of KMn04 aqueous solution allowed
observation of the formation of a dry zone in front of each tuyere.
Furthermore, measurements were carried out at the bottom ofthe bed to
investigate the radial distribution of the outflow rate of water which was
fed through 37 needles uniformly into the bed. The liquid flow patterns
were compared with those predicted by applying a continuum theory,
and also a recent holdup theory,17 to estimate the effect of gas flow on the
liquid holdup.
Figure 6.2.3 shows a selection of the experimental and theoretical
results for a system of water with glass beads. In Fig. 6.2.3 (a) the
computed liquid streamlines and the boundary of a dry zone are
illustrated. This figure suggests that there exists a concentrated liquid
flow near the dry zone boundary. Figure 6.2.3(b) shows the radial
distribution of the liquid flow rate. The calculated patterns at three
levels in the bed are shown by solid lines, and their longitudinal
changes are also given. Experimental results are plotted by using a
series of keys. The agreement between observation and prediction
suggests that the liquid trickling down through the bed behaves as a
continuum.
Another computation revealed that the effect of the distribution of
holdup on the gas flow pattern in the bed is comparatively small even in
the vicinity of the dry zone because of the small holdup, less than 0·07. It
may be concluded from this that the gas dynamics around the tuyere
zone are satisfactorily estimated by only the equations for gas flow.
2.4 , - - - - - - - ,
101 Ibl
2.1 1.8
"I
e:. 1.4 ~ 1.2
N
!J i-d-,=.. .,.O..,.,.OO2,.,-6m--+=--i
Q,=O.OlOm'/s
0.7 0.6 Q, =5.2Bx 1O-6 m'/s
- Calculated
• Observed
0.0 L....:.L.-:-'--'--.I..I...:--.....J
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
r/R I-I r/R I-I
Fig. 6.2.3. Streamlines and the flow rate patterns of liquid in a trickling bed:
(a) calculated streamlines ofliquid; (b) calculated and observed distribution of
liquid flow rate.
THE RACEWAY 511
We now proceed to provide a gas flow pattern around a tuyere zone.

Greuel et al. 18 optically observed a tuyere zone of a blast furnace with the
aid of an endoscope, and identified jetting space in which many coke
particles were involved. Figure 6.2.4 shows the physical configuration of
the space.
Fig. 6.2.4. Schematic view of combustion zone in front of a tuyere.
In the following calculations, the raceway zone is assumed to

comprise a cylindrical jetting space which has the same diameter as the
tuyere and which extends 1·5 m from the tuyere nose. The combustion
zone is assumed to be a bed which includes coke particles of 0·02 m
diameter to yield a voidage ofO' 6. In the coke bed surrounding the space,
particle diameter is 0·04 m and the voidage is 004.
Numerical computations were performed to clarifY the axisymmetrical
gas dynamics around the tuyere combustion zone in a commercial blast
furnace (CI-BF). The blowing conditions and some other data for
CI-BF are as follows: ll
Fb = 24·7 Nm 3/s Tb = 1273 K Woil = 0 g/Nm 3
W 02 = 0 g/Nm 3 Wst = 24g/Nm3 P = 0·188 MPa
n = 16 DT = 0'16m Pbc = 1000 kg/m
3
The molar flow rate of blast is approximately given by the average

flow rate in the conditions before and after combustion. Before
combustion, the flow rate of gas can be expressed as
(6.2.4)
Mter combustion, the flow rate is

Fo. 2 = Fb I 1000[0'79 + 2(0'21 + WOz ))/22-4 + 2Ws/18 + Woi1,Bh12j
(6.2.5)
Then, the average flow rate of gas based on the cross-section of the
hearth reduces to
(6.2.6)
Figure 6.2.5 shows the predicted pattern of gas streamlines for C1-BF.
It is found that the majority of blast flows out ofthe tuyere zone through
its upper boundary. In regard to the flow rate in the vicinity of the upper
boundary, the following approximate relationship between the upward
component, F y , and the horizontal component F" was found at any
position along the tuyere axis:
(6.2.7)
The substantial rate of outflow of gas through the combustion zone is
estimated by Fy multiplied by a coefficient~. This coefficient represents
the fractional area of the effective outflow surface as illustrated by the
radius (m)
4 3 2 0
to <D
0 ~ N
6
~ 0 0 0 0
,!!"
u
~
i
I
5
.#
I
~ 4
E
31:
Cl
.c;;
,I;
2
o·T _---.U.~
C·N ~---------~o
Fig. 6.2.5. Gas streamlines around the combustion zone.

THE RACEWAY 513
hatched part in Fig. 6.2.4. In this work, the numerical value for ~ is
assumed to be 0·25.
6.2.1.3. Kinetic model oftuyere combustion zone

The theoretical basis and calculated results for the coke combustion
process in the raceway are presented in this section.
(aJ Chemical rate processes. In this work, the following four reactions
are taken into account:
C + O2 - CO2 Ri (6.2.8)1
C+C02 - 2CO Rf (6.2.8)2
C + H 20 - H2 + CO Rt (6.2.8)3
H2 + ~02 - H 20 Rt (6.2.8)4
The water shift reaction (CO-H 20) is neglected since the C-H20
reaction dominates in the higher temperature region.
Let Ci and Yi respectively denote the molar concentration and the
mole fraction of the reactive gas component i (1, O 2; 2, CO2; 3, H 20;
4, CO; 5, H 2). Then, the rate of dissipation of the reactive gas component,
ri , can be expressed in terms of the overall reaction rates Rt(i = 1-4) as
follows:
(i = 1-5)
rl = Rt+ ~Rt r2 = -Rt+Ri
r3 = - r5 = Rt - Rt r4 = -2Ri-Rt (6.2.9)
where e is the voidage ofthe combustion zone,R is the gas constant, and
() is time.
Parker and Hottel,19 Hedden,20 and Kunugi et aZ. 21 respectively
explored the rate processes of the heterogeneous reactions (6.2.8)1>
(6.2.8)2' and (6.2.8)3 and concluded that they are first-order irreversible.
The rate of these reactions can therefore be given as
(i = 1-3) (6.2.10)
where k i (l/s) denotes the overall rate constant covering the overall
effects of gas film resistance and the combination of pore resistance and
first-order chemical reaction. The expression for k i based on the unit
volume of the loosely packed combustion zone can thus be written
as
(i = 1-3) (6.2.11)
where kfi is the mass transfer coefficient, a is specific surface area, TJi is
the effectiveness factor of catalytic reaction, k mi is the chemical rate
constant, and Pbc is the bulk density.
The mass transfer coefficient can be expressed as
(6.2.12)
where Di is the diffusivity of reactant gas, cp is the shape factor, d p is the

particle diameter of coke, and Sh is the Sherwood number.
The following relationship22 may be applied to the high Reynolds
number (Rep) region:
Sh = 1·5Reo.p 55 (6.2.13)
The chemical rate constant for the C-O reaction of a single carbon
particle l9 may be revised to yield the following expression for the
bed:
kml = 6·53 X IOS(a/PbJ !T:exp( -22 140/Tm) (m3/kg· s) (6.2.14)
where T m denotes the average temperature of gas and coke.
The Boudouard reaction may be taken into account through the
combination of the frequency factor data22 and the activation energy
data for industrial cokes,23 leading to
km2 = 8·31 X 109 exp(-30 190/Tm ) (m3/kg· s) (6.2.15)
The chemical rate constant for the C- H 20 reaction has been given as
follows: 24
(6.2.16)
The H 2-02 reaction is one of the chain reactions and usually
proceeds exceedingly fast. However, the reaction would stop when the
oxygen decreases to the state of approximate equilibrium. The critical
oxygen content,y(, may be nearly 5% with respect to the combustion in
the tuyere zone. Thus the reaction rate may be expressed as
Rt = Rt at Yl ;> Y(, Rt = 0 at Yl < Y( (6.2.17)
(b) Heat and mass transfer processes. The steady state heat and mass
transfer processes in the combustion zone are formulated on the basis
of the idealized one-dimensional model. The combustion zone is
illustrated as Fig. 6.2.4 with the typical section at a distance between x
and x + dx from the tuyere nose.
THE RACEWAY 515
The mass balance for the total gas over the differential element
becomes
I
5
-dFx/dx = 4Fy~/D + ri (6.2.18)

i= I
where Fy may be related to Fx in terms of eqn (6.2.7).

For each component of the gas, the mass balance results in the
equation
(i = 1-5) (6.2.19)
The combination of eqn (6.2.18) and eqn (6.2.19) reduces to
I
5
dyJdx = (Yi ri - r;)Fx (i = 1-5) (6.2.20)

i = I
The differential heat balance, taking account of the heat-in-mass

flows of gas and coke, the heat exchange between gas and solid and the
heat generated by chemical reactions, can be expressed as
I I
3 4
-d(cgTgFx)/dx = 4Fy~cgTg/DT - cJe Rt - Rt(-flH.)

i= I i = I
(6.2.21)
where C e and cg are the specific heats of coke and gas, Te and Tg are the
temperatures of coke and gas, - flHi is the heat of reaction, and hge is the
heat transfer coefficient between gas and solid particles.
From eqns (6.2.18) and (6.2.21), the following is derived:
Iri + ceTe I I
5 3 4
= Rt +
i i i
dTg/dx [CgTg Rt(-flH;)
=I =I =I
+ hgea(Tg - Te)]lFx(Cg + Tgdcg/dTg) (6.2.22)
The temperature of coke particles in the combustion zone is assumed

to be related to the surrounding gas temperature:
(6.2.23)
Simultaneous numerical solution of eqns (6.2.18), (6.2.20) and (6.2.22)
provides the gas temperature and gas compositions at any distance.
Then, the boundary conditions to be stipulated at the tuyere nose (x = 0)

are as follows:
(6.2.24)
Y20 = Y40 = Yso = 0,

(6.2.25)
(6.2.26)
where the subscript 0 represents the situation at the tuyere nose.
The consumption rate of coke at any distance x in the tuyere zone, W
(mol(C)/m3(bed)· s), is given by
(6.2.27)
i =I
6.2.1.4. Computed results

Numerical computation was carried out for the operating data of C 1-BF
whose geometry can be seen in Fig. 6.2.5. The calculated profiles of gas
temperature and composition in the tuyere combustion zone are shown
in Fig. 6.2.6.
Inatani et al. II obtained gas samples from this zone of C 1-BF by the
use of a tuyere probe. Their data are also plotted in Fig. 6.2.6, and these
data agree reasonably well with the calculated results.
It is found from Fig. 6.2.6 that there exists a preferential reacting
space where the combustion proceeds particularly fast, and that the
theoretical flame temperature, T r, is nearly equal to T max. The maximum
temperature, T max , is established in this space owing to successive
exothermic and endothermic reactions. This vital space is now named
the 'combustion focus'. It was found from the computed results that it is
only in the combustion focus that the film diffusion step is predominant
in the course of coke combustion.
Figure 6.2.7 shows the effects of oxygen enrichment on the
distributions of process variables in the tuyere combustion zone. The
change in the oxygen enrichment, W~, from 0 to 0·02 leads to a distinct
change of the process variables from the dashed lines (for the base
condition) to the solid ones. The approach of the combustion focus to
the tuyere nose is ascribed to the accelerated C + O 2 reaction. The
THE RACEWAY 517
increase in Tr by 100 K results in an equivalent temperature elevation

throughout the inner region beyond the combustion focus.
Figure 6.2.8 shows the process variables along the tuyere axis
calculated under the conditions of high humidity and high temperature
blowing. In this case, the increase in the blast humidity by 14 glNm 3 is
accompanied by an increase in the blast temperature of 100 K in order
to keep the flame temperature constant. The profiles under these
conditions are considerably shifted toward the tuyere nose, in
comparison with the patterns under the base condition. This effect is
mainly caused by the increase in the blast temperature.
Figure 6.2.9 shows the variations of the coke consumption rate along
the tuyere combustion zone axis, which were calculated for three cases
as shown in Figs. 6.2.6-6.2.8. It is found from Fig. 6.2.9 that the majority
of coke is consumed within the rather restricted space in the tuyere
combustion zone. For oxygen-enriched or high temperature blast, the
position at which the maximum coke consumption occurs is shifted
toward the tuyere nose. It should be noted that if coke consumption
40
36 Tf =2526 K
Each key: Observed
32 : Calculated CO
28
~
~ 24
2773
g 20
)( 16
>-
12
1773
8
4 1273
00 1 .6
Fig. 6.2.6. Variations of gas composition and gas temperature in the axial
direction of the tuyere zone; plotted data were observed by Inatani et al.
(1973).
40
36 TI =2626 K
- : wo2 =0.02 ~,
32 ---: W02 =0
28
oe. 24
2773
g 20
" 16
>= 01
r
12
1773
8
4 HZ 1273
---
DO 0.4 1.6
Fig. 6.2.7. Effect of oxygen enrichment on the variations of gas composition

and gas temperature in the axial direction of the tuyere zone.
varies in the tuyere combustion zone, this would cause a corresponding

change in the descent speed of the stock.
Figure 6.2.10 shows the effects of the coke particle diameter, d pe , on
the rate of coke consumption along the axis of the tuyere combustion
zone. It is expected from Fig. 6.2.10 that, for every reduction of d pe by
5 mm, the position at which the maximum consumption of coke occurs
will be shifted approximately 0·2 m towards the tuyere nose. Such an
effect may be particularly important in operations using high reactivity
coke, because of possible coke degradation.
6.2.1. 5. Solid flow around tuyere zone

The removal of coke in the tuyere combustion zone causes coke to
descend from above. To simulate expected solid behavior in the blast
furnace, a solid flow experiment was carried out with the aid of a
visualization technique.
The two-dimensional apparatus used for the gas flow experiment was
also adopted for this experiment. Nitrogen gas was injected into a bed of
crushed particles of dry ice (6-9 mesh) through a tuyere. Thus the coke
consumption in the blast furnace raceway was simulated by the
sublimation of dry particles in front of the tuyere.
THE RACEWAY 519
40
TI =2526 K
CO
36
32 , .-
.- .-
28 ,
I
/
I
~ 24 I
I 2773
g 20 I
I
1""', . . . , ......
" 16
......
... ~g 2273 ::
~-
12
'"
r-
1773
8
HZ
4 1273
-_.:-:::_====:
0.4 1.2 1.6
Fig. 6.2.8. Variations of gas composition and gas temperature in the axial
direction of the tuyere zone at high temperature and high humidity blowing
operation.
4.0r------------------------,
1: Base
2: w02=O.02
13.0 3: Wst =389/N
u
Ol
.0 T =1373 K
ME
::::. 2.0
u
o
E
rn
~ 1.0
0.4 0.8 1.2 1 .6

X (m)
Fig. 6.2.9. Effect of blast conditions on the variation of coke consumption in
the axial direction of the tuyere zone.
5.0r-----------------------~
,...... 4.0
0·020 m
u
<52.0
E
CJl
-'"
1 •0
1 .6
x (m)
Fig. 6.2.10. Effect of coke diameter on the variation of coke consumption in the
axial direction of the tuyere zone.
In order to trace the movement patterns, coke particles (6-9 mesh)

were charged horizontally on top of the bed every 2· 5 min. The
movements of solids visualized by the tracer in the form of time lines are
given in Photo 6.2.1. It is to be noted that the descending solid particles
behave like a viscous fluid in the contracting flow region around a
deadman.
6.2.2. Two-dimensional Model 25
6.2.2.1. Concept of raceway model

The following assumptions are adopted in this model:
(i) The pressure loss equation for a packed column may be applied
at the outside region of the raceway.
(ii) Coke and gas movement in the raceway may be determined by
the interaction forces which act on them as shown in Fig. 6.2.11.
THE RACEWAY 521
The movement is regulated basically according to the Navier-

Stokes equation. In this case coke may be treated as a kind of
pseudo-fluid.
(a) (b)
Photo 6.2.1. Time lines of coke tracer in the charged stock of dry ice particles.
(a) After 2 min; (b) after 8 min.
Note
P : static pressure
f : Interaction force between
gas and coke
V:veloclty
9 : gravitational acceleration
Tuyere P : density
fI. : vlsoosity
Subscript
9 : gas
wall c : coke
wall
Fig. 6.2.11. Relationship of forces between gas and coke in the raceway
model.
(iii) The boundary of the raceway may be defined as a profile on

which the interaction forces mentioned above reach a certain
critical valuefc as shown in Table 6.2.1.
TABLE 6.2.1
Assumptions for the Raceway Model
In the raceway Outside the raceway
- -
Equation of motion Viscous fluid Pressure drop in packed
column for gas:
(V g. grad)V g = 0, I1g =0
Coke density
k
-
Stagnant coke:
Vc =0
Pbc= - 2
PclV cl
Pbc <Pbcmax
Raceway boundary /!;+ a!;;;;'/c I!; + a!; </c
k, density parameter; Pc, bulk density;!c' critical interaction force; a, anisotropic
parameter.
As assumption (i) reduces to a special case of assumption (ii), as

mentioned later, the basic equations which represent the motion of coke
and gas in the raceway are given here as follows.
(aj Equation ofmotion. The Navier-Stokes equation in the steady state
is applied:
for gas (6.2.28)
- -
(Vc·V)Vc - V2Vc - 1
= -f.lc"'" --f +g
- for coke (6.2.29)
Pbc Pbc
The last term in eqn (6.2.28) describes the interaction force which will be
mentioned later. This term has the opposite sign to the interaction force
--
term in eqn (6.2.29).
(bj Equations of continuity. These are given by
V . (epgVg) = 0 for gas (6.2.30)
V· (PbcVc) = 0 for coke (6.2.31)
THE RACEWAY 523
The following relationship exists between the void ratio sin eqn (6.2.30)
and coke density Pbc in eqn (6.2.31):
(6.2.32)
where Pc is the apparent density ofthe coke. Coke density Pbc is inversely
proportional to the dynamic energy as mentioned later.
(c) Equation for interaction force between gas and coke. This is a
quadratic equation based on the velocity difference between gas and
coke by analogy with the pressure loss equation of a packed
--
column:
-=
f ----
a(Vc-Vg)+b(Vc-Vg) 'IVc-Vgl (6.2.33)
Coefficients in this equation are as follows, after Ergun: 26
= 150 (1 - sf P g b = l'75(1-s)P g (6.2.34)

a
s 3 d 2P' S3 dp
where d p is the diameter of the coke particle.

The motion of gas and coke may be obtained by solving the above
basic equations under the additional conditions given in Table 6.2.1.
The assumptions associated with these conditions are as follows.
(1) As the viscosity and inertia terms for gas at the outside of the
raceway may be neglected, and the motion of coke is also negligible in
comparison with that inside the raceway, they can be assumed to be
approximately zero; the equation of motion then reduces to the
ordinary Ergun's equation.
(2) The density of coke may be assumed to be inversely proportional
to the dynamic energy of coke from the analogy with molecule
movement in thermodynamics. This assumption is reasonably confirmed
by experiment. Figure 6.2.12 shows the relationship between velocity of
coke particles and packing ratio, obtained from cold model experiments.
They are in comparatively good agreement with the calculated results
using the equation in Table 6.2.1 and this confirms the validity of the
above assumption.
(3) The raceway may be considered to be the region where coke can
move freely as a result of the gas flow and where a certain limit may be
ascribed to the ineraction force between gas and coke. Thus the raceway
is defined as the region in which the interaction force is larger than the
critical value, and accordingly this also decides the boundary of the
r--------
0.4 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
-
'" 0.3
...c
.Q Observed
E 0.2 Calculated
g>
:;<
u
~ 0.1
2 4 6 8 10 12
1/IParticie velocityl' (sec/ml' xl 0- 3
Fig. 6.2.12. Relationship between particle velocity and packing ratio.
raceway. It is therefore represented by a certain curved surface on which

the critical interaction force!c is constant. By considering the difference
between the critical interaction force, in the r-direction and z-direction
to determine the raceway profile, an anisotropic parameter a which is
shown in Table 6.2.1 is introduced. The value of a is determined
experimentally and when a is larger than unity the raceway grows
upwards.
(d) Fundamental equations for calculating combustion of coke and
resultant temperature distribution in raceway. These will be discussed later
when the experimental results from the hot model are quoted.
6.2.2.2. Solution procedure
--
To avoid the difficulties in solving fundamental equations, the stream
function vector \if and the vorticity vector ill are defined as follows:
pEV = ~
V X IJI (6.2.35)
Vxv =(0 ~ (6.2.36)
where
P
p = Pg,
= Pbc,
E
E
= e,
= 1,
-- --
V = Vg
V = Vc
for gas
for coke
These are used in place of the velocity and pressure in the equations of
momentum and continuity. By use of this stream function, the equation
of continuity is incidentally satisfied.
-- -
THE RACEWAY 525
- -
In accordance with vector analysis
(V . V) . V), eqn (6.2.28) becomes
1 -2 - . - _ I flg 2- 1-
(! VV 2 = V X (V X V) +
2VVg-VgX(VXVg) - - -VP+-V Vg+-f (6.2.37)

Pg Pg Pg
°
(:J-
It is usual to perform the curl operation on both sides of eqn (6.2.37) to
eliminate P, and VPg = is assumed, to obtain the following equation:
-V X ifg X w) = V X (~; V 2Vg) + V X (6.2.38)
By assuming VPg = 0, V flg = 0, neglecting the third-order differentiation

term and using eqn (6.2.35), eqn (6.2.38) can be written as follows:
{I
V X e(V X 'If) X ill
~ ~} + {I ~~} X V P +
P~ (V X 'If) X ill g flg V ill
2 ~
+ Pg{V X (~)} = ° for gas (6.2.39)
For coke, eqn (6.2.29) can be transformed in the same manner as for
gas:
{~(V X 9) X w} X VPc + fl cV W
-
V X I(V X 9) X wJ + 2
Pc
- Pc{ V X (:J} + Pc V X g = ° for coke (6.2.40)
The first and the second terms in eqns (6.2.39) and (6.2.40) represent the
inertia forces. The third and the fourth terms respectively deal with the
viscous effect and the interaction force between gas and coke.
From eqns (6.2.35) and (6.2.36), (;j and 9 are related to each other
°
under the conditions V . 9 = and V (ljpE) = 0, as follows:
1 ~
- V . (V· 'If) = -ill for gas (6.2.41)
PgG
1 ~ ~
- V . (V . 'If) = -ill for coke (6.2.42)
Pc
The distributions of (;j and 9 for gas and coke are numerically solved
from eqns (6.2.39), (6.2.41) and eqns (6.2.40), (6.2.42) by a finite difference
method.
In the case of the two-dimensional model, the following partial

differential equations are obtained from eqns (6.2.39) and (6.2.40);
o (6.2.43)
~[:r(p:G ~~) + :z(p:e ~:)J = -w (6.2.44)
where h is equal to r for cylindrical coordinates and I for cartesian

coordinates, lI' is the stream function (VI) for two dimensions, and w is
the vorticity (w) for two dimensions.
6.2.2.3. Boundary conditions

The raceway model was constructed in the region shown in Fig. 6.2.l3.
The bold line indicates the furnace wall and the dashed line indicates
Exit of gas
\jf, \jf,
= =0
= or + br 2
_.a.
(tJ (Symmetric axis)
(() = 0 (Symmetric plane)
(Common for gas and coke)
Entrance of gas ~
L-...yI" 3W ,,_= \lfr = (OK = 0
(Common for --
P NP
~:
gas and coke)
---\jf-,=\jf-,=-0- ....
r
Fig. 6.2.13. Boundary conditions of the raceway model (coefficients gJ, gz, a, b).
THE RACEWAY 527
the symmetric axis or the symmetric plane. The stream function of gas
has the same value on both of the lines (lJIg = 0). The gas flows uniformly
into the furnace through the tuyere and then flows upwards. On the
other hand, the stream function of coke has the same value (lJIe = 0)
everywhere on the boundary.
The calculation of the vorticity OJ at the boundaries is carried out
using the implicit method by use of coefficientsg 1 andg2 or a and b that
depend on the stream function, the density and the mesh distance near
the boundary.27
6.2.2.4. Comparison between results ofsimulation and cold model experiment

In order to confirm the validity of the simulation model, the simulation
results have been compared with those 28 obtained experimentally using
a cold sand model. The same conditions in the cold model experiment
have been applied to the calculation as shown in Table 6.2.2. The
maximum interaction forces, viscosity, anisotropic parameters etc. were
decided previously by measurements of the rotating velocity of the
particles and the raceway profile obtained by the experiment.
(a) Relationship between blast volume and raceway profile. Figure 6.2.14
shows raceway profiles under the various blast conditions. For large
particles (case a), the raceway grows forward in proportion to the blast
volume. For small particles (case b), however, it grows characteristically
TABLE 6.2.2
Calculation Conditions for the Cold Model
Variables Case A Case B
Experimental cold model width (cm) X height (cm) 78 X 78

Tuyere length (mm) 45
diameter (mm) 18
velocity (m/s) 130 49
Particle (sand) diameter (mm) 2'5 0'75
bulk density (g/cm3) 1-3
void ratio (-) 0'5
viscosity (kg/m· s) 3'0 X 107
Density parameter k (ki/(m4 . S2)) 6 X 104
Critical interaction force Ie (kg/(m 2 . S2)) 1 X 105
Mesh 21 X 13 irregular meshes
20 - - Calculated
----- Observed
Gas velocity of tuyere

Eu
_=--""-:::.-::..::.----- " 130m/sec
-<=
(J)
CI) 10
I
Distance from the wall !eml

101 2.5 ¢ Particle diameter
- - Calculat~d
E
u
-<=
(J)
CI)
I
10 20 30
Distance from the wall km)
Ibl 0.75 ¢ Particle diameter
Fig. 6.2.14. Relationship between blast volume and raceway profile.
forwards and upwards also in proportion to the blast volume. The

reason why the raceway profile changes with particle size may be
considered as follows.
The force on the coke particles at the boundary of the raceway is
decided by the balance of the vertical and horizontal loads at the
raceway boundary and the dynamic energy of the fluid. As is obvious
from the simulation results on gas streamlines, the forward component
of the fluid dynamic energy decreases along the streamline and the
upward component increases, because the gas from the raceway
changes its direction suddenly to the low permeability, the upward zone.
THE RACEWAY 529
On the other hand, the ratio of the upward force by the gas and the
downward force by the load becomes larger as the particle size becomes
smaller. Therefore the raceway grows relatively upwards in order to
satisfy the balance of the forces.
In the actual calculation process, the above-mentioned anisotropic
parameter was assumed to be 2 and 1 for the small and large particles,
respectively, and this assumption resulted in good agreement with the
experimental results shown in Fig. 6.2.14.
(b) Velocity distribution of coke particles in the raceway. Figure 6.2.15
shows the rotating velocity of the particles, where their diameters are
- - Calculated
- - - Observed
20
18.1 em/sec
~\
.8
E
~ 25.0
".-- - . --=-::..-::-- . .
L
. . ....... ,
/;e (
.CJJ /
w 10
I .~:-.
, \ '--..:. ---.-=,-' -)
',S;;:;:>__ \_ - --- --
Raceway boundary
oL-________L -______ ~L__ _ _ _ _ _~
o 10 20 30
Distance from the wall Icml
20
E
u
~ 10
I
Raceway boundary
°0~--------lLO--------~20--------~30
Ibl 0.751> Particle diameter
Fig. 6.2.15. Velocity of particles in the raceway.

2·5 mm and 0·75 mm respectively. The broken line in Fig.6.2.l5(a)

shows the velocity distribution of the particles obtained by analysis of
the relationship between path length and exposure time of photographs
of the raceway taken under the various exposure conditions. This result
agrees approximately with the trend of the calculated result. Figure
6.2.15 also shows that, in general, the particle velocity is high at the
center of the raceway, and low near the raceway boundary.
(c) Static pressure distribution in the raceway. Static pressure may be
calculated by integrating eqn (6.2.28) along the rand z directions and
applying the gas velocity obtained by eqn (6.2.35). Figure 6.2.16 shows
30.-----------------------------,
0.45kg/cm 2 G - - Calculated
- - - Observed
20
L
.(J)
Q)
I 10
OL-__~~____-L___U~~----~~
o 10 20
38 F=======-----i
Eu
;; 20
.(J)
Q)
I

Ibl 0.75 ¢Particle diameter
Fig. 6.2.16. Pressure distribution in the raceway.

THE RACEWAY 531
the calculated static pressure distribution. In Fig. 6.2.l6(a) the observed

results obtained from the cold model are also shown and they arc in
relatively good agreement. These results suggest the following: (a) the
maximum static pressure is observed at the position where the blast jet
exits from the tuyere and impinges on the raceway boundary as is shown
by the contour ofO· 52 kg/cm2G; (b) a steep pressure gradient is observed
at the raceway boundary.
(d) Streamlines of gas. Figure 6.2.17 shows the gas streamlines
calculated from the mathematical model. At first the gas proceeds
horizontally as a jet on the tuyere axis owing to the jet inertia. An
upward component then appears along the raceway boundary because
of the increased flow resistance at the point where the gas impinges on
the boundary. This phenomenon has not been observed previously in
models neglecting the inertia of gas in the raceway. Immediately after
passing through the raceway boundary, the gas flow tends to return to
that in the packed column.
(e) Streamlines of particles. Figure 6.2.18 shows the streamlines of
particles in the raceway obtained by the simulation. In front of the
tuyeres, particles move along the gas streamlines and large and small
recirculating flows appear in the upper and lower parts of the raceway,
respectively. For small particles of 0·75¢ shown in Fig. 6.2.18(b), the
center of the circulation was observed at the upper part of the raceway
0.10 0.34
Nm 3 /lsec.ml
20 40 60 78
2.51; Particle diameter
Fig. 6.2.17. Streamlines of gas.

2 0 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -________-,
Raceway boundary
0
0 10 20 30
101 2.51> Particle diameter
20 ~ ---- ,
Eu
~ 10 ".
".
// /~": I
I
I
-------,
" /
. . . .<? ---_ . . /
I ".
Raceway boundary
0
0 10 20 30
Ibl 0751> Particle diameter
Fig. 6.2.18. Streamlines of particles.
under the influence of the gas acceleration. Therefore the velocity of

particles is not a maximum at the center of the circulation zone.
6.2.2.5. Chemical reactions in the raceway

Hitherto, comparison with the cold model was mainly discussed by
neglecting chemical reactions in the raceway. In this section, chemical
reactions and their effects will be considered. Chemical reactions and
heat balance equations used are shown below.
(a) Equations of chemical reaction.
V {&Pg-V tJ + Sc
f.1 V-",j g ? j:
= -R j (6.2.45)
where ~j is the weight fraction, Sc is the Schmidt number, and R j is the

rate of reaction, of gas species i.
THE RACEWAY 533
It is considered that there are the following five reactions in the

raceway region:
(1) <C) + (Oz) - (CO z)
(2) <C) + (CO z) _ 2(CO)
(3) <C) + (HzO) - (Hz) + (CO)
(4) (CO) + (HzO) - (COz) + (Hz)
(5) (Hz) + !(Oz) - (HzO)
The rate equations of these reactions are given by use of the rate
constants:
Ri = kiC1CZ '" Cn
where k i is the rate constant (S-I. concn l - n ), C i is the concentration
(= l;iPg/M,,), and Mi is the molecular weight, of gas species i. The rate
constants of these reactions are calculated by use of the equation
described in Section 6.2.1.3(a).
The mass of gas injected into the furnace through the tuyere increases
as a result of chemical reaction as shown in Fig. 6.2.19. This means that
~I;i increases more than I after combustion of carbon. By use of I;i' the
molar fraction of gas was calculated exactly.
Unit N, N N,
weight
----
l..- 0,
"
0, 0,
CO,
CO,
CO
CO
In the tuyere In the raceway In the packed bed
Fig. 6.2.19. Change in the unit weight of gas from the tuyere to the packed
bed.
(b) Equation of heat balance.

ho+ hcolc02 + hcol;co
Tg = Tc = I; (6.2.46)
C pN2 N2 + C pOl 02 + CpCOlC02 + Cpcol;co
where ho is the standard enthalpy and C pi is the specific heat of
species i.
Since the descent rate of coke is slow when compared with gas, the
temperature of coke was considered to be approximately the same as
that of gas.
6.2.2.6. Simulation including chemical reactions for the experimental

blast furnace
The calculation conditions are given in Table 6.2.3. The experimental
blast furnace to which simulation was applied has the same hearth
radius as that of the old No. I blast furnace at Kokura steel works and is
fan-shaped with a central angle of 48°. 7 Comparison between the
change of gas compositions on the tuyere axis calculated by the raceway
model and those measured in the experimental blast furnace is shown
in Fig. 6.2.20. The predictions and the experimental results are in good
agreement, especially the steep increase in CO concentration at the
raceway boundary.
TABLE 6.2.3
Calculation Conditions for the Hot Model
Experimental radius (m) 3·05

blast furnace height (m) 9'00
Tuyere length (cm) 20
diameter (cm) 14
velocity (m/s) 220
temperature (oq 900
Particle (coke) diameter (mm) 15
bulk density (kg/m3) 500
void ratio (-) 0'5
Molar fraction of blast: °

2 0'15; CO 2 0'08; H 20 0'12; N2 0'65.
Calculated gas streamlines for the experimental blast furnace are

illustrated in Fig. 6.2.21. Since in this case gas does not penetrate deep
into the center, in contrast with the two-dimensional cold model, the gas
mainly flows upward and there is no circulation of gas in the
raceway.
Figure 6.2.22 shows the distributions of CO and CO 2 simulated for the
experimental blast furnace. It is predicted from the raceway model that
the CO2 molar fraction reaches a maximum value above the tuyere axis
owing to the upward flow of gas from the tuyere. The molar fraction of
THE RACEWAY 535
CO tends to increase gradually towards the outside of the raceway after

a steep increase near the raceway boundary.
Figure 6.2.23 shows the temperature and coke consumption distri-
bution simulated for the experimental blast furnace. It is predicted that
the maximum temperature appears above the tuyere axis in the raceway.
~------------------~----------~1800
0.6
1600 ~
u
o
c: 0.5
.2
1400 ~
-
+- _ _--1
u
...0 0.4 .2
E!
...
0
1200 ~
(5 0.3 E
Q)
E +-
Ul
1000
Ul
0
0> 0.2 o
0>
800
0.1
0
distance from the wall (m)
Fig. 6.2.20. Molar fraction and temperature distribution on the tuyere axis.
2.5
25.0 18.4 11.9 7.8 3.7 kg/rod' sec
2.0
°0L-------~I~.0--------~2~.0~------~3~.O
Fig. 6.2.21. Streamlines of gas simulated for the experimental blast furnace.
1.0.
E
.c
! 0..5b~::::=~
0.0. 0.5 1.0. I.
a C02 gas molar fraction
1.0.
E
~
0..5
'"
'"
.c
0. 0. 0..5 1.0. 1.5

b. CO gas molar fraction
· 6.2 .22. CO an d CO 2 molar fractions distribution simulated for the

F Ig.
experimental blast furnace.
This temperature distribution does not always correspond to the CO 2

distribution owing to endothermic reactions such as the carbon
solution reaction and the reaction between coke and steam, although
the position of maximum coke consumption appears at approximately
the same position as the maximum temperature.
Based on the experimental blast furnace, the effects of particle size,
O2 enrichment and pulverized coal injection through the tuyere are
analyzed as follows.
(aJ Effect ofparticle size of coke. Owing to fluctuations in coal quality,
the particle size and the strength of coke before charging will be
variable. Accordingly, the particle size of coke in front of the tuyere
may also change.
Figure 6.2.24 shows the raceway profile and gas streamlines as a
function of coke size. For small coke particles, the raceway size becomes
THE RACEWAY 537
large and gas penetrates deeply into the center under the influence of the
jet from the tuyere. However, this gas flow effect is limited to the
periphery of the raceway.
Figure 6.2.25 shows the temperature distribution and carbon
consumption distribution for small coke particles compared with the
base operation shown in Fig. 6.2.23. For small coke particles, the regions
of maximum temperature and maximum coke consumption come near
to the tuyere nose because of the high carbon reaction rate.
1.0
E
....
.s::
Ol
~ 0.5
1--_--"
1190
o~~~~~ ____~~____-.~__~
a 0.5 1.0 1.5
a. tempera ture
1.0
.s::
.~ 0.5
Q)
.s::
O~ ____~~____-.~____-.~__~
a 0.5 1.0 1.5
b. coke consumption
Fig. 6.2.23. Temperature and coke consumption distribution simulated for the
2.5 25.0 18.5 12.1 8.0 4.0 kg/rod· sec
2.0
1.5
---- 19. 5 ~
O~ ______ ~~ ______ ~~ ______ ~
o 1.0 2.0 3.0

distance from the wall {m}
Fig. 6.2.24. Effect of particle diameter on the raceway profile and gas
streamlines.
(b) Effect of oxygen enrichment. Oxygen enrichment is often used to

control the production rate of pig iron and the flame temperature in
front of the tuyere under various blast conditions.
Figure 6.2.26 shows the temperature and carbon consumption
distribution with oxygen enrichment of the blast. Compared with the
base operation shown in Fig. 6.2.23, the maximum temperature
increases due to the increase in carbon consumption rate. The regions
of maximum temperature and carbon consumption also move near to
the tuyere nose with higher oxygen contents of the blast.
(c) Effects of pulverized coal injection into a blast furnace. Owing to the
recent explosion in oil prices, it is anticipated that more and more
auxiliary fuel, such as pulverized coal, slurry of pulverized coal and
water and COM will be injected into blast furnaces.
A mathematical model has been developed describing the behavior
of gas and solid in the raceway, and as an example the model was
applied to the analysis of raceway conditions in which 50 kglNm3 of
pulverized coal (16% of coke replacement) was injected into the
Figure 6.2.27 shows the temperature distribution in the raceway as a
function of pulverized coal injection. The maximum temperature
region seems to appear at the middle of the raceway enclosing the
tuyeres. The position of the maximum temperature on the tuyere axis
THE RACEWAY 539
becomes closer to the tuyere compared with the case in which pulverized
coal is not injected as shown in Fig. 6.2.23. This means that the reaction
rate of pulverized coal is fairly rapid.
Figure 6.2.28 shows gas streamlines and the boundary of the raceway
with and without pulverized coal injection. When pulverized coal is
injected, a high temperature region enclosing the tuyere appears. This
increases the gas volume and hence gas velocity in front of the tuyere.
Pressure loss at the raceway boundary on the tuyere axis becomes high.
This disturbs the straight flow of the blast and the streamlines bend
dp = 10.5mm
1.0
E
....
.c 0.5
C>
Q.I
.c
1220
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
distance from the wall(m)
a. temperature distribution
1.0 dp =10.5 mm
E
....
.c
C> 0.5
Q.I
.c
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
b. coke consumption distribution
Fig. 6.2.25. Effect of coke particle diameter on the temperature distribution and
coke consumption distribution.
blast air 02 : 18% N2: 62%

CO2: 8% H2O: 12%
1.0
OL-----~----~~----~
o 0.5 1.0 1.5
o. temperature distribution
1.0
-- .............. ,
- ......
-
E
\ ,
I )"/nf. sec
,------
~ 0.5
/
Q)
.c. """"----- /"
0.5 1.0 1.5

b. coke consumption distribution
Fig. 6.2.26. Effect of O2 enrichment on the temperature distribution and coke
consumption distribution.
THE RACEWAY 541
with coal injection (50g/Nm3, rep~~ceC~~nlt ratio 16%)
....
.c.
.~
QI
.c.
O~ __ ~ ____ ~ __________L -_ _ _ _ ~
o 0.5 1.0
Fig. 6.2.27. Effect of coal injection on the temperature distribution.
.925.0 18.4 11.9 7.8 3.7kg/rad·sec
mark
raceway boundary
OL-________- L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~L-~--~--~
o 2 3
Fig. 6.2.28. Effect of pulverized coal injection on the raceway profile and gas
streamlines.
upwards or downwards nearer to the tuyere. Owing to this effect, the

shape of the raceway develops slightly upwards.
Figure 6.2.29 shows the calculation results of gas composition on the
tuyere axis using the model compared with the observed values at the
experimental blast furnace. For the case of coal injection (see
Fig. 6.2.29), the maximum point of CO 2and the positions of increase in
concentration of CO, H2 and temperature move towards the tuyere
compared with the case of all-coke operation (see Fig. 6.2.20). Although
slight differences exist, the results of observation and calculation are in
good agreement.
1600
0.5 u
c::
0 1400 ~
....u
-c
....
.... 0
c
1200
1000
0
E
800
0.1
0
0 1.5
Fig. 6.2.29. Molar fraction and temperature distribution on the tuyere axis.
6.3. NOTATION
a specific surface area of particle (U/U(bed))

Ci concentration of i-th component (kmollU(bed))
Cpi specific heat of i-th component of gas (MU!eT· kmol)
and solid
DT diameter of tuyere (L)
Di diffusion coefficient of i-th component (L2/t)
in blast furnace gas
Dh diameter of hearth (L)
dp average diameter of all kinds of solid (L)
particles
F molar flux vector of gas (kmollUt)
THE RACEWAY 543
Fb blast volume in dry base (L 3/t)

Fo. 1 ,Fo.2 flow rate of gas before and after (kmol/t)
combustion
Foh average flow rate of gas (kmol/Llt)
Fx,Fy horizontal and upward component of (kmol/Ut)
flow rate in vicinity of tuyere zone
f interaction force between gas and coke (M/Llt2)
j"fz components of interaction force (M/L2f)
f;,J~ viscous and inertial terms for Ergun's (Mit· kmol),
equation (MU/kmo12)
g gravitational acceleration (Llf)
!1Hi heat of reaction associated with i-th (MUN·kmol)
reaction
ho standard enthalpy (MUff· kmol)
hi standard enthalpy of species i (MUN·kmol)
h kj heat transfer coefficient between phases (M/fT)
k and j
ki rate constant of i-th chemical reaction «kmol/U)I-n It)
kfi gas film mass transfer coefficient in (LIT)
i-th chemical reaction
k mi chemical rate constant in i-th chemical (UIMt)
reaction
Mi molar mass of i-th component (M/kmol)
n number of tuyere (-)
P total pressure of gas (M/Lf)
R gas constant (MUNT· kmol)
Rt overall reaction rate per unit volume (kmol/U (be d)t)
of bed
Rep particle Reynolds number (-)
Ri reaction rate with respect to species i (kmol/L2t)
ri rate of dissipation of reactive gas (kmol/L3(bed)t)
component i
Sh Sherwood number (-)
Sc Schmidt number (-)
Tb blast temperature (T)
Tj temperature at phase j U = g, 1, s) (T)
Tm average temperature (T)
V g , Vc superficial velocity of gas and coke (Lit)
W consumption rate of coke (kmol/U(bed)t)
~ mass rate of coke combustion (kmol/t)
W02 oxygen enrichment (L3IV)

Wail rate of oil injection (Mit)
W st rate of vapor addition (M/L 3)
Yi molar fraction of i-th component (-)
Pc mass fraction of carbon in injected oil (-)
S void fraction of combustion zone (-)
TJi effectiveness factor of catalytic reaction (-)
/1g, /1c viscosity of gas and coke (MILt)
() time (t)
~ fractional area of effective outflow (-)
surface
~i mass fraction of i-th species (-)
bulk density of coke (M/L3(bed))
density of gas and coke (M/L 3)
average shape factor of all kinds of (-)
solid particle
(-)
~
1jI,1jI stream function of three dimensions

and two dimensions
vorticity of three dimensions and two (-)
dimensions
_ vector
REFERENCES
1. J. F. Elliott, R. A Buchanan and J. B. Wagstaff, 1 Metals (1952), July,

709.
2. T. Inatani, K Okabe, T. Nishiyama, Y. Serizawa, H. Takahashi and M.
Saino, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 62 (1976), 514.
3. M. Nakamura, T. Sugiyama, T. Uno, Y. Hara, and S. Kondo, Tetsu-to-
Hagane, 63 (1977), 28.
4. M. Kase, M. Sugata, K Yamaguchi and M. Nakagome, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 66
(1980), S63.
5. M. Tate, Y. Kuwano, K Suzuki, T. Chang, H. Go and M. Matsuzaki, Tetsu-
to-Hagane, 62 (1976), 495..
6. H. Soga, M. Nakamura and M. Sugata, Seitetsu-Kenkyu, 289 (1976), 23.
7. M. Nakamura, K Kojima, Y. Hara and M. Kase,lronmaking Proc., AI.M.E.
(Detroit), 38 (1979), 19.
8. M. Hatano, B. Hiraoka, M. Fukuda and T. Masuike, Trans. ISIJ (1977),
102.
9. K Kodama, A Shigemi, T. Ogata and T. Horio, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 48 (1962),
1551.
10. T. Shimotsuma, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 52 (1966), 323.
THE RACEWAY 545
11. T. Inatani, T. Fukutake and K Okabe, Der Hochofenprozess Hersg, Verein

Deutscher Eisenhuttenleute, Dusseldorf (1973), p, 114,
12, M, Kuwabara, Y. Hshieh, K Isobe and I. Muchi, International Blast Furnace
Hearth and Raceway Symposium (Newcastle), AI.M,M, (1981), 7-1.
13. 1. Radestock and R. leschar, Stahl u. Eisen, 90 (1970), 1249.
14. 1.1. Poveromo, 1. Szekely and M. Propster, Blast Furnace Aerodynamics,
Wollongong (1975), 1.
15. M. Kuwabara and I. Muchi, Blast Furnace Aerodynamics, Wollongong
(1975), 61.
16. 1. Szekely and Y. Kajiwara, Trans. lSI!, 19 (1979), 76.
17. T. Fukutake and K Okabe, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 66 (1980), 1947.
18. M. Greuel, F. W. Hillnhiitterand H. Kinster,Stahl u. Eisen, 94 (1974), 533.
19. A S. Parker and H. C. Hotte1,Ind. Eng. Chem., 28 (1936), 1334.
20. K Hedden, Chem.-Ing.-Tech., 30 (1958),125.
21. M. Kunugi, H. linno and H. Torii, Kogyo Kagaku Zasshi, 56 (1953), 46.
22. G. Heynert and 1. Willems, Stahl u. Eisen, 79 (1959), 1545.
23. V. W. Peter, Stahl u. Eisen, 84 (1964), 979.
24. I. Muchi, 1. Yagi, K Tamura and A Moriyama, J Japan Inst. Metals, 30
(1966), 826.
25. M. Hatano, K Kurita and T. Tanaka, International Blast Furnace Hearth
and Raceway Symposium (Newcastle), AI.M.M. (1981),4-1.
26. S. Ergun, Chem. Eng. Progr., (1952),89.
27. A D. Gosman, W. M. Pun, A K Runcha1, D. B. Spalding and M.
Wolfshtein, Heat and Mass Transfer in Recirculating Flows, Academic Press
(1969), p. 283.
28. M. Hatano, M. Fukuda and M. Takeuchi, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 62 (1976), 25.
CHAITER 7
The Lower Region of the Blast Furnace and

the Slag-Metal-Gas Reaction
The principal functions of the ironmaking blast furnace are the

reduction of iron ores and the separation of the molten iron product
from gangue materials (slag). This separation takes place in a coke bed
in the lower region of the furnace.
On the other hand, reducing gas and heat, which enable the above
processes to occur, are generated around the combustion zone and
transfer to the region where reduction and separation take place, also
through the coke bed.
As a result, the lower region has a high temperature and a strongly
reducing atmosphere, and slag and metal, dropping through the region,
are inevitably subjected to reactions in which all the elements in raw
materials are partitioned into metal, slag and gas phases, as main
components or impurities. The transferred amount of each element
depends on the furnace operational condition.
The most important technological aspect of a process producing
crude metal is to retain maximum productivity with minimum energy
consumption for a given set of raw materials.
For the production of iron for steelmaking, the quality of the hot
metal is of secondary importance, although control of sulfur content
has long been of concern. Such control should be restricted so that
energy consumption is minimized.
In this respect, slag-metal-gas reactions in the lower region of the
blast furnace have been studied from the viewpoint of furnace stability
and productivity.
Figure 7.1.1 shows a schematic diagram of the reactions involved in
the lower region of the blast furnace. If the mechanism of each reaction
546
THE LOWER REGION OF THE BLAST FURNACE 547
taking place, the structure of each part of the lower region, the
distribution of mass and heat, and the interrelations between them are
clarified, the chemistry of metal and slag could serve as a measure of
in-furnace conditions, i.e. operational conditions.
SOFTENING ZONE
MELTING ZONE
-----r melting 1----~ J----Icarburizallonl-----
/~
K, No
SiO
Z
0
5: 3: 3: N
~ 0 (')
Q ;:;
VJ "-
W
(') <{ Z "-
::; K, No (') S
8 0
;lsiol
C>'
VJ Mg 0
so
I S
Si
!combustionl
tuyere
~rCDkeoshb level
SLAG LAYER
transfer of Si, S, Mn, Fe ~
/
IRON LAYER
Fig. 7.1.1. Schematic diagram of the lower region and the corresponding
reactions.
This chapter is dedicated to slag-metal-gas reactions in the lower

region. Phenomenological aspects of the subject, a large part of which
has already been described in Chapter 1, are not considered, while basic
aspects of the high temperature reactions, especially of Si transfer, are
described in detail to show the application of the mechanism and rate
equation to a mathematical model with which some practical operations
data are analyzed.
7.1. REACTION OF SILICON
7.1.1. Introduction
A part of the Si02 in the burden is reduced to metal in the lower region of
the blast furnace. For a long time Si content in hot metal has been used
as a measure of the thermal state of the blast furnace. This may be

because the overall reaction of Si02 reduction, expressed by eqn (7.1.1),l
is strongly endothermic, and slow with a large temperature dependence.
Si02 (slag) + 2~ = Si + 2CO(g) (7.1.1)
There are two major sources of Si02 in the blast furnace, ore gangue
and coke ash. Si0 2 contents in ores vary considerably, but those in coke
ash are roughly similar, about 50%, although the ash content itself can
vary substantially from coke to coke. The contribution of each source is
dependent on the kinds of ore and coke, as well as on operational
conditions of the furnace, especially coke rate. According to recent
results in Japan, one-quarter of the Si02 comes from coke and
three-quarters from ore.
The routes and mechanism of Si transfer from the burden to the
metal have been a matter of concern. Two major routes have been
recognized, from molten slag directly to molten metal through the slag-
metal reaction, and the indirect route where Si transfers from slag or
coke ash to the gas phase as SiO, and then into the metal.
It is natural to believe that the direct route is mainly responsible for
Si02 reduction. Therefore silicon transfer through the slag-metal
reaction has been extensively studied as one of the basic reactions of
ironmaking processes.
Firstly, the phase diagrams of the CaO-Si0 2-Al20 3 ternary system, as
well as the quarternary system with MgO, and the activities of each
component were systematically studied. 2• 3 These data have not lost their
importance and are extensively utilized even now. Rather, from the
viewpoint of industrial application, the availability and reliability of
such data have become of greater importance because of the need for a
high degree of control in present process technology.
Kinetic studies on slag-metal reactions have shown that the
reduction of Si0 2 in slag by ~ in metal is a first-order reaction with
respect to the activity of Si02, and very slow.4- 7 The observed activation
energies varied with slag basicity and were fairly large in neutral and
acidic slags, which means that the Si02 reduction rate under usual
conditions of blast furnace operation has a large temperature depen-
dence.
On the other hand, generation of a white gaseous product by the
reaction of slag with coke or graphite at high temperatures above
1600°C has often been observed in the past, and the product has been
recognized as SiO. In blast furnace operations, especially during

manufacture of high silicon iron, a fine white material was found in the
dust from the top or tuyere of the furnace and believed to be responsible
for hanging in the lower part of the furnace. 8 SiO was also recognized as
playing a role in the transfer of Si to the metaU In particular, Si02 in
coke ash attracted attention as a potential source of SiO.
From trials with an experimental blast furnace, Jon et al. 1O noticed
that the final hot metal Si content was produced at tuyere level and, for
the first time, positively pointed out the possible route of Si transfer via
SiO. However, they still considered that the majority of silicon was
transferred via the slag-metal reaction.
The authors 1I, 12 first systematically investigated the thermochemical
and kinetic aspects of silicon transfer via SiO, and proposed that this
was the main route of Si transfer in the blast furnace, in place of the
slag-metal reaction. At that time, dissections of experimental and
commercial blast furnaces were carried out and convincing evidence of
the SiO route was accumulated. In addition, through attempting low Si
operation and mathematical modeling of blast furnaces, the SiO route
has been verified step by step.
7.1.2. Behavior of Silicon in the Blast Furnace
7.1.2.1. Thermodynamic analysis of the chemistry of iron and slagfrom

the furnace
The question of whether equilibrium is established in the hearth of the
blast furnace has always been one of the major subjects of discussion
among scientists and engineers working on ironmaking processes.
Filer and Darken 13 placed samples of tapped iron and slag into a
graphite crucible, and heated them to the tapping temperature to allow
further reaction. After some hours, substantial concentration changes
in both iron and slag phases were observed. FeO content in slag, for
example, decreased from 0·5% to 0'03%, which was assumed to be the
value in the system in equilibrium with graphite.
Taylor'4 examined data of silicon content in iron obtained from
working blast furnaces, using available thermodynamic data, and
concluded that the silicon content of furnace metal tends towards the
equilibrium value in most cases investigated.
The slag metal partition of an element is governed not only by the
activity of the element in both phases but also by the reduction-
oxidation potential at the slag-metal interface. This potential, which is

termed a mixed potential in terms of electrochemistry, can be
represented by the partial oxygen pressure at the slag-metal interface.
Taylor based his equilibrium calculation on eqn (7.1.1), which
implies that the oxygen potential at the slag-metal interface is
determined by reaction (7.1.2) and can be expressed by eqn (7.1.3).
C(gr) + !02(g) = CO(g) (7.1.2)
logP02 (7.1.2) = 14 700/T - 4.40 + 2(logPco - 10g[%C] -logic>
(7.1.3)
Then the silicon distribution is determined by eqn (7.1.5).
(7.1.4)
log [%Si] = - 42 700/T + 11.40 + log aSi02 - log!si - log PoP .1.2)
(7.1.5)
But it is well known that a gas evolution reaction such as (7.1.2) is not
necessarily in equilibrium, and is unsuitable as a measure of the oxygen
potential of the slag-metal system. FeO content in slag, or manganese
distribution ratio, is usually employed as a measure of the oxygen
potential of such systems. Using FeO content, the oxygen potential is
given by eqn (7.1.7).
Fe(l) + P2(g) = FeO(slag) (7.1.6)
logP02 (7.1.6) = - 26 740/T + 5.62 + 2log aFeO/aFe (7.1.7)
The activity of FeO in synthetic blast furnace slag was measured by
the emf method. Although aFeO has a strong positive deviation from
ideality at lower temperature, it approaches ideality with increasing
temperature, especially in MgO-containing systems, and can be
approximated by the mole fraction of FeO at l600°C:
(7.1.8)
By using these data in conjunction with data in the literature, a
diagram which demonstrates the stable region of silicon in terms of P02
and Twas drawn as shown in Fig. 7.1.2, where aSi02 and Pco are assumed
to be 0·1 and 1 atm, respectively.
Since the usual content of FeO in slag sampled from the tuyere or
dropping zone of commercial or experimental furnaces exceeds 1%, an
appreciable increase of silicon in hot metal via the slag-metal reaction
seems to be unlikely in these zones.
1700 1600 1500 1400 lOCI
-10.0
5i02
-15.0
-------.
- - - - - _ _ sot
5.0 60
liT X 10' IK-l)
Fig. 7.1.2. Slag-metal reaction.
In addition, since normal blast furnace slag contains 0·2-0·5% FeO,

even after careful magnetic separation of metal droplets, it may be
impossible to achieve more than o· 5% Si in iron through the slag-metal
reactions. The oxidation of Si in metal by FeO may even take place.
By making an analysis of data from various commercial blast
furnaces, Turkdogan et al. 16 also concluded that the slag and metal
compositions at tap were for oxygen potentials much higher than those
for the C-CO equilibrium at the prevailing partial pressures of CO in
the furnace hearth. In addition, they pointed out the possibility of
oxidation of Si in metal by MnO in slag, as the metal droplets pass
through the slag layer.
7.1.2.2. Vertical distribution of silicon in the furnace

Vertical changes in slag and metal compositions have been carefully
investigated On the basis of dissections of blast furnaces. The details of
the results are presented in Chapter 1. Most of these data show that
vertical changes in Si content of metal droplets have peaks at tuyere
level or at least attain the final tapping values at tuyere level.
These results suggest that the reduction of Si02 is almost complete at
this level, and further reduction in the lower part of the hearth is
negligible (oxidation of Si in metal may even take place).
Figure 7.1.3 indicates typical results for changes in Si and Mn
content obtained from the dissection of an experimental blast furnace. 17
lBF IV
..,.
~
x
0.5
: .6 0 No 3
No 2
E
g
o
u
o
."§
o
-05
-------.;
Slog I
------1
_~e~~~)
0.5 I0 0.5 0 02 0.4
Fig. 7.1.3. Vertical concentration of various components of metal in an

The characteristics involved in the figure are:

(1) Vertical concentration profiles of both Si and Mn have peaks
around tuyere level.
(2) The distribution of Si content at a given level is heavily
dependent on the distribution of ore/coke at that level, and Si
content decreases substantially with an increase in ore/coke.
(3) Si and Mn contents peak at different levels, with the silicon peak
slightly higher in the furnace.
Strictly speaking, characteristic (1) should not be considered to be
universal, because there are a few examples where Si content in metal
droplets further increases below tuyere level to attain the tapping
value. IS
One explanation of the high silicon contents around tuyere level is
that, in the quenching of commercial blast furnaces, the cooling rate
around tuyere level will be comparatively slow, allowing a long contact
time between metal droplets and high partial pressures of SiO, and
hence producing a high silicon content in the metal.
However, this explanation does not apply to samples from small
experimental blast furnaces, or to samples taken from large furnaces
during banking. Since, in both of these cases the silicon in the metal
reaches a maximum value around tuyere level, it may be concluded that

this phenomenon is quite common.
The second characteristic suggests that the peak in Si does not always
appear at tuyere level across the entire furnace radius. '9
Figure 7.1.4 demonstrates the distribution of Si content of metal
droplets obtained from the hearth of a working experimental blast
furnace and dissection of a commercial furnace. 2o It is apparent that the
distribution of Si content around the tuyere region corresponds
remarkably with the temperature profile.
01 bl
Fig. 7.1.4. Profiles of (a) temperature and (b) silicon content in metal around
tuyere zone of dissected blast furnace. 2o
These data suggest that the concentration profile of Si around tuyere

level is substantially dependent on the temperature and ore/coke
profile, i.e. metal/gas profile, and that at some points along the furnace
radius no peak in silicon occurs in the vertical direction.
The third characteristic implies that Si0 2 and MnO in slag are
reduced by different mechanisms since, in the slag, MnO should be
reduced in preference to Si0 2, both from thermodynamic and kinetic
points of view. It is therefore natural to assume that Si02 is reduced
through a process other than the slag-metal reaction, that is via SiO.
7.1.3. Kinetics of Silicon Transfer
7.1.3.1. Slag-metal reactions

The overall reaction of silicon transfer from a slag to a metal containing
carbon is expressed by eqn (7.1.1). Laboratory investigations proved
that the rate of reduction of SiOz in blast furnace slag by carbon-

saturated iron was dependent on the ratio of interfacial areas of slag-
graphite and slag-metal phases, r (= As _ giAs _ m), as is shown in
Fig. 7.1.5 where the data of many investigations are plotted.7
10 • CaO-Si02 <> CaO-Si02-A1z03 ,r

I
E' I
18
I
T2
if) K'
c
A'
E 6
y5
o CaOS~_I-- _ _ _ _-+:----1
E
36-64 Y
'0 4 ~ 45-55 --+-1-1---'-••- -
x
if>
A?~~~~~:::::t~Y-
2
~~KKK::;.co-K /~
C
rt! -.t: COO-Si02

E _____40-40-20--'
K~ ,A1203
I 2 1-2LS -----'--'3-:-2-9:'-:-S----'-----'102
o 4 S
r = SS-G/SS-M
Fig. 7.1.5. Relationship between silica reduction rate reported in the literature
and the ratio of interface area at 1600°C. 7
The figure demonstrates that the rate is proportional to the activity of

Si0 2 and the interfacial ratio at small rvalues, and becomes constant at
higher r values. Although the rate is quite small, it can be one order of
magnitude larger with agitation of slag phases at high r values.
This means that slag-metal droplets falling down through a packed
bed of coke, as in the dropping zone of the blast furnace, may have
much higher rates ofSi transfer than observed in laboratory experiments
with the usual configuration of slag-metal-graphite crucible. From a
thermodynamic point of view, however, this mechanism may not apply
in the blast furnace because slag in the dropping zone usually contains
approximately 1% FeO.
A laboratory study has also verified that metal droplets less than
several mm in diameter can pick up substantial amounts of Si as they
fall through a slag layer. 21. 22
But again this mechanism may be refuted on thermodynamic
grounds. This should be investigated by a kinetic study of the effect of
FeO content on the rate of Si0 2 reduction into silicon in iron.
7.1.3.2. Gas-metal reactions

The kinetics of the rate of silicon transfer from SiO containing gas to
molten iron have been systematically investigated,12 and it was found
that silicon transfer to an iron free from carbon could be expressed by
the equation
SiO(g) + CO(g) = Si + CO2 (7.1.9)
The rate of the reaction was interpreted in terms of the competitive
adsorption ofSiO, CO, and CO2 molecules on the surface of molten iron
and, in the case of negligible CO2 in the atmosphere, could be expressed
by the following equation:
(7.1.10)
where K~o and k; denote the adsorption equilibrium coefficient of CO
and the apparent rate coefficient, respectively, with the following values:
Temperature (0C) 1570 1615 1670
K~o 10·3 2·8 1·3
k; (kgmollm2·s·atm) 9·9 11·5 15·6
When iron contains carbon, reaction (7.1.11) can take place in
addition to reaction (7.1.9).
SiO + ~ = Si + CO (7.1.11)
Laboratory investigation, however, revealed that changing the partial
pressure of CO had no effect on the rate of silicon transfer from SiO to
molten iron containing carbon, and any contribution by reaction (7.1.9)
could be neglected; the rate could be represented by the following
equation:
(7.1.12)
When the iron contained 2·78% carbon, k; was observed to be
2·0 ± 0·1 X 10-3 (kgmol/m2·s·atm) in the temperature range 1570-
l670°C, with temperature having little effect.
For carbon-saturated iron, the following empirical expression was
given:
RSi = k;PSiO - k~Pco[% Si] (7.1.13)
k; = 1·1 X 1()5exp(-65 OOO/RT) (kgmol/m2 • s· atm) (7.1.14)
k~ = 1·4 X 108 exp(-123 OOO/RT) (kgmollm2 • s· atm) (7.1.15)
7.1.3.3. Coke-slag reactions

As previously mentioned, there are two major sources of SiO, the ash in
coke and the slag.
The dissection of blast furnaces revealed that the Si02content of coke
ash started to decrease from temperatures around 1400°C, as indicated
in Fig 7.1.6,23 which suggests that SiO evaporates from the coke
appreciably above 1400°C. No systematic measurements, however, on
the kinetics of SiO generation from coke have been carried out.
7.0
6.0
~ 5.0
<1>
(\ 4.0
u
o 2.0
.~
Vi
3.0
• 0 lumpy zone
Softening and melting zone
.6. Dropping zone labove luyere)
... lin front of tuyerel
1.0 0 {below tuyereJ
~0~0-8~00~90LO~I~OO~O~II~OO-I~20~O~13-00~1~40~O~I~~O-16LOO-l~70-0~18LOO~1900
Temperature lOCI
Fig. 7.1.6. Change of Si02 content in coke with increasing temperature in a

blast fumace. 23
One of the reasons may be the difficulty in providing a well defined

specimen of coke for kinetic studies, because of its porous and
inhomogeneous structure. But such qualitative information as the effect
of temperature can be obtained by comparison of weight loss curves as
shown in Fig. 7.1.7. 24 Here, coke specimens with dimensions shown in
the figure were cut from an ordinary metallurgical coke and rapidly
heated in a CO stream. The ash content of the original coke was 10%; the
heating time up to 1500°C was 1 min and up to 1700°C it was
3 min.
In this case, the weight decrease at 1500°C was fairly small and the
extent of reaction (7.1.16) corresponding to the weight loss, was around
5% in 15 min. On the other hand, the weight loss at 1700°C was
substantial, and almost 100% of the Si02 was reduced in 15 min. The fact
that 20% ofthe weight loss was attained during the time for heating up
from 1500°C to 1700°C in 3 min indicates the rapid increase in the rate
of reaction (7.1.16) at temperatures above 1500°C.
Si0 2 + C = SiO(g) + CO(g) (7.1.16)
• 1500"C, CO •= I aIm •
-001
~
Q)
8
'0 Weighl
~ -0.02
OJ~ = 053449
~
o
u ==}
-"'2' M
~ -0.03
1700"C, CO = I aIm
-0.04
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time 1m in)
Fig. 7.1.7. Comparison of weight change of coke with time at different

tempera tures.
As to another source of SiO, the reaction between slag and coke, the
kinetics of SiO generation by the following reaction between slag and
graphite have been investigated: 25
Si0 2(1) + C(gr) = SiO(g) + CO(g) (7.1.17)
The overall rate of the forward reaction of (7.1.17), R SiO (kgmol!s), is
given by the following equation:
R SiO = (W,/MSi02 ) (d[%Si02]1dt) = ksioAs-gAsio2 (7.1.18)
where As _ g and k SiO denote the slag-graphite interfacial area and the
rate constant for the forward reaction, respectively.
The values of kSiO reported in the literature 12,25.26 have been plotted
against the reciprocal temperature in Fig. 7.1.8 and significant scatter is
evident. The correlation line between log k SiO and 1/T obtained by the
authors has a bending point around 1700 DC; at lower temperatures this
relationship can be expressed by the following equation:
k SiO = 9·0 X 104exp( - 86 OOO(RT) (kgmol!m2's'atm) (7.1.19)
and at higher temperatures by the equation

k SiO = 2·3 X 1015 exp( -180 OOO/Rl) (kgmoIlm 2·s·atm) (7.1.20)
The reason for the change in relationship around 1700 0 C is not clear,
but it may be related to such phenomena as wetting between slag and
graphite which becomes increasingly appreciable above this temperature.
Figure 7.1.8 indicates that the rate coefficient of SiO generation from
MgO-containing slag is 40-50% less than that from slag without
MgO.
Appreciable generation of Mg vapor is commonly observed from
MgO-containing slags in contact with graphite or coke at high
temperatures, according to the following equation:
MgO(1) + C(s) = Mg(g) + CO(g) (7.1.21)
Temp. lOCI
2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500
\
Slag Composition
-3.5
\ \
\ \ (00 0'0 S,O,"'O AI,Ol"'" MgOno A," ,,,
\ \ () 43 35 22 eOAr 9
\ \
® 43 20 CO
•
40 9
\ \
\ \ 38 42 20 - CO.Ar 9
\ \ 0 32 41 17 10 CO.A,
.
-4.0 9
\\ \\ ~ 43 35 17 5 CQ,Ar 9
41 35 18 6 CO 9
\~
\ \. 6• 4l
A In
35 18
Ar atmospilere
6 CO
-4.5
.'. \
... \ "6 chemIcal anolYSIS
"'~~
~
-5.0
NE
u
~.
0 o • b.
.5 -5.5 o .. i 0
.s
Q)
A~~.
~.GI.·~I
-6.0
" ~bl'~
-6.5
w E R
dl~c::'
OO~
a) - 60 -70 16)
6)
fl~~el
b) 93
cI 07. 70 18) \
d) 5 70 In
-7.0 0) 5 126 171
'11 17) ~gl
5 130
g) 22 180 16)
h) 025,1.2 90,180 19)
-7.5
4A 4.6 4~ ~O 52 5A 5~ 5~
liT X 10' IK-II
Fig. 7.1.8. Temperature dependence of the rate constant ofSiO generation by

reaction of slag with graphite.
Since this reaction is endothermic, it would be expected to have a

significant influence on the rate of SiO generation.
According to eqn (7.1.18), the rate of SiO generation from slag
depends not only on the rate coefficient k SiO and the activity of Si02 in
slag but also on the area of reaction surface between slag and graphite,
As _ g' which is greatly influenced by the wetting behavior of molten slag
on solid carbon.
The extent of wetting of liquid on the solid surface is schematically
represented in Fig. 7.1.9. Fig.7.1.9(a) represents adhesion wetting
(characterized by a contact angle larger than 90°), which results in a
very small contact area between both phases.
Immersion wetting is shown in Fig. 7.1.9(b). Here, the contact angle is
less than 90 ° and the contact area is a few times larger than for adhesion
wetting.
CO 1 aIm at 1700"C for 10 min CO 1 aIm of 1700"C for 10 min J CO 101m ot 1700"C for 5 min
Graphite
Graphite •
10 39 SiC powder 10 39 SiC pOINder
Adhesion wetting Immersion wetting Spreading weltillg

90 < 8< 180' 8 < 90' 8 = 0'
41 CaO-39 5,0 2 -20 A1 2 0 3 -51ag 41 CoO-39 5,0 2 -20 A1 2 0 3 -510g 39 CoO-40 5,0 2 -20 AI 20 3
Without SIC powder -0.85- 510 9

39 CoO-40 5,0,-20 AI 2 0 3 -O.8 5-510g
Conleel areo 0.5 crr: z Contact area 1.3 cm 2 Contact orea 6.5 cm 2
01 bl cI
Fig. 7.1.9. Schematic representation of the state of contact of slag droplet with
graphite.
Figure 7.1.9(c) represents the maximum extent of wetting and is

termed spreading wetting. In this state, the liquid phase spreads over the
solid surface and the contact angle is usually too small to be measured.
In the case of the slag-graphite system, it has often been observed that
slag in a graphite crucible creeps over the wall and oozes out of the
crucible when it is held at a very high temperature (above 1600-1650 0c).
This is a typical example of spreading wetting in which the reaction

interface between both phases increases tremendously.
When the state of contact between slag and graphite changes as (a) to
(b) to (c) in Fig. 7.1.9, the contact area increased from several times to at
least ten times, which by itself may result in an order of magnitude
increase in the overall rate of SiO generation. Since coke particles well
wetted by slag are frequently observed in samples from working
furnaces, the wetting behavior has to be taken into account in the
analysis of reactions in the blast furnace.
Although a quantitative expression for the change of the state of
wetting is not available, the major factors which influence the wetting
phenomenon of slag to graphite have been clarified as follows: 25
(i) The mechanism of wetting seems to be closely related to the
formation of SiC at the slag-graphite interface. Wetting is promoted by
conditions favorable for SiC formation, such as high temperatures and
low CO partial pressures. It is also promoted by the addition of even
ppm levels of SiC powder to the interface. Figure 7.1.10 indicates the
Time (min)
10 20 30
50.0
.-.J
~
I• 0 1700'C
1750'C
I
0
a
U 0 _ _ 0 _ _0 - - - - 0
40.0
40.9 CoO·39.1 5iO,·200 AI,03, Slag

40.0
--':."-e 0-0--0-0
~
r5Vi ' \ Sweo,"," we";'"
30.0 •
~no
?J2 l /
20.0 _ _ _ _' - ,_o_~_o_~
/ 1
10 20 30
Time {min)
Fig. 7.1.10. Composition of slag in contact with graphite.

changes of slag components with time when a slag droplet was held on
the graphite surface. At the instant when the state of wetting shifted to
spreading wetting, the Si0 2 content started to decrease quite rapidly by
SiO generation, and an abrupt change of slag composition resulted.
Figure 7.1.11 shows the effect of temperature on the initiation of
spreading wetting. In these particular conditions, there seems to be a
critical temperature between 1700°C and l750°C, above which
spreading takes place in a short time.
7 co ~ I atm, 3 min. keep

CoO 5iO, AI,O" MgO 5
,
6 o 40 40 20
.... 40 40 19.6 0.4
.40 40 19.2 0.8
N 5 • 40 40 18.5 1.5
/
E
u 042 35 18 5
J.
o
~ 4
U
o
8 3
U
£,
2
=-
o
1650 1700 1750
Temp I'CI
Fig. 7.1.11. Effects of temperature and slag composition on the contact area
with graphite.
(ii) Sulfur, which causes a decrease in surface energy facilitates

spreading wetting. Figure 7.1.11 shows also that slag containing 0·8-1·0%
sulfur is most likely to wet graphite and lower the temperature at which
spreading wetting commences.
(iii) MgO in slag has a tendency to depress wetting and raise the
temperature at which spreading wetting commences, as shown in
Fig. 7.1.12. An effective way to minimize SiO evaporation from slag is to
increase the MgO content in the slag. Although the favorable effect of
MgO addition to sinter and pellets for low Si operation of the blast
furnace is mostly attributed to the improvement of high temperature
properties, the effect on reducing SiO generation may also playa role.
•
I
7 t
/
/V
6
]
o 4 1"1
"
Q)
co
I [~-/0
1750·C 1 aIm
v
(00% S,OI% AlzOJ% MgO% so,;,
~
o o 41 39 20 - -
U 2 • 39 40 20 - 08 -
o 41 355 18 55 -
• 32 41 17 9 0.9
~ . .!.
I
o
o 5 10 15
Time (min)
Fig. 7.1.12. Effect ofMgO on wetting by sulfur-containing slag at 1750°C.
The temperature dependence of k SiO in Fig. 7.1.8 was obtained under

adhesion conditions. Nevertheless, the possibility of any contribution
of spreading wetting should not be completely ruled out at high
temperatures. In fact, the observed values of k SiO obtained for spreading
wetting were very much larger, as shown by the dashed line in the upper
region of Fig. 7.1.8. Hence, it is possible to say that the existence of the
bending point in the correlation line oflog k SiO and liT may reflect the
change of contact between slag and graphite.
Since kSiO' as well as the area of reaction interface, are greatly
influenced by temperature, the overall rate ofSiO generation expressed
by eqn (7.1.18) can sharply increase above the critical temperature.
Thus it can be concluded that the overall rate of SiO generation from
slag in the blast furnace is definitely dependent on the volume of the
high temperature region above the critical temperature, and may be
influenced by slag composition and the partial pressure of CO in the
furnace.
7.2. OTHER REACTIONS
7.2.1. Manganese
The reaction of Mn in the blast furnace is given as follows:
MnO(l) + C = Mn + CO (7.2.1)
logK = - 11 600fT + 7·68 (7.2.2)
This is strongly influenced by Si in the metal and Si02 in the slag

through the reaction
Mn + !Si02(l) = MnO(l) + !Si (7.2.3)
The following relationship is experimentally obtained for a wide
range of Si in metal (%Si = 0·01-3'5):27
(M n) /i"CTi
logK = log [Mn] 'y [SI]
= -1-41(%CaO + %MnO)/(%Si0 2) + 1-48 (7.2.4)

In recent blast furnace operations it is suggested that even eqn (7.2.3)
is not in equilibrium, and that the reverse reaction in eqn (7.2.3) is
favored; this may be regarded as evidence that Si is not reduced directly
from slag. 16,28
7.2.2. Titanium
In ordinary blast furnace operations in Japan, Ti is included in the
burden at about 2 kgTiit-hot metal, its major sources being ore and
coke.
At blast furnace hearth conditions, Ti is known to be amphoteric, and
the ratio Ti3+ ITi 4 + varies with temperature, Pco and the basicity of the
slag. 29
Although levels of up to 10% of the oxide in blast furnace slag
improve its viscosity, the fluidity of hot metal decreases with increase in
Ti content, and hot metal becomes almost non-fluid at a titanium level
of 0·8% at 1500 0c. 30 This is mainly attributed to the strong interaction of
Ti with Nand C:
Ti + C(gr) = TiC(s) -31300 + l4·llT (7.2.5)
Ti + V2N2 = TiN(s) -66900 + 32·9lT (7.2.6)
Nitride and carbide formation have quite large temperature depen-
dences and the solubility products of [Ti]· [N] and [Ti]· [C] sharply
decrease with decreasing temperature. Accordingly, in operation with
high Ti hot metal, the solid solution Ti(N, C) precipitates from the metal
in the lower temperature region of the hearth.
It is well known that, for large inputs of Ti0 2 into the furnace, so
called 'titanium bear' is formed and problems occur such as poor
fluidity of discharged metal, decrease in available volume of the hearth,
etc.
On the other hand, titanium bear precipitates are generally

considered to protect the hearth refractory, and blast furnace operation
with a large amount of additional Ti02 in the burden i~ frequently
conducted when some abnormally high temperature spots are found at
the bottom of the blast furnace.
However, there are alternative views on the protective effect of
titanium compounds on the refractory. Even if there is a positive effect,
it may in turn cause poor permeability for liquid droplets in the
dropping zone, and decrease liquid flow rate in the hearth.
Although the reaction mechanism of Ti in the furnace has not yet
been clarified, it is known that Ti content in hot metal has a very close
correlation with Si, as is indicated in Fig. 7.2.l, which may suggest a
similar mechanism to the reduction of Si.
1.20
0.96
.'
072 . :- .,/.~::.:
;;;1 .:" :.~.
cJ2 ." :;, ":
0.48
....
:." .: ..
...
.'
0.24
ooLL--0-'--.06--0-'-.1-2--0-J..1-S-----'0.2-4----'0.30
%Ti
Fig. 7.2.1. Correlation between %Si and %Ti in hot metal.
7.3. APPLICATION OF REACTION MODELS OF SILICON TO

BLAST FURNACE OPERATION
7.3.1. Review of Silicon Reaction Models

Silicon in hot metal has a very long history as a measure of the thermal
state of the blast furnace, perhaps back to the time of the transition of
the blast furnace from charcoal to coke.
Because iron from the coke blast furnace contains considerably more
sulfur than that from the charcoal blast furnace, serious problems were
encountered with hot fracture. Assurance of sufficient desulfurization
in the furnace was therefore a most important matter for the blast
furnace operator.
The extent of desulfurization was detennined by observation of the
color reflected by a gray surface due to graphite precipitation as a result
of a high Si content. A white surface accompanied by low Si content was
an indication of high sulfur. In this way, the inverse correlation between
Si and S content has long been used to judge the quality of pig iron.
Thus it was quite natural that, when a scientific approach was
initiated to control modern blast furnace operation Si was used as a
measure of the thermal state of the furnace. In an early investigation of
the model of the thermal state of the blast furnace, IRSID carried out a
heat balance in the lower part of the furnace and developed a
correlation between excess heat and Si. 31
The Muchi model,32 which has a classical value as the first universal
model of the Si02reaction with a large temperature dependence, showed
a strong correlation between Si content and the thermal state of the
furnace.
Tsuchiya 33 proposed a dynamic model of the blast furnace which was
composed of five reaction zones, each with a representative composition
and temperature. The solid temperature in the high temperature zone
was identified as a variable, while the other factors were assumed
constant. Using blast furnace operating data, he found a good
correlation between the solid temperature in the high temperature zone
and %Si. Although the model was quite simple, the correlation between
Si and the thermal state of the furnace was clearly shown.
Meanwhile an appreciable advance was made in operating tech-
nology of large blast furnaces, namely the use of highly basic sintered
ores. Through efforts for reduction of fuel costs in the blast furnace, the
production of hot metal with high temperature and low Si content
became possible (contrary to past performance). As a result, an attempt
was made to understand the behavior of the lower part of the furnace
through the reaction ofSi, and the mechanism ofSi transfer via SiO was
proposed.
Hatano et al. 34 developed a blast furnace model based on adding the
SiO mechanism to Tsuchiya's model. They assumed that Si in the gas
phase was absorbed by liquid metal droplets in the lower region of the
blast furnace, and that the height of the region ML, reflected the thermal
state of the furnace and resulted in the correlation with %Si. Figure 7.3.1
demonstrates an example of this analysis. For different capacities, a
good correlation between the height of the melting zone and %Si is
shown.
Through these analyses, a deeper understanding of softening and
melting of the burden has been obtained.
. /,
1.20
"..--,
",,"" D \
/
/" 0 a I
.;' 0 DO I
'aDDD 01
, aD I
0.90 ,/D a ap
, Dr
, I
" C BF
o
11" 0.60
E
<J)
0.30
OL-____ ~ ______ ~ ____- L_ _ _ _ ~
o 10 2.0 3.0 X 10- 5

!:.- . I· P"" 1m'· aIm· hr/kg)
M
Fig. 7.3.1. Comparison of actual %Si with calculated value based on the Si
transfer model.
7.3.2. Partition Reactions of Si, Sand Mn
7.3.2.1. Introduction
Silicon, sulfur and manganese charged into the blast furnace are
eventually partitioned between slag and metal tapped out of the furnace.
The practical partition ratios of these three elements, however, are not
uniquely determined under given thermodynamic conditions, and vary
with operational conditions. This suggests that the transfer reactions of
Si, Sand Mn do not take place in the same region; in particular, the Si
transfer reaction occurs mainly in the region from the surface of the slag
layer to the level where iron ores melt, i.e. in the coke bed in the lower
part of the furnace, where molten slag and metal droplets are
descending. If the region that governs the partition of Si, Sand Mn
between slag and metal is known, the physical and chemical conditions
in this region can be estimated from practical partition ratios of the
three elements. Accordingly, the degrees to which the partition reactions
have proceeded are important in judging variations in the condition of
the lower region.
A method for estimating the volume of the coke bed in the lower
region, i.e. the volume of the dropping zone and the amount of
unreduced ferrous oxide descending into the hearth, is presented below.
7.3.2.2. Regions governing partition ratios of Si, Sand Mn

Although dissections of quenched furnaces in Japan have given
valuable information on reaction paths in the furnace, chemical
analyses of samples taken from working furnaces and operational data
have made it possible to estimate the regions that govern the partition
reactions of Si, Sand Mn35 (Fig. 7.3.2):
(i) The region of Si transfer into iron: from the surface of the slag
layer in the hearth to the lower surface ofthe cohesive zone where
iron ores melt, i.e. the coke bed through which slag and metal
droplets are trickling
01
SiO ' C Cohesive
~~Si I co zone
Dropping
zone ~~6C>::
bl
"'-
Hearth S i 2e---J"S~
Mn' I j 2e--~Mn
Fig. 7.3.2. Reactions in the lower region of the blast furnace.

(ii) The region ofMn transfer into iron and S transfer into slag: slag
layer in the hearth through which iron droplets are trickling
7.3.2.3. Indices for judging the condition of the lower region

In order to judge the condition of the lower region from the practical
partition ratios ofSi, Sand Mn between slag and metal, it is appropriate
to set standard partition ratios and to examine to what degree the
practical partition ratios have approached these standard values. If the
equilibrium partition ratios are taken as the standard values, the
standard values are dependent on slag composition, temperature and
oxygen partial pressure. Therefore the attainment, i.e. the ratio of the
practical partition ratio of each element to the standard partition ratio,
which includes the effects of furnace volume, hearth temperature and
slag basicity, is selected as a measure for determining operational
conditions.
In the case of Si, however, since the transfer takes place through gas-
metal reaction in the region from the surface of the slag layer in the
hearth to the melting level of ores, the silicon partition does not directly
reflect conditions in the hearth. Thus, for the sake of convenience, the
hearth parameters are selected for the calculation, under the assumption
that variations in the parameters of the coke bed region are proportional
to those of the hearth.
(aJ Calculation of equilibrium partition ratios. Equilibrium partition
ratios of Si, Sand Mn (L~i' L~, L~n) are calculated as follows:
= (Si0 2)
lSi] + O 2 (7.3.1)
dGO = -196270 + 55·82T
[S] = !S2 (7.3.2)
dGO = 32280 - 5·6T

[Mn] + !02 = (MnO) (7.3.3)
dGO = 96376 + 28·82T

The oxygen partial pressure which governs the above three reactions, is
given by
C + !02 = CO (7.3.4)
dGo = 26700 - 20·95T

By the use of the above four equations, the equilibrium partition ratios
of Si, Sand Mn can be expressed: 35
31221
10gL~i 210gPeo - -T-+ 20·70 (7.3.5)
1·79(%CaO) + 1·24(%MgO)
10gL~ = 1.35 1.66(%Si02) + 0.33(%Al20 3)
8130
-logPco - -T- + 4·15 (7.3.6)
15226
10gL~n = -logPco - - T - + 10·88 (7.3.7)
where the units of CO partial pressure, Peo, and temperature, T, are

atmospheric pressure (atm) and absolute temperature (K), respectively.
Although the value ofT should represent the temperature of the hearth,
hot metal temperature is used here because of the impossibility of direct
measurement of hearth temperature. CO partial pressure is estimated
by eqn (7.3.8), in which nucleation of CO at the slag-metal interface is
taken into account. 35
Peo(atm) = [1 + 0·967 X blast pressure (kg/cm2, gauge) ]
+ 0·192[distance from tuyere to taphole (m) - 0·75](7.3.8)
(b) Calculation ofpractical partition ratios. Practical partition ratios (LSi'
L s, L Mn ) are calculated from the chemical composition of slag and metal
tapped out of the furnace:
= fSi· [%Si]lasio2
LSi (7.3.9)
logfsi = 0·18[%C] + 0·11 [%Si]
Ls = (%S)ifs· [%S] (7.3.10)
logfs 0·11 [%C] - 0·026 [%Mn] + 0·063 [%Si]
L Mn = fMn· [%Mn]/a MnO (7.3.11)
10gfMn = - 0·07 [%C] - 0·017 [%Si]
whereJi represents the activity coefficient and ai the activity of species i.
(c) Indicesfor judgingfurnace conditions. Hot metal temperature is an
important indicator of the thermal state of a furnace. Si content in hot
metal, however, is often observed to vary according to operational
conditions other than hot metal temperature, slag chemistry, blast

pressure and combined blast condition, which are kept virtually
constant. Therefore the in-furnace thermal state should be estimated in
two parts: the thermal state of the hearth represented by hot metal
temperature, and the thermal state of the lower region represented by
the distance from the surface of the slag layer to the melting level of
ores.
For a furnace with a deteriorated operational condition, high sulfur
content hot metal is often observed in spite of a high silicon content. The
reverse is true for manganese content, i.e. a low content in hot metal. Hot
metal with an extraordinary high sulfur content accompanies black-
coloured slag attributed to a high FeO content.
From the above facts, the following three indices are introduced from
judging furnace conditions:
(A) Hearth heat index; hot metal temperature. This represents the
amount of heat carried by melts descending into the hearth.
(B) Thermal state index:
RSi = (Ls/L~J X 100 (7.3.12)

to represent the distance from the surface of the slag layer in the
hearth to the melting level of ores, Le. the height of the dropping
zone. This index takes into account the effect of contact time
between iron droplets and SiO gas in the dropping zone.
(C) Operational condition index:
Rs = (Ls/L;J X 100 and R Mn = (LMn/L~n) X 100 (7.3.13)
When a furnace is in a deteriorated condition, an increase in
FeO content in the slag takes place and is accompanied by a
high sulfur and also a low manganese content in the hot metal.
Therefore the index represents the amount of FeO which has
descended into the hearth.
Figure 7.3.3 shows the factors influencing the above three indices. On
the right-hand side of the figure, three levels reached by unreduced FeO
are schematically shown; case (a) will result in the lowest value ofRs and
R Mn . The influence ofFeO onRSi is an increase ofFeO in the lower region
means that the melting level of ores has become lower, Le. the height of
the dropping zone has decreased. This corresponds to an increase in the
thermal flow ratio.
(0) (b) !cl
Residence time FeO.,

Temp, _
Bosh zone
Cp,c., * Pressure 0
Cp, 9
SiO I C---.
co
-C
SI I
Flame r-"...
Combustion Flame _ temp L,./ p" c::)
temp
5mput 0
------ ------ --f---"-------i
FeO" FeO"
Temp. • Temp. • (5"1<- 2' 2e, IMn!) j 2e-~
Hearth
Heat
loss Slog ~ Slog """-
comp L,./ camp Lv'
* tCp,( Cp.g: ratio of thermal COpoclty of condensed phase flow to thaI of gas flow)
Fig. 7.3.3. Factors influencing hot metal temperature, R Si , R Mn and Rs. Filled
arrows, strong factors; unfilled arrows, weaker factors.
7.3.2.4. Application of the indices

(a) Relationship between indices andfuel rate. Using monthly averaged
data of Chiba No.3, No. 4 and No. 5 furnaces (Kawasaki Steel
Corporation), during the period from the end of 1975 to the beginning of
1976, relationships between operational factors and the indices have
been derived, and are shown in Fig. 7.3.4.
From October 1975 to January 1976 each furnace was operated with a
steadily decreasing fuel rate, resulting from an increase in ore/coke.
Although the hot metal temperature at each furnace was kept either
almost constant or was slightly increased, RSi> Rs and R Mn declined
during the period, suggesting that the average height of the dropping
zone decreased, and the amount of FeO descending into the hearth
increased. It can be seen from the figure that the decline in R Si , Rs and
R Mn correlates with the decrease in fuel rate due to the increase in ore/coke.
Mter February 1976, the fuel rate was raised at each furnace with
either constant or decreased ore/coke. The hot metal temperature was
kept almost constant during the period, but RSi> Rs and R Mn increased,
suggesting an increase in the dropping zone height and a decrease in the
amount of FeO in the hearth.
1520 100 "'-

"-.'
1500
I-
,;2 80 ,,:
, ~~l'.
1480
i 60 ~: {!1f11
~~ ::~ ~1 350 ~w
4501~ - !
,. o ~ '" vr: 1 X
/rX r~
., 38 : 70
o~ 36 '-
...-- I
J
5O '~
34 ,--'-~--'----'
' - I.....
,! I,
10 II 12 I 2 3 10 11 12 I 2 3
'75 76 75 76
o 3BF . • 4BF . / 5BF
Fig. 7.3.4. Relationships between operational factors and R Si , RMn and Rs.
Almost the same correlation between ore/coke and indices (B) and
(C) is also observed in daily operation, as shown in Fig. 7.3.5 (Chiba No.
6 furnace). The figure shows the correlation before and after a
temporary shut-down.
Using a mathematical simulation of the blast furnace, the above
correlation can be explained through the change in the average height
of the dropping zone, which is governed by the thermal flow ratio. 36, 37
(b) Comparison of different furnaces. Characteristic features of the
differences of RSi and Rs between the three furnaces in Fig. 7.3.4 are as
follows. In contrast with NO.5 furnace (with low Rs in spite of high RsJ,
for No. 3 furnace RSi was the smallest of an, while Rs was the highest. These
phenomena occurred because the burden descent was irregular for No.5
furnace, but smooth for No. 3 furnace. In a furnace with unstable
burden descent, FeO is not sufficiently reduced in the lower region, even
if the average height of the dropping zone is controlled at a high valve.
As a matter of fact, No.5 furnace was operated during the above period,
with alternate formation and peeling-off of scaffolds, and the ore/coke
300
o
... ,,;""p------O .... - .................O 0
~ 200 O---~----_O___
o 0--
-D-
--/5--0-"
...... 0""'/0 0 ... - _______~--O- .. ..JJ
300 • o
100
r2 200
100
~ 40 [
o 3.0
Delay time Ihr-minl

1/ r \
I : 04 19 : 36 3 : 06
15 20
Time (day)
Fig. 7.3.5. Relationships between ore/coke and RSi and Rs before and after
shutting down.
could not be increased. As a consequence, comparison ofR si withR s can

lead to a judgment of furnace operational conditions.
(c) Relation between radial distribution ofgas flow and ratio of Rs to R Si •
The root of the cohesive zone does not necessarily stay at a constant
level, but varies depending on the thermal flow ratio in the peripheral
region. If the reaction region for Si and S is considered to be in a
restricted area, i.e. in the periphery, the direction (increase or decrease)
of the change is the same for both RSi and Rs. AI though it has not been
proved that the fractional change would be the same for both RSi and
R Mn , if the fraction is assumed to be almost the same for both indices the
following phenomenon can be observed. Since the value of RSi depends
on the volume of the dropping zone, RsiRsi is expected to vary with
change in the shape of the cohesive zone, and to decrease with an
increase in the height of the dropping zone. Therefore, on the basis of
the correlation between the shape of the cohesive zone and the radial
distribution of the gas composition measured with an in-burden shaft
probe, as shown in Fig. 7.3.6, an index for gas distribution, indicated in
Fig. 7.3.7, was introduced. When the gas index, S3-1O, becomes large, the
top of the cohesive zone is judged to be developing (Fig. 7.3.6, A), and
o Co'e
~3 _ L 3 • O re
' '--> ,
3 A
;~--~:" l',":"~
2
; ~~'
'1 ~ ~wO--Q,
~ I ~
0 ' , ~ • •
Z I 2 3 • 5 6 7 8 9 10 I 2 3 • 5 6 7 8 9 10 o I 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10
Till,ng POSlllOn of thule
1%1 ' \ CO 1%1 " CO

30 '"
3O ~"'b.
20' ~ 20
10
__
CO,
"-0-_
---'>--0
10 / CO,
3 5 9 10 9 10 9 10
Cenler Wall
Fig. 7.3.6. Conceptual shapes of cohesive zone and the corresponding radial
gas distribution patterns.
1%1
53 = 2: (I%COli - 1%CO,l i J
ou
10
I, = 3, 5, 7, 9, 101
0"""
0'
u co ""
'0 _____ --o()l-------l----~-_-_t:::g
..o-_------.cr----
C02 /cr"--'"
,,~,"
d/
__ - " -___ -'------'-_--'---~_ _L__'----~_"__...J
5 9 10
ICenterl IW all 1
Fig. 7.3.7. Definition of gas distribution index, S3-1O'

50
100 1.50 2.00

Rs/Rsi
Fig. 7.3.8. Relationship between RslRsi and gas distribution index, S3-1O'
vice versa (Fig. 7.3.6, C). Figure 7.3.8 shows the relationship between the
gas index, S3-1O, and R siR Si, and each point in the figure is the 5-1O-day
averaged value. As expected, negative slope was obtained; this suggests
that the shape of the cohesive zone, including the level of the root, can
be monitored by Rs/Rsi and Rs especially in the case of low fuel rate
operation.
7.3.3. Mathematical Model of Silicon Reactions in the Blast Furnace

A one-dimensional mathematical model of the blast furnace, incor-
porating the major processes above tuyere level, was developed by
Muchi et al. 38 This model precisely represents operational characteristics
in terms of a chemical engineering approach. The model does not
consider the silicon transfer mechanism, as the behavior of molten
materials is not treated. The two-stage operational model (IRSID
model) developed by Staib et al.,39 based on mass and heat balances,
predicts short-term variations in silicon content in the pig iron. It aims
to relate accumulated heat in the blast furnace, calculated from actual
data, with silicon content. On the other hand, Fielden et al.,40 using a
dynamic model, calculated the amount of silicon transfer by the slag-
metal reaction. However, the results showed that the calculated change
in silicon content in pig iron depends only on hot metal temperature.
7.3.3.1. Model fonnulation

On the assumption of one-dimensional material flow, the model
developed below considers all the regions from the stock level to the
hearth. For a unit of cross-sectional area of a packed column, a non-
steady state material balance within the infinitesimal height dz is

represented by the following equation:
(Time-dependent variations of accumulation)
(Difference between in-flow and out-flow of the phase considered)
+ (Transfer from other phases into the phase considered)
+ (Generation rate of reaction product)
which, ignoring the amount transferred between phases, leads to the
following differential equation:
aXkPt = _ aXkPt Vi + ~~f3UJR. (7.3.l4)
ae az j i k.I 1
In a similar manner the following equation IS derived for the

differential heat balance:
aCIPtTI aCIPtvlT I
ae = - az + ~h'lA
j ).
I(T - T\U
).)
+
o 2hw
r (Tw
1
_ UJ
TI) + 7CjTj~rf3k.iRi
+ ~al(- flHJR i
1
(7.3.15)
where 1 refers to one of the four phases gas (g), solid (s), metal (m), slag
(sl), and j refers to the three of these phases; i represents one of the
reactions: indirect reduction of ore, solution loss, direct reduction of ore,
melting of metal and ferrous oxide, melting of gangue material,
carburization of molten iron, SiO gas generation, Si absorption by
molten iron; and k represents the reacting components.
The variables are represented by: X, concentration of component; P *,
mass of the phase considered in the unit volume of the packed column;
e, time; V, actual flow rate (upward flow is taken as positive); Z, height
(up is positive); R, reaction rate; C, specific heat; T, temperature; r,
furnace radius; (- flH), heat of reaction.
Also, f3~\ is a coefficient which represents the mass transfer resulting
from the reaction, which either enters from another phase into the
considered phase (> 0) or exits the considered phase for j phase « 0), h j
are heat transfer coefficients between the j phase and the 1phase;A j . 1 are
the effective interfacial areas; hw is the heat transfer coefficient between
the gas and the furnace wall; Tw is the wall temperature; 0 1 is the
proportion of heat transferred to the furnace wall; a l is the reaction heat
of the phase considered.
Equations (7.3.14) and (7.3.15) are the partial differential equations

with respect to time (8) and position (Z). In order to be integrated
numerically by the method of characteristics, they are modified as
follows.
(a) Differential mass balance equation for gas phase. The variation in
accumulation is so little that it can be ignored in comparison with the
convection factor; hence the following equations are obtained (where
G = pi . Vg):
(7.3.16)
dX
dZ
k = (~~f3k(j}·R
j i ' I
- Xk~k ~~f3~)·R-\IG
j i
I ... iJ I
(7.3.17)
(b) Differential heat balance equation for gas phase.
= _
dTg
dZ !f(CjTj CgTg)~ f f3(j)URi
+ hg,sAg,s(Ts - TJ
+ (2hwlr) (Tw - Tg)]lCgG (7.3.18)
where
ag = 0,
Here, the heat transfer between gas and liquid phases is so little in
comparison with that between gas and solid phases, as well as solid and
liquid phases, that it can be neglected.
(c) Differential mass balance equation for solid phase. When substances
in the solid phases disappear due to gas-solid and solid-liquid
reactions, the following equation is obtained, if the bulk densities of ore
and coke (Po and Pc) remain constant:
oVs _
+ ~~f3c,iR/p
(j) (j)
.:JZ - ~~f3o,iR/po (7.3.19)
v J I J I
where f3~:i andf3~:i are mass coefficients of substances exiting from ore or
coke layer to phase j. By substitution of eqn (7.3.19) into eqn (7.3.14), the
following equations are obtained:
ops + V op; =
V
.:J8 s .:JZ
C/
(1 - p;)~~f3(j);R + (1 - P;\)~~f3(j)'R
p0
"J 1
0, I P
01
"J 1
o. I I
(7.3.20)
(7.3.21)
(d) Differential heat balance equation for solid phase. For reactions
involving the solid phase, only the disappearance of a substance is
considered. This leads to eqn (7.3.22) on the basis of the fourth term on
the right-hand side of eqn (7.3.15) being equal to CsTsp:(iJV.liJZ);
iJC.liJZ = O,c5 s = 0; as = 1 for gas-solid reaction, while as = 0 for solid-
liquid reaction.
iJTs iJTs
iJ() + Vs iJZ = [hg.sAg.s(Tg - Ts) + hs.mAs.m(Tm - Ts)
+ hs.sIAs.sI(TsI - Ts) + ~as(- AHi)Rd/Csp:
1
(7.3.22)
(e) Differential mass balance equations for metal and slag phases. If the
formed melts are retained in the voids of the packed column until
melting is completed (i.e. the melting fraction is unity), the melts
descend at the same velocity as the solid, Vs. Metal and slag volume
fractions with respect to the unit volume of the packed column,H! and
H~, can then be obtained through the following equations obtained
from eqn (7.3.14):
(7.3.23)
iJPsIH~ V iJpsIH~ = ~f3 R _ H*iJVs (7.3.24)

iJ() + s iJZ slag k.4 4 PsI sl iJZ
Substituting eqn (7.3.19) into the above equations and integrating them
in the melting zone leads to the following equations at the lower
boundary of the melting zone, which show the volume flow rate of metal
and slag, U m and Usb including the sign of V:
Um = -Hm·Vm = -H:;'·Vs (7.3.25)
U sl = - HsI" VsI = - H sI · Vs (7.3.26)
Here H m, Hsb Vm and V sI respectively represent the hold-up and the
actual linear velocity, in the dropping zone, of metal and slag. If the
variation of U m and Usb due to the Si transfer reaction after dropping
starts, is minimal, Um and Usb and hence H m and Hsb are taken to be
constant on the same stream line (from eqns (7.3.49) and (7.3.50), hence
for V m and V sl :
(7.3.27)
Therefore the following equation shows the Si concentration in the

metal:
(7.3.28)
(f) Differential heat balance equation for metal and slag phases. If
am = asl = 1, with respect to the gas-liquid and solid-liquid reactions,
eqn (7.3.15) and eqn (7.3.27) lead to the following equations:
aTm V aTm _ (- t:.. H 6)R6 + hs.nAs,m(Ts - Tm)
.:Jll + m.:JZ - C mPm H m C mPm H m (7.3.29)
V(l V
aT sl + V I aT sl = (- t:..Hs)Rs + h s,s0s,iTs - TsJ (7.3.30)

ae s az CslPslHsl CslPslHsl
The above equations include nineteen integrands of the process

variables as shown in Table 7.3.1. Equations (7.3.20)-(7.3.24) and
(7.3.28)-(7.3.30) have, on the left-hand side, the partial differential form
of a jae + fI(a ;aZ). Meanwhile, with the use of the relationship
VI = dZ(l/de, the following differential equation can be obtained along
the stream line of phase 1:
aY I V; aYI _ dYI
ae + I az - de (7.3.31)
TABLE 7.3.1
Integrands in Each Phase
Gas G Ceo Ceo2 C N2 P SiO Pg Tg

Solid Ps X Fe Xo Xc X sl Ts Vs
Metal H*m PSi Tm
Slag H~ Tsl
A series of these differential equations can be integrated numerically by

the use of the method of characteristics in the following manner. If the
arbitrary initial values of the variables of solid, slag and metal phases
are given both at time f) and at heights Z, Z + ~Z, . .. , Z + n~Z, the

variables of the gas phase at Z + (n + 1)~Z on the time axis f)can be
integrated by using the initial values at Z = Z + n ~Z, and characteristic
lines for the three condensed phases (Fig. 7.3.9) can be determined for
each height after the calculation of V" V s1 and V m • Along the curve of
each phase, the variables of solid, slag and metal phases are integrated
under constant gas conditions in the time interval of f) and f) + ~f). The
gas condition varies only as a function of height.
Gas
t
Z + 3, 6Z
s .
-1
Q> ~l ~:---
-1 \'" ...,.o~
~ >- \ ''0 0",
Z+2·6Z
\f,<~
\ ~;--" ~>
\~.............
,
",
,0/
\
''\. Z +6Z
"- \
,, '\.'",
, \
Z
'~
8 8+68 8+2'68
Fig. 7.3.9. Lines from method of characteristics,
Repeated calculations of the above cycle yield the values of gas phase
variables at each of the points overtime f), and the values ofthe variables
of solid, slag and metal phases over time f) + ~f). Those at the Z position
on the f) + ~f) axis are determined by interpolation. All the variables on
the plane (Z, f)) can be obtained in the same manner until the
longitudinal distribution of the variables converges to a certain
condition.
(g) Temperature van'ation ofmolten iron and slag dun'ng tapping, over time
interval ~f). The temperature of metal and slag during tapping can be
calculated from the following equations on the basis of a given heat loss
per unit area of the hearth and the assumption of complete mixing of
metal and slag in the hearth. Here, the average thicknesses of the layers
of residual metal and slag are calculated from the tapping schedule.
Meanwhile, temperature and variations of components are continuously
calculated (Fig. 7.3.10).
umT; + lTr2Urn!1()T~ - QL!1()/C mPm

Tout (7.3.32)
Urn + lTr 2U rn !1()
m
Tout
sl uslT~ + lTr 2U s1 !1()T:'l- Q~!1()/CsIPSI
(7.3.33)
Usl + lTr2Us1 !1()
vout UmX~i + lTr2Urn!1()~Si
ASi (7.3.34)
Urn + lTr 2U rn !1()
Open ~ Plugged
TOut, PSi out Vsl
T", Psi ~
/
cf
Q
Fig. 7.3.10. Liquid flow in the hearth.
where
QL = lTrQ + 2lTr(h m + hb)Q
Q~ 2lTrhslQ
urn = lTr2(hrn e + hb)
Usl lTr2h s1 e
Urn()b«()b + ()m - ()sl)
hrn = 2«()b + ()rn)
Us1«()b + ()m - ()Sl) hO
hsl 2e + sl
(h) Equation for gas pressure drop. The Ergun equation41 is employed,
where the particle diameter represents the averaged value in accordance
with the ore/coke ratio; the void fraction is 0-4 in the lumpy zone, O' 3 in
the melting zone and 0·45 in the dropping zone. In the calculation, the
gas pressure below tuyere level is assumed to be constant.
7.3.3.2. In-Jurnace reactions, and reaction rates

For the sake of convenience, the in-furnace space is subdivided into five
zones, and the chemical reactions in each zone are indicated in
Fig. 7.3.11.
Reactions
I. CO + FeOx ~ CO, + FeOx- 1
C + CO, ~ 2CO
/I CO t FeO ~ CO, + Fe
C+CO, ~ 2CO
FeO[II+C ~ CO,-Felll
C ~ C
Fe [51 ~ Fe [II
Gangue [51 ~ Slog III
SiO -i- CO ~ SiO, + C
III. SiO, [slog I + C -~ SiO T CO

SiO + C ~ Si + CO
IV. SiO,lcoke ashl + C -, SiO + CO

IV C+ 1/20, ~ CO
V. MnO + C ~ Mn f CO
TiO,+2C ~ TI '2CO
1/2 P2 0s -i- 5/2 C ~ 1: + 5/2 CO
Fig. 7.3.11. Regions and the relevant reactions.
(a) Lumpy zone. The rate equation for iron oxide reduction is based on
the unreacted core model, similar to that developed by Muchi et al. 42 The
model assumes stepwise reduction from Fe203 to Fe304, FeO and Fe. It
also includes the contributions of gas-film and intraparticle gas
diffusion. The carbon solution-loss reaction of coke with CO2 gas is
given by a rate equation 43 which takes into account the effects of particle
diameter and gas-film diffusion.
(b) Cohesive zone. This zone consists of coke and ore layers, molten
metal and slag. The temperature of the solid phase ranges from l250°C
to the melt-down temperature of iron ores, T drop ' In addition to the above
two reactions, it is assumed that the melting rate of ore depends on the
rate of heat transfer from the gas to the ore bed. At the moment of
melting, both the reduction of molten iron oxide to metal and the
carburization of metal occur simultaneously, and molten slag and
metal are heated up to the temperature, T drop ' Meanwhile, at the lower
end of the cohesive zone, excess SiO gas is oxidized by CO to Si0 2, and
the heat of reaction heats up the gas phase around the zone.
(c) Dropping zone. The rate of SiO gas evolution due to the reaction of
molten slag with coke, Si02 (l) + C(s) - SiO(g) + CO(g), is determined
by eqns (7.3.35)-(7.3.37).44 For eqns (7.3.36) and (7.3.39) temperature is
taken as K. while for the other equations °C is used exclusively.
Rs = ksAs.SlaSi~ (7.3.35)
ks = 3·57 X 1018 exp (-l77000/RT) (7.3.36)
Here, aSi02 is given by the equation below, derived by Taylor,4S as a
function of slag composition and temperature.
-10gasio2 = (8'0 X 1O- 6T + 0'0228)B - 9·31 X 1O- 4 T + 0·797 (7.3.37)
where
B= %CaO + %Al 20 3/2 + %MgO/3 - %Si0 2

The equation can be used for B < 25%.
The rate of Si absorption from SiO gas into metal through the gas-
metal reaction, SiO(g) + C _ Si + CO (g), is given by the following
equations after Tsuchiya et al. 46
R6 = k~g.mPSiO (7.3.38)
k6 = 4·77 X 108 exp( -66 500/RT) (7.3.39)
(d) Combustion zone. This zone is taken as a region without an actual
volume. When coke with temperature Ts reaches tuyere level, almost all
the coke flows into this zone and forms gas with the theoretical flame
temperature (TFT) through combustion with oxygen in the hot blast.
On the other hand, the melting point of coke ash is shown by the Si0 2-
Al 20 3 -CaO diagram to be about 1700°C, and laboratory experiments
show that Si0 2 is not lost by gasification if the ash does not melt. Hence,
it is assumed that evolution of SiO gas from Si02in coke ash continues,
and thus Si0 2content in coke ash decreases, until the melting point of
the residual ash reaches the temperature T" as shown schematically in
Fig. 7.3.12. Since the reaction heat of Si0 2 reduction is assumed to be
contributed by the gas phase, the temperature of gas leaving the
combustion zone, T g , is correspondingly lower than TFT. The following
equation gives P SiO in the combustion gas:
PSiO Pg{3 Weoke (X~iOz - X SiOz)

= (7.3.40)
MSiOzMBV
(7.3.41)
X = (1870 - Ts)/266 (7.3.42)

where the number 266 is equal to the slope of the line in Fig. 7.3.12.
1900 .
e 1800
o
0.
OJ
c
~ 1700
1600 L -_ _-'--_ _--'---_ _--'-_ _--.J

o 02 0.4 06 0.8
X ~
5,00
____._._ _ [ I
5,0, I AI 2 0 3 ' CoO
Fig. 7.3.12. Melting temperature of residual ash in coke.
(e) Hearth. The present model does not deal with the reaction rate of
MnO, Ti0 2 and P20S reduction. Consequently, the reduction of the
above oxides into metal is assumed to occur in the hearth to provide the
amount specified in the metal so as to satisfy the mass and heat
balances. The corresponding coke consumption is taken into account
and the heat of reaction is provided by the sensible heat of gas
circulating in the hearth. It is assumed that Si transfer by the slag-metal
reaction can be disregarded.
The remainder of this section is concerned with factors related to

mass and heat transfer, especially in the dropping zone. These factors
are:
(l) The effective interfacial areas between the phases (gas, solid,
metal and slag), A j.l
(2) The heat transfer coefficients, hj,l
(3) The flow rates of each phase, Vi, which are inversely proportional
to the retention time in the dropping zone.
The influence of these factors is shown schematically in Fig. 7.3.l3.
Metal Gangue
~~§'§~~~~~~ Melting zone
/SiO+CO ~ SiO,+C
v,
C + S,O, ~ CO + SiO
Fig. 7.3.13. Mass and heat transfer in dropping zone.
Firstly, for the reaction between SiO gas and dropping metal, an
empirical equation developed by Umada et al.,48 which gives the
effective interfacial area between the gas and liquid phases, is
applied:
(7.3.43)
Secondly, for SiO generation through contact of Si0 2 in slag with

coke, the effective interfacial area between solid and slag phases,A s• sl> is
taken as the wetted interfacial area between slag and coke, to which eqns
(7.3.44) and (7.3.45) by Onda et al. 49 are applicable. These relationships
also hold for the case of heat transfer between slag and coke. The wetted
interfacial area between metal and coke, As. m' is also estimated by these
equations.
A s. sl = Psi Usl
a - a exp [ -1' 45 ( - -
)O'I( -aU-2
sl ) -0·05
a/lsl g
x (PSIU~I)02(CTc)0'75J (7.3.44)
aCTsl CTsl
a = 6(1 - c)/¢Dp (7.3.45)

Ifthe values ofA s. sl andA s. m are smaller than the surface area of unit
packed bed a,A g. s can be considered equal to a.
The heat transfer coefficient between gas and solid phases is obtained
by the following equation after Ranz et al. 50
A
hg = - Nu . X (7.3.46)
.s cDp
= 2 + 0'6Pr1/3Re1/2
Nu (7.3.47)
where the parameter X is in the range 0 < x « 1.
As the estimation of h s• m and h s• sl through an empirical equation51 for
liquid metal flow in tubes leads to values in the range 1000-5000
(kcal/m2 . h . DC), in this analysis the heat transfer coefficients were
chosen to obtain a matching simulation ofthe temperature profile in an
actual furnace. For the descending velocity of solid phases, eqn (7.3.19)
is applied. Since the actual dropping velocities of metal and slag phases
are related to the volume flow rates given by eqns (7.3.25) and (7.3.26),
the following equation gives the dropping velocities if the hold-up of
metal and slag is given.
(7.3.48)
The hold-up is estimated by eqns (7.3.49) and (7.3.50) after Fukutake
et al. 52
(7.3.49)
~,d
(7,3.50)
7.3.3.3. Calculation method

Most data on heats of reaction, latent heats and specific heats required
for the calculation are given in a special issue publication. 53 of the Iron
and Steel Institute of Japan and the Japan Society for Promotion of
Science. For supplementary information, other references 54. 55 are used.
Also, Table 7.3.2 shows the physical properties of metal and slag.56
TABLE 7,3.2
Physical Properties of Metal and Slag
Densi7, Viscosity Surface tension Contact angle

(kglm) (kglm· h) (kg/h2) (rad)
Metal 6600 18 1·426 X 107 I· 571

Slag 2600 3600 6·09 X 106 1· 571
Besides the furnace dimensions and the chemical composition and

particle size of burden materials, the boundary conditions for the gas
phase and the longitudinal distributions for the initial in-furnace
parameters, both for solid and liquid phases, have to be provided at all
height positions in the furnace.
In the present calculation, an incremental width of tlZ = 0·1 m and
a time interval tl() = (1/60) h have been used for the solution. A flow
chart for the calculation is shown in Fig. 7.3.14, and the calculation
procedure is as follows.
From the values of the variables of solid and liquid phases at time (),
the composition and temperature of combustion gas generated in front
of the tuyeres are calculated over the time interval tl() by the use of blast
conditions and coke temperature Ts at tuyere level at time ()-() + tl(). A
fraction (a) of the gas flows into the hearth and provides a part of the
sensible heat to the hearth to compensate for the heat of reaction
required by the reduction of Mn, Ti and P into hot metal. The gas then
proceeds upwards through the dropping zone, changing its composition
and temperature in each incremental height, tlZ.
In this manner, the compositions and temperatures, at time () + tl(),
of solid, metal and slag phases along the characteristic lines can be
J XF ,., XO, Xc, XSJ.

!P.PS;, T" Tm , T"
J Ceo, C N2 , PSI{),
\ p", T", G
J CC(), Ci\2' P"I(),

IT, G
Fig. 7.3.14. Flowchart for calculation.
obtained. Thus, when gas reaches tuyere level from the hearth, the
composition and temperature of the liquid phases at time () + !l..(} will be
given. At tuyere level the mixing of the gas rising from the hearth and the
gas from the combustion zone, which is a fraction (1 - a) of the total
combustion gas, provides the composition and temperature at tuyere
level. As cited above, in the dropping zone above tuyere level, the
variation of gas phase variables in the axial direction at time () and also
the axial distribution of liquid and solid phases at time () + !l..(} are
provided. The characteristic line above the melting zone is only that of
the solid phase, in which the distribution of variables is obtained in a
similar manner. When the calculation reaches the furnace top, since the
stock level at time () + !l..(} has lowered by Vs . !l..(}, a new charge into the
resultant space is necessary.
In this calculation, the furnace radius r is kept constant, the fraction a
is taken as 0·05 and the heat transfer coefficient from the furnace wall,
hw, is taken as 12 kcallm 2 • h . DC so that a blast furnace with a 1845 m 3
capacity has a heat loss of approximately 1· 3 X 105 kcal per ton of pig
iron. Separately, the heat loss flux in the hearth zone is assumed to be
8000 kcallm 2 • h.
To calculate the steady state in-furnace condition, the charging and
blast conditions are kept constant. With an appropriate initial in-
furnace distribution, the gas composition at the furnace top rapidly
approaches a final value after a 4 h calculation; during which the whole
packed bed is replaced by a new charge from the top to the melting zone.
After approximately 24 h, the melting zone becomes stabilized and
thereafter, in the succeeding simulation of 48 h, the tapping temperature
does not vary by more than 2-3°C. In this analysis, the solution which is
obtained after a simulation time of 24 h is used to provide the Si
concentration under steady state operation.
7.3.3.4. Results
As a base for actual operation simulation, an operation without oil,
Chiba No.3 furnace (1845 m3 ) producing steelmaking iron, has been
considered. The calculations were carried out by changing the various
factors in the base operation condition.
The value of the heat transfer coefficient between gas and solid
phases influences the temperature distribution in the furnace, and that
between liquid and solid phases controls the temperature of metal and
slag. These two parameters were chosen so that the calculated
temperature distribution and hot metal temperature coincide with the
actual values.
Both the actual and calculated values are shown in Table 7.3.3. Si
contents and temperatures of hot metal are in fairly good agreement.
TABLE 7.3.3
Comparison of Actual and Calculated Values
Blast vol. Blast temp. Humidity

(Nm 3Imin) tC) (g/Nm 3) OIC B2
Actual 2 700 1200 30 3'4 1'20

Calc. 2 700 1250 30 3'4 1'20
Iron prod. Hot metal temp. Si in metal Gas uti!.
(tlday) tC) (%) (%)
Actual 3 800 1490 0'40 50

Calc. 4008 1497 0·44 50·3
The distributions of in-furnace variables in the above case are shown in

Fig. 7.3.15. It has been usual to select the value of 5000-6000 (kcal/
m3(bed)· h· 0c) as the heat transfer coefficient between gas and solid
phases per unit volume of packed bed to obtain a curve of in-furnace
temperature from the furnace top to a level of a few meters below the
stockline. If X is chosen as 0·2 in eqn (7.3.46), the magnitude of the
coefficient is 5000-6000 and the calculated temperature curves are in
good agreement with the temperature distribution measured by a
vertical probe. Subsequently, the melting zone level is very sensitive to
the heat transfer coefficient between gas and solid phases in the
dropping zone. Thus, if the coefficient has a larger value, the melting
zone level will come down nearer to the tuyere as a result of the rapid
heat exchange between gas and solid in the dropping zone.
CO, co, 10/01
0"- ' i__,12__~,__2.2__.-_30.-.-_4,0__.-~50

Reduction degree: F 10/01
o 20 40 60 80 100
i i i i I
25
] 20
e
.g
~
OJ 15
o
-;;,
E
g
Q)
u
c
~
o
5
O.T. level-i>
o TH level -i>
, ,
04
o 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Fig. 7.3.15. Simulation of Chiba No.3 blast furnace.
In the present model, simulation of a steelmaking iron operation

revealed that if X is so chosen as to bring the root of the cohesive zone
within the region between the upper bosh and the lower shaft, the value
ofX falls to approximately 0·02 in the dropping zone. Also, h s, m has been
selected as 30 kcal/m3 . h . °C so that the calculated value of tapping

temperature becomes equal to the actual value. hs,m is assumed to be
equal to hs, sl> and under these conditions the slag temperature rises
approximately 80°C above the metal temperature. The change of Si
concentration in the metal in the dropping zone is large in the area
above the tuyere, and small below the tuyere, as shown in Fig, 7.3.16. In
other words, Si concentration is governed by the zone above tuyere level.
This also holds for both slag and metal temperatures, In these
calculations, the fraction of the gas flowing into the hearth is chosen to
be 0·05, and the reaction temperature of SiO gas generation from fluid
slag is assumed to be the same as the slag temperature in eqn (7.3.36),
and it is assumed that the heat of reaction is transferred solely into slag
(as] = 1, as = 0).
Si 1%1
o 01 0.2 0.3 OA
E 6
~
~ \'"
\~
~ 4 '~,
~ ~ .~'r,
g 2 : I Si
1::c T", TSI : ~
I I
~ I
o 0 T.H
,--!> i ~,
1400 1500 1600
liq. temp. lOCI
Fig. 7.3.16. Distribution of variables in the dropping zone.
Using the above parameters for heat transfer, simulation calculations

were carried out using conditions for the A-F series in Table 7.3.4. The C
series in the table provides a change in top gas utilization, T/CQ,
attributed to a change in the amount of indirect reduction due to
variation in particle diameter of the iron ore. This is an attempt to reveal
the effect of controlling the radial distribution of burden size on the
relationship between T/CQ and Si content, although the model itself is
one-dimensional. The F series enables the relationship between melting
temperature of ore and Si content to be examined. The distribution of
in-furnace variables in Figs 7.3.15 and 7.3.16 represents the case of
Dpo = 15 mm in series C. As an example, the variation in Si content and
the related factors with hot metal temperature is shown in Fig. 7.3.17,
based on the change of O/C in series A A hot metal temperature of
l490°C corresponds to O/C = 3·6, and by a stepwise decrease in O/C to
3·4, both temperature and Si content increase in the same order. Here,
TABLE 7.3.4
Calculation Cases
Series O/C(-) ThrC) Dpo (mm) T drop rC)
A 3·4 1250 12 1400
3·5 1250 12 1400
3·6 1250 12 1400
B 3·4 1200 12 1400
3·4 1150 12 1400
3·4 1100 12 1400
3·4 1050 12 1400
C 3·4 1250 15 1400
3·4 1250 18 1400
D 3·4 1150 15 1400
3·4 1050 15 1400
E 3-3 1150 15 1400
3·3 1050 15 1400
F 3·4 1250 15 1450
3-3 1250 15 1450
xl0:l
: :r [
~ ::[ 4
05l 07
-
</)
0-
~ 0.5
0.3
0.1 L----1_--L_...L_.L-_L----1_-l
1470 1490 1510 1530
Hot metal temp. lOCI
Fig. 7.3.17. Factors relating to Si content in hot metal.

the decrease in O/C also corresponds to an increase in the height of the

melting zone and to a decrease in the mole fraction of SiO in the gas
phase reaching the lower end of the melting zone. The calculated
relationship between Si content and hot metal temperature for all cases
is shown in Fig. 7.3.18. In all cases, the temperature dependence of Si
content is almost identical, while Si content varies more with the
variation in O/C or Dpo than with blast temperature. The temperature
dependence is nearly equal to the actual value of 0·04 (~%Si)/lO(~ 0c)
for the base operation of Chiba No.3 furnace. As can be noticed from
the results (Fig. 7.3.18), Si content can differ, even at the same hot metal
temperature, by approximately 0·1 %.
0.70
060
0.50
- OAO
~
';; 1
0.30
0.20
0.10
o : Melt·down temp. 1450'C
O L-L-L-~~~-L~~~~~_ _~
1450 1500 1550

HMT ('0
Fig. 7.3.18. Relationship between Si content and temperature of hot metal

under various conditions.
7.3.3.5. Discussion
As a result of the application of the empirical equations employed in the
preceding section, the metal and slag flows in the dropping zone can be
considered as follows. In the case of a daily production of 4000 tons at
Chiba No.3 furnace (productivity of 2·17 t/m3 • day), total hold-ups of
metal and slag are estimated to be around 0·018 and 0·025 m 3/m 3(bed),
respectively, and the wetted areas of coke 2· 3 and 2·1 m2/m3(bed),
respectively. Consequently, the average contact thickness of the two
flows with respect to the wetted areas turns out to be 7· 8 and 12 mm. The
fraction of dynamic hold-up to total hold-up is small, particularly in the
case of metal. Therefore it is estimated that metal flow oozes down
between the small pools of static hold-up in which the metal is mixed
successively. Consequently, the average down-flow rate of metal is as
small as 20 m/h. This is also true in the case of slag. It is also estimated
that for both metal and slag the effective interfacial area between gas
and liquid phases is approximately four times the wetted area.
In the preceding section, the temperature dependence ofSi content in
metal is different for the case of change oftuyere zone temperature and
that of thermal flow ratio change in conjunction with O/C and 17co.
Expressed another way, in the former case the hot metal temperature
has a high relative variation, while in the latter case the Si concentration
has the greatest variation. Here, a comparison is conducted, using real
furnace data and data calculated from the model, to see what variations
will occur in the Si content and hot metal temperature by changes in
operating conditions. In the real furnace, the relationship between Si
content and thermal flow ratio, with the hot metal temperature level
constant, indicates that increases in the thermal flow ratio decrease the
Si content, as in the dotted area in Fig. 7.3.19 (Mizushima No.2
furnace.).57 The relationship between thermal flow ratio and TFT
(Mizushima No.2 furnace) at constant hot metal temperature is shown
in Fig. 7.3.20; this kind of relationship could have been derived
theoretically. 58 In the case of a real furnace, TFT is calculated under the
assumption that the coke temperature in front of the tuyere is o· 75 times
that of TFT. The results calculated in the preceding sections can be
Doto of ten days' mean

or monthly mean in
0.5
~
Vii
0.4
0.3
~OX?Yi.
0.2
o 8
Mizushima No.2 BF
() : Low Tr:T period
0.1
o low Si period
Thermal flow ratio (-I
Fig. 7.3.19. Influence of thennal flow ratio on Si content in hot metal.

0.89 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
0.88 Mlzushimo No.2 BF
() low TFT period low HMT
0.86 0 low 5, period
~.: .. :-.: .. :
()
: : -.:"
"2 0.84
3
o
c=
{) 0.82
~ High HMT
E
"
;:': 0.80
0.78
2100 2200 2300 2400 2500

Theoretical flome temperature 1°C)
Fig. 7.3.20. Factors influencing the hot metal temperature at Mizushima No.2
furnace.
transformed to values at constant hot metal temperature as follows. For

series A, B, C and D, the relationships between hot metal temperature
and thermal flow ratio, and between hot metal temperature and TFT,
are plotted in Fig. 7.3.2l(a) and (b). These enable the thermal flow ratio
and TFT to be read off for three standard hot metal temperatures,
l480°C, l500°C and l520°C. As the Si content corresponding to each
temperature is provided in Fig. 7.3.18, the following relationships can be
obtained: Fig. 7.3.22, the relationship between thermal flow ratio and Si
content, based on the model calculations; Fig. 7.3.23, the relationship
"I
1-160
1420 '0'
I
2100 2200 2300 2400 :;500
Therll:ol f,o v. ' C(]~IO I I T FT
Fig. 7.3.21. Transformation of the results into the values under the constant hot
metal temperature.
between thermal flow ratio and TFT at constant hot metal temperature.
Both Figs 7.3.22 and 7.3.23 show strikingly similar trends to those
measured on actual furnaces. Expressed another way, this model has
successfully demonstrated the mechanism by which Si concentration
and molten iron temperature are determined in the furnace in the long
term, e.g. 10 days, 30 days, etc.
In the case of Mizushima furnace No.2, a low Si experiment was
conducted in the following manner, as shown in Figs 7.3.19 and 7.3.20.
0.6
\,
0.5
'"
() '--
~-(J) 7520'C
\~--.::.
'0 ---~~()~
~
°--°_
~ 0.4 \Aseries
Vii
7480'C
0.3
0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95

Thermal flow ratio I-I
Fig. 7.3.22. Calculated relationship between thermal flow ratio and Si.
0.95
() 0.90
o
E
"
.:: 085
0.80 L -_ _--'-,--_~::::_----:::-;'.
2300 2400 2500 2600
TFT lOCI
Fig. 7.3.23. Calculated relationship between thermal flow ratio and TFT under
constant HMT.
(1) Firstly, the TFT was lowered and Ole reduced. (2) Secondly, Ole
was raised with TFT maintained as low as possible. As a result, a Si
content of 0·2% was obtained as the lO-day average. In the case of (1)
above, decreasing TFT below 2200 0 e greatly reduced the Si concen-
tration in the metal, in agreement with the relationship shown in
Fig. 7.3.19. This phenomenon suggests a deviation from the relationship
in Fig. 7.3.22, in which Si content is controlled by the absorption rate of
SiO gas into metal, to another relationship in which the SiO generation
rate is dominant. In this model, lowering the blast temperature to the
low Ole conditions, as e.g. in the case of foundry pig iron production,
will reduce the SiO gas concentration in front ofthe tuyere; details will
be discussed elsewhere. In the case of (2) above, as shown in Fig. 7.3.20,
the molten iron temperature could be maintained at a comparatively
high thermal flow ratio with TFT lowered. This is attributable to the
possibility of maintaining a constant hot metal temperature at higher
thermal flow ratio in the case of an ole increase, as is seen in the plot for
series A in Fig. 7.3.23, possibly due to a decrease in the required amount
of heat per ton of pig iron.
7.4. NOTATION
a surface area of packed bed (m2/m 3(bed))

Ag."Ag,m,Ag,sl effective interfacial area for (m2/m 3(bed))
gas-solid, gas-metal, and
gas-slag reactions
As,m,As,sl wetted interfacial area between
solid and metal and between
solid and slag
aSi02 activity of silica in slag (-)
B subsidiary variable (-)
Cg , C" Cm, Cst. Cj specific heat of gas, solid, metal,
slag and element j (kcallkg . deg)
Ck concentration of species k in (kmol/Nm3 gas)
gas phase
Dp particle diameter (m)
Dpo particle diameter of ore (m)
g acceleration due to gravity (m/h2)
G mass velocity of gas (kg/m2 • h)
heat transfer coefficient

between solid and gas, gas
and wall, metal and solid,
and slag and solid (kcal/m2 • h· deg)
H1,d,H1,s dynamic and static holdup (m3/m3(bed»
~,Hm,Hsl total holdup of I phase, metal, (m3/m3(bed»
and slag
H:,H~ molten iron and molten slag (m3/m3(bed»
suspended in melting zone
height of molten metal layer (m)
above tapping hole and in
hearth
height from bottom to tap-hole (m)
residual height of slag at end (m)
of tapping
i, j, k (subscripts) reaction species,
element, and gas species
rate constant of eqn (7.3.35) (kmol/m2 • h)
rate constant of eqn (7.3.38) (kmol/m 2 • h . atm)
(subscript) phase
molecular weight of Si02 (g/mol)
molal flow rate of combustion (kmol/h)
gas in front of tuyere
Nusselt number (heat transfer) (-)
gas pressure (atm)
partial pressure of SiO in gas (atm)
phase
Prandtl number (-)
heat flux to the furnace wall (kcal/m2 • h)
heat loss from pig iron and slag (kcal/h)
in hearth
radius of furnace at hearth (m)
gas constant (cal/mol, deg)
reduction rate of ore by CO gas (kcal/m3(bed) . h)
rate of carbon solution-loss (kcal/m3(bed)· h)
by CO2 gas
fusion rate of iron and iron (kcal/m3(bed)· h)
oxide, and of gangue materials,
in ore
rate of SiO generation from (kcal/m3(bed)· h)
flowing-down slag with carbon,

and of SiO absorption into
metal
Re Reynolds number (-)
Tg , Ts,Tw temperature of gas, solid, and (oq
cooling water
T rn' TC:;:" T:;:, T~ temperature of metal, and at tapping,
entering metal bath, and in metal bath (oq
Tst. T~i~ T~'i, T~ corresponding temperatures for slag Cq
Tdrop melt-down temperature of ore Cq
Urn,Usl volume flow rate of metal and (m 3/m 2 • h)
slag
Vrn , V.I actual falling velocity of metal (m/h)
and slag
Vs descent velocity of solid (m/h)
Vrn , VsI volume of metal and slag layers (m3)
in hearth
Wcok. consumption rate of coke at (kg/h)
tuyere
X
Xi
subsidiary variable
°
concentration of Fe, C, etc.
in solid phase
(-)
(-)
Xk weight fraction of CO, CO2, N2 (-)
species in gas phase
XFe weight fraction of Fe in pig (-)
iron
XSb XSit , .rs~ ,X~i weight fraction ofSi in pig iron, and
at tapping, entering metal bath,
and in metal bath (-)
X Si02 , X~iOz weight fraction of Si02 in coke (-)
ash, and in initial coke ash
X~203,X~ao weight fraction of Al20 3 and (-)
CaO in initial coke ash
YI general state variable of r phase
Z height of furnace (m)
al fraction of heat of reaction (-)
transferred to I phase
f3~i mass ofk component transferred
from phase j into I by reaction i (kg/kmol)
f3 weight fraction of ash in coke (-)
T subsidiary variable (-)

01 receiving fraction of heat loss (-)
from furnace wall in 1 phase
e void fraction (-)
p:,p~p: mass of gas phase, 1 phase, and (kg/m3(bed))
solid phase per unit bed volume
Pc,Po bulk density of coke and ore (kg/m 3)
Pm,PsI density of metal and slag (kg/m3)
0 time (h)
Ob, Om, Osl time intervals between cast (h)
stoppages, of metal discharging,
and of slag discharging
01 contact angle (deg)
f.lsl viscosity of slag (kg/m· h)
CTm surface tension of metal (kg/h2)
CTc critical surface tension of (kg/h 2)
carbon
qJ shape factor of particles (-)
X correction coefficient (-)
-/1~ heat of reaction of reaction i (cal/mol)
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40. C. Fielden and B. Wood, JISL 192 (1968), 650.
41. S. Ergun, Chern. Eng. Progr., 48 (1952), 89.
42. J. Vagi, K Sasaki and I. Muchi, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 54 (1968), 1019.
43. S. Taguchi and K Okabe, Kawasaki Seitetsu Gihoh. 2 (1970), 358.

44. M. Sumito, private communication.
45. J. Taylor, JISI, 202 (1964), 420.
46. N. Tsuchiya, M. Tokuda and M. Ohtani, Tetsu-to-Hagane. 58 (1972),
1927.
47. M. Reser (Ed.), Phase Diagrams for Ceramists. American Ceramic Society
(1964).
48. J. Umada, H. Shinohara and M. Tsubahara, Kagaku Kohgaku. 27 (1963),
978.
49. K Onda, H. Takeuchi and Y. Koyama, Kagaku Kohgaku. 31 (1967), 126.
50. W. Ranz and W. Marshall, Chem. Eng. Progr.. 48 (1952), 141.
51. B. Lubarsky and S. Kaufman, NACA-TN 3336.1 (1955).
52. T. Fukutake and V. Rajakumar, Tetsu-to-Hagane. 66 (1980), 157.
53. Japan Society for Promotion of Science, and Iron and Steel Institute of
Japan, Tekkoh Netsukeisan Yoh Suuchi, Nikkan Kohgyoh Sinbun (1966).
54. O. Kubaschewski, E. Evans and C. Alcock, Metallurgical Thermochemistry.
Pergamon Press (1967).
55. J. Perry, Chemical Engineers' Handbook. McGraw-Hill.
56. T. Fukutake and K Okabe, Tetsu-to-Hagane. 66 (1980), 167.
57. M. Saino, H. Fujimori, A Suemori, M. Satoh, M. Nomura and Y. Senoh,
Tetsu-to-Hagane, 67 (1981), S727.
58. S. Taguchi, N. Tsuchiya, Y. Takada and K Okabe, Tetsu-to-Hagane. 64
(1978), 691.
Part III
Flexibility and Adaptability of Blast Furnace

CHAPTER 8
Blast Furnace Ironmaking Technology in the

Near Future
As one of the activities of the Commitee on Reaction within Blast

Furnaces, some views on blast furnace technology in the near future
were obtained through questionnaires sent to blast furnace engineers
and researchers.
The views concentrated on (1) flexible operation with a wide range of
production levels depending on hot metal demand and on energy cost
minimization in an integrated steel plant, (2) prolonging furnace life up
to approximately 10 years, throughout which time 7000-7500 t/m 3 of
iron can be expected for a furnace with a productivity of nearly
2·0 t/m3 ·day, (3) increased mechanization with introduction of remote-
controlled robots for cast-house operation, and (4) technology closely
connected to the subsequent process, steelmaking.
The above four categories are considered in more detail below.
8.1. FLEXIBLE OPERATION
As mentioned above, 'flexible operation' means operation over a wide

range of production levels, with fuel rate adjusted to minimize the
energy cost in an integrated steel plant.
During the last three decades, the fuel rate for pig iron production has
been dramatically decreased, reaching an average level of 460 kg/t at the
end of the 1970s, as shown in Fig. 8.1. 1 However, high oil costs resulting
from the second oil crisis caused Japanese steelmakers to decide to
replace some oil-based energy with coal-based energy.
A steel plant without oil consumption is possible, as illustrated in
Fig. 8.2.1 The upper part of the figure shows the amounts of energy to be
605
Ikg/ II Il/m3·dayi
700 2.0
~
f!
-i
v
600
1.8
-u 1.6 Z.
5 500 :~
1.4 -g
~ o
-u
400 1.2 c':
Burden ratio
{Sinter + Pe!l~~ _,..-x-" 1.0
/~
1....... ---.-. ..... + I'CI 0.8
/ k .............. 1,300
~~~
1 !
Burden ratio ),200
ff -........
k
...
x
~ ~-'
(Sinter)
1,100
1.000 Cl
900 a5
(;
1,000
BOO
~
~
0.. 500
1955 )960 1965 1970 1975 1979
Source: JISF
Fig. 8.1. Progress in operational performance of blast furnaces.)
purchased and generated in the plant in the future on the basis of (i)
coke rate of 475 kg/t hot metal, (ii) iron/steel ratio of 1, and (iii) LD gas
recovery rate of 100 Nm 3/tcrude steel. Net amounts of purchased energy
based on coal and in-plant energy use in the future are 5560 X 103 kcallt
crude steel and 5210 X 103 kcallt crude steel, respectively. The difference,
350 X 1~ kcal, can therefore be sold to outside firms. In order to attain
the 'future', the 'present' net energy consumption, 5620 X 103 kcallt
crude steel, must be decreased by 410 X 103 kcallt crude steel. As shown
in the 'future' part of the figure, if 10% offuel, 5% of electricity and 10% of
steam can be saved (a total of 230 X l~ kcallt crude steel), and if
recovery of waste heat is put into effect (180 X 103 kcallt crude steel),
both oil consumption and electricity purchase would become zero - a
steelplant without oil.
This energy situation has placed the blast furnace in the role of a
carbon monoxide generator which supplies carbonaceous energy to the
mill and, moreover, a raw material, CO, for organic syntheses, for
instance, C 1 chemistry. Low fuel rate operation is therefore no longer a
necessity for decreasing the cost of final steel products, although it still is
Energy outflow
ISoi d to ou tside f irmsl
350 Unit, X 10' kcal / t·Crude Steel
Integrated Future [ In' Plant generated ] t:C

By·product gas ICOG, BFG, lDGI energy
steelworks
5,560
~
>-l
In · plan t 2,400
5.210 ~
Combustion fue l - - I • I. Power - --"';"'- !
Fulure [ COnSumed]
~
tT1
1,400 1,000 energy
~
1 - - - - - -1,400 • ' ....
,
, 20
Iranmoking o
process
energy loss
1,420 840
Present
[ COnSumed ]
I
;l
etc . 710 energy
) n
::r:
----·2 .710---~ 1--- - - - - 1 . 5 5 0 I I, 1,200 W', [~J 2,910 z
ot""
Premises , BF coke rat io = 475 kg ton of p ig iron D By ·product gas
o
Iron steel (o ti o = 1 ~
l DG recovery rate = 100 NM' ton of crude stee l 12,000 Kco l per NM'I tt-1{~1 Waste heol recovery
Consumed energy Ipresentl is based on Kowasoki Steel Corporation ~
Purchased energy
M izush imo Works 1978 data . ~
Fig. 8.2. Energy balance of a steel plant without oil. I

g;
-...J
a criterion of skilful furnace operation. The average coke rate in Japan

at the beginning of the 1980s was around 470-480 kg/t.
Blast furnace productivity varies over a wide range and depends on
the specific situation of each steel plant. For example, if a steel plant
produces only some kinds of steels which are in lower demand, a lower
blast furnace productivity such as 1· 2-1·4 t/m3·day may only be
required. On the other hand, if another steel plant introduced
steelmaking converters of high productivity with restricted blast furnace
capacity, without new blast furnace investment, a high productivity,
more than 2·5 t/m 3·day, may be required.
In order to meet the above described variety of furnace operations, a
computer-aided operation supported by sensors with high reliability
will probably be required.
Firstly, a computer control system will be developed providing both
operation planning and automatic control of in-furnace conditions, as
schematically shown in Fig. 8.3. Mathematical model (I) is for advising
the blast furnace operators on an appropriate method of furnace
operation, at a given condition of 'properties of burden materials' and
'production policy' based on energy cost minimization of a integrated
steel plant including preceding and subsequent processes. The model
provides specific combined blast and burden distribution conditions
which may satisfy the given 'production policy'.
According to the direction given by mathematical model (I), the blast
furnace is operated to obtain required performance without any
operational problems. However, since blast furnaces do not always
operate smoothly, a control system is necessary to prevent the furnace
falling into an unfavorable condition by adjusting combined blast and
burden distribution conditions based on such information as hot metal
temperature, Si content in hot metal and signals from sensors attached
to some parts of the furnace, especially temperature, pressure and
chemical composition of gas and descent velocity of the solid materials.
Mathematical model (II) will be required for this purpose. Automatic
control by the model, however, will not be achieved until techniques can
be developed for the prevention of chilled hearths.
Secondly, sensors will be developed to enable direct information to
be obtained on in-furnace conditions. At present, such information as
the location of the cohesive zone and the distributions of orelcoke ratio
and gas flow along the radial direction is estimated indirectly (and
rather qualitatively) by calculation based on such measurements as
temperature, pressure and chemical composition of gas at a restricted
rl Properties of ~ conlrol syslem of
burden materials
rl combined blasl
1-
o chemical composition o blasl volume
o room temp. strength o blast temperature
o high lemp. slrength o blast moisture I:C
o reactivity o oxygen enrichment
o contraction o auxiliary fuels -l ~
Mathematical ...,
o melting point such as oil, LNG, COM, I
model III for
o size distribution operation
,-'"
I
tar and pulverized coal
~-., I etc.
o reduction degradation I
planning I
elc I I,
I
I
I tTl
Production l I
rl policy' I I
I
r-1 control system of
burden distribution
1_ I
i
o production It/dayl Mathematical I I
,-_1 _ _ -;. o coke amount per charge
o fuel rate Ikg/II model 1III for - --- o ore to coke ratio
~
o BF gas role Ikcal/tl r-'" automatic control '----- o charging mode including
I
o coke oven gas rate r---:--- I of infurnace stock level, tilting angle -~
Ikcal/II I condition
I
of bell-less chute, position
I
~
o sinter and pellel rate II/II I r--------, of movable armour plate
o Si % in hot metal I ; -- La.2=~~I~~~eJ----l etc.
I I
a;l
o hot melal temp. etc. I I OfllAI rotA ! I (j
I
0 hot metal temp. I
* determined on energy
I I I OSi % in hot metal
cost minimization of
L __ .J __ ~ other information operational results ~
the whole mill including
from sensors for :~ --------- - - __ J
preceding and 5
subsequent processes. detecting infurnace
I conditions, etc. , $
L _____________ .J
- - - specification
------ adjustment through feedback information
Fig. 8.3. A computer control system for a variety of furnace operations.

§
measuring objectives of
varlobles measurement
burden descent velocity
top pressure o gas permeability
overoge iap temperature
temperature of the wall
pressure of blast
temperature of hearth
101 already Widely applied
Fig. 8.4a. Blast furnace sensors that are already widely applied for detecting
in-furnace conditions.
number of shell tapping positions. A thorough grasp of the relations

between the location of the cohesive zone, the distribution of ore/coke
ratio along the radial direction, and that of gas flow along the same
direction, is important to accomplish stable furnace operation, at a
given productivity and/or fuel rate, without any irregular burden
descent. In consequence, direct measurements of the above three items
are indispensable. Trial measurements have already started in Japanese
steel companies. 2-4 Figure 8.4 lists the blast furnace sensors for detecting
in-furnace conditions, both those already widely applied and those to
be developed or under development.
Thirdly, to meet a wide range of production levels, an appropriate
hearth volume should be maintained in proportion to productivity. The
determinants of the appropriate hearth volume are melt formation rate
in the furnace, and melt tapping rate from the furnace. Excessive
accumulation of melts in the hearth, due to insufficient tapping rates,
inevitably causes blast pressure fluctuation accompanied by irregular
burden descent, even slipping in the worst case. In order to avoid these
BLAST FURNACE IRONMAKING TECHNOLOGY 611
meosurlng obiectives of
variables measurement
I profile meter shope of stock level o loyer thickness distribution a.lo~g

both radial and ~urr
directions
o burden descent
distribution along radiol
and circumferential directions
I flow meier flow rote of gas o distribu~lon of gas flow along

the radlol direction
[
[- cohesive zone detector o location of cohesive zone I

1- scoffold detector o location of scaffold I
[
in-burden detector
loye;'~h~~k~:~:L 0
f I
1-------------------1
Ovariation of layer thickness
along the rodlol_ direction with
'I
burden descending
f~':'':~'~'
i
: Ihl(kneSS
of fire brick 11---_
1
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _----1 0105S and/or erosion of fire
bricks on the wall and In the
I
hearth
[~"a~g~le'~el~d~ele~"~a'=:J_--------------1 Oresiduol
hearth
amount of slag in the I
I slag flow meter I Otapped amount of slog I
I tuyere thermocouple o flome temperature in front of
the tuyere
I
Ibl to be developed and under development
Fig. 8.4b. Sensors that are in demand and/or under development
unstable furnace conditions, the following should be achieved: (i)

control of the thickness of the solidified iron layer on the hearth wall
and bottom, by adjusting heat input and output which depend on the
amount and temperature of coolants on the hearth jacket and under the
hearth bottom; (ii) control of the amount of unme1ted materials
accumulation in the dead-man by adjusting heat input and output in
the same way as in (i); and (iii) durable tap-hole material. Besides the
above three items, it is desirable for the tap-hole level to be changeable,
for setting the inside position at the most appropriate distance from the
metal-slag interface in the hearth.
8.2. INCREASE OF FURNACE LIFE
As investment for a new furnace, and also re-lining costs, have

increased dramatically since the first oil crisis, increased furnace life is
required with a possible target being 10 years on average. Figure 8.5
shows the life of all Japanese furnaces blown out during the period from
1966 through to 1980, with 6 years and 5 months as the average life. l The
• 1966-1970
Year of { 0 1971-1975
blowdown
x 1976 -1980
.
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
12
.. .,.. . o·
",10
<>
.
.. . .
00
.." ....' :~ .:
~8
,
.. 6 -.~ . ." ...... . .
0
.:
.. .
0
v
.J.... • 'l' ,
.
g ,
.2 4
~ 2
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

Source : JISF Effective Inner volume 1m'!
Fig. 8.5. Relationship between furnace life and effective inner volume,!
life should therefore be lengthened by another 4 years. In order to

lengthen furnace life, the following measures or techniques will have to
be developed/improved. (i) The thermal load on the inside wall should
be decreased by controlling burden distribution at the furnace top to
prevent an excess gas flow along the surface of the wall; bell-less or bell-
movable armor charging systems are preferable for this purpose. For
proper control of burden distribution, however, technical skill is
necessary, because over-charging, which in general prevents excess gas
flow on the wall surface, often causes irregular and uneven burden
descent, as illustrated in Fig. 8.6. The unstable operation during
suppression of wall flow may be attributed to improperly high thermal
flow ratio in the peripheral region. s (ii) The shape, the internal cooling-
pipe structure and the construction material of the stave cooling system
should be improved. Also every type of shell cooling system should be
easy to replace after failure. (iii) Further development is necessary in the
quality and laying of refractories for the hearth lining. In Japan, cutback
wear (Fig. 8.7) of the hearth lining, which has often been observed in
blown-out furnaces, is the most important problem to be solved. In
order to solve this problem besides the above two items, technical
knowledge for controlling the thickness of the solidified iron layer on
the hearth lining will probably be essential. (iv) For protecting cooling
systems and the furnace shell over long periods, technology for spraying
vzzzv~ [J
I I I ! I I I ! I I I
P7ZZZ~
I I I I I I
0
I I !
987654321 987654321
Chute-pos
Center _ - - - - _ . Wall
~
I' 0 00 x x x
•• 00°0 x\.
• Periphery
., °0
. ...
"
o Mirldle • 0
X Center
• o
o
x
•
] 10
•• •• Ox
Ox
E o xx
l' o
o
ill
C
o
o
20
Tuyere
500 1000 1300 500 1000 1300

Temp {OCI Temp lOCI
15
10
10 12 14
lorge slips ~
o Stable
"
o
70 10 15 55 59
50 Small slips
100
Fig. 8.6. Relationships among charging mode by bell-less chute, temperature

distribution in the furnace, and number of slips.5
pulverized refractory materials on the inner wall from the inside of the
furnace may be helpful. However, this technology should be accompanied
by the development of technical know-how for temporarily emptying
the furnace to tuyere level.
I
,,
I
I
Eroded line
\,!...-----+---~='
Fig. 8.7. Mushroom-shaped erosion of hearth lining.
8.3. MECHANIZATION OF CAST-HOUSE OPERATION
As shown in Fig. 8.8, within a few decades the fraction of aged people
(older than 65) will comprise nearly 20% of the Japanese population.
Fig. 8.8. Fraction of aged people in whole populations. 6

Because of this and the leveling-off of iron and steel production, the
average age of workers in Japanese steel plants will be at least 40. In
addition, in industrialized countries, steel plants are less attractive to
young people.
Although instrumentation and equipment for the blast furnace have
been considerably modernized, hard jobs under hot conditions, such as
drilling tap-holes, tapping, and repairing/replacing tuyeres and runners,
remain.
In consequence, such jobs will have to be mechanized completely,
preferably with industrial remote-controlled robots. In such industrial
fields as vehicle building, electronics and others, industrial robots have
already been successfully introduced.
8.4. TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT RELATED TO

INNOVATIVE STEELMAKING PROCESS
In recent years in Japan, steelmaking engineers and researchers have

been giving considerable attention to an innovative steelmaking
process, slag-less steelmaking.
The proportion of hot metal in crude steel production for Japanese
integrated iron and steel plants in the 1980s is expected to remain at
around 90%. This high hot metal ratio leads to the pretreatment of hot
metal before steelmaking. At present, in almost all steelworks,
desulfurization in the steelmaking converter is dispensable, because
desulfurization practice outside the blast furnace, e.g. in the torpedo-
car, has been established. Thus, if hot metal is also dephosphorized
before the converter, the steelmaking process will become only a
decarburization process.
Most research has been concentrated on simultaneous desulfurization
and dephosphorization by sodium carbonate or calcium oxide. A
process using sodium carbonate, however, will result in insufficient
utilization of the reagent, if the silicon content in hot metal is higher
than 0'15 weight %. In the case of higher silicon contents, excessive
sodium carbonate is consumed for oxidizing silicon, and the product,
sodium silicate, hinders the recovery of sodium carbonate from the slag.
In consequence the lower the silicon content in the hot metal, the better
for this process.
On the other hand, as shown in Fig. 8.9, the average hot metal silicon
content for Japanese blast furnaces has been reduced from 0·67 to 0-48
weight % during the 1970s. 1 The value 0-48%, however, is far above the
70
80
60
40
I~ 1m 1m 1m I~ 1m 1m 1= 1m 1m
Source: JISF
Fig. 8.9. Decrease of silicon content in pig iron, averaged for all Japanese blast
furnaces. l
desired value of 0'15%, although a few Japanese blast furnaces steadily

produce hot metal with 0·20-0·25% silicon. Accordingly, at present a
facility is necessary for desiliconization. Figure 8.10 shows an example
of a flow diagram for slag-less steelmaking. Desiliconization is usually
achieved by the oxidation of silicon by iron oxide powder and/or
oxygen. The oxidation is conducted in the ladle or in the runner at the
cast house. Both approaches require investment in new installations for
injecting the oxidant and for removing the product slag. From a cost-
benefit viewpoint the desiliconization step is preferably omitted; this
requires the production of hot metal with lower silicon content.
In the early 1980s, the minimum silicon content which could be
achieved without accompanying unstable burden descent was around
'0'20%.7 Within the first half of the 1980s, 0·15% with a hot metal
temperature of around 1480°C was a realistic target as the best
performance.
In general, operation with lower silicon content requires a high
thermal flow ratio, which sometimes results in irregular burden descent.
Research into the blast furnace process will therefore be focussed on the
movement of burden materials in the lower region of the furnace.
Another possible future innovation in steelmaking is 'continuous
steelmaking' which requires constant feeding of molten crude metal to
refining facilities, as illustrated for example in Fig. 8.11. 8 If hot metal
produced in the blast furnace is used as the molten crude metal, the
t:x:l
~....,
Na 2c03i
recovery
1 ~
t slag-off
L ~
tTl
hot metal hot metal simultaneous
oxidation hot metol :;;;
blast 0.2-05°'oS, S, < 005% desulohurizotion
of r-- 0.015%P converter
furnace r-- OI%P I--- r--- O.i qop f-f+ ond r-- o
silicon 0005%5
0.03-0.04%S 0.03-0.04%S dephosphorizotion
t
, I
'"
I I
, I
~oz
I iro~ oxide I I 02 I @
and ior witl-]out
oxygen flux
n
~
ot""
Fig. 8.10. A slag-less steelmaking process using sodium carbonate. o
~
0\
....-
--..J
following will have to be developed: (i) a refractory material which

assures durable tap-holes without erosion or abrasion by slag and
metal; (ii) the use of the cast-house as a refining facility; and (iii)
continuous casting facilities and methods which properly satisfy the
demand for the production of various kinds of steel.
EE)lhCluSI gas
0,.
orher
moreno Is
Fig. 8.11. Continuous steelmaking process (Kinzaigiken method).8
As continuous steelmaking needs a series of refining facilities, it is

desirable for the blast furnace itself to have a refining function if the
furnace acts as a crude metal supplier in the whole continuous
steelmaking process. The hearth could possibly function as a refinery,
by blowing oxidizers such as iron oxide and/or oxygen into the metal
bath from the outside of the furnace to oxidize silicon, manganese and
even carbon, some of these reactions being exothermic. In the most
favorable circumstances, desulfurization, dephosphorization, decar-
burization, and temperature and alloying adjustment will take place
outside the blast furnace. The structure and installation position of the
injection equipment, however, are the most difficult problems to be
solved since no hearth breakouts are allowed.
8.5. USE OF BLAST FURNACE FOR PRODUCING

OTHER METALS
The production in Japan of aluminum is becoming uneconomic

because of high electricity costs. To overcome this situation, aluminum
production in the bIas! furnace has been tried on a laboratory scale.

Figure 8.12 shows a schematic diagram of the process. 9 As shown in the
figure, energy consumption will be considerably reduced if the process
is feasible from the viewpoint of reaction engineering. However, more
than 2100°C is necessary for reducing alumina to aluminum with
carbon. Because of this ultra-high temperature, the technological
barrier to be surmounted is very high. The barriers are the following: 9 (i)
nitrogen should be excluded from the blast to prevent aluminum nitride
formation; (ii) aluminum vapor of a high partial pressure may cause
flooding in lower temperature regions; (iii) gaseous Al 20 and SiO of
high partial pressure may cause hanging by condensing at a region of
lower temperature; (iv) alloying of aluminum with silicon and iron, to
decrease activity of aluminum in the melt, to prevent aluminum carbide
formation, hinders liquid flowing down and out; (v) damage occurs to
equipment at the furnace top by high temperature top gas; and (vi) there
is erosion and/or fracture of refractories by ultra-high temperatures.
Of all the metals and alloys that are commonly used, aluminum is
probably the most difficult to be smelted in the blast furnace .
.----coke~
[5-7.2k[ - 01[1
co~
[39- 59k[ - 01[1
bouxl.,e 2
f----- { clay
alumina
fuel
I
I
I
electricity I coke,
CO
ore
I
I
I
I
I
t
refining ...
, - - - - crude alloy crude 4---0{~3
metal
AI [I [0.6-0.7kl- 01[1
Fe 0251
5, 01 I
cf
conventional process
~5.1 kl--oil/I-AI
Fig. 8.12. Schematic flow of aluminum production in the blast furnace. 9

Consequently, if smelting is successfully developed, other metals and

alloys such as ferro-silicon, ferro-manganese and ferro-chrome, which
are usually smelted in electric arc furnaces, will be much more easily
smelted in the blast furnace. In this manner, the blast furnace could be
widely used for smelting not only pig iron but also other metals and
alloys which are currently smelted with high energy costs.
REFERENCES
1. E. Iwamura, Report of Proceedings 1980. Fourteenth Annual Conference,
International Iron and Steel Institute (1981), p. 122.
2. T. Fukushima, H. Yamada, T. Kobayashi, Y. Niwa, T. Furukawa and B. lino,
3. T. Yamamoto, H. Kanoshima, T. Takahashi, K Ogata and Y. Hayashi,
4. K Sano and T. Miyazaki, Tetsu-to-Hagane, 66(1980), S36.
5. S. Taguchi, H. Katayama, N. Tsuchiya, K Okabe, K Tanaka and
K Okumura, Stahl u. Eisen, 101(1981),1173.
6. T. Uchida and S. Komatsu (Eds), Kasshiki no Jidai, Tsusho Sangyo
Chosakai (1980), p. 49.
7. K Okumura, T. Kawai, H. Marushima, H. Takahashi and 1. Kurihara,
8. R. Nakagawa, T. Ueda, S. Yoshimatsu, T. Mitsui, 1. Uehara, A. Fukuzawa
and Y. Nakamura, Kinzoku Zairyo Gijutsu Kenkyusho Kenkyu Hokoku,
10(1967), 557.
9. M. Dokiya, Kinzoku, 51(8) (1981), 21.
INDEX
Acidic pellet Boundary conditions, 188,526-7

changes of structure and Burden
composition, 49 behavior, theoretical approach to,
gangue constituents, 44, 53 352-62
Activation energy, 123 descent
Alkalis, behavior of, 31-41 abnonnal, 480
Aluminium production, 618-20 asymmetrical descent, 15-16
Amagasaki No.1 furnace, 5,6, 15, combustion zone, and, 14-16
16, 18, 24, 27, 28, 30, 33-5, discharge rate effect on, 337-40
43 effect of softening melting zone
Andrussow's equation, 123 and dead man, 258
Apex level, 259 gas flow rate effect on, 337
layer inclination, and, 329-33
model of, 326-9
Bell-less top, 300, 323-5 observed by dissection, 342
Bell top furnaces, 301-13 observed through plastic plate,
movable annor, with, 300, 304 340
Blast furnace ironmaking technology shaft, in, 14-15
in the near future, 605-20 state of, 336
Blast furnace profile, 169,208,219 surface angle, and, 331
Blast temperature effects, 156 velocity distribution, 209
Blast volume distribution, 301-13, 371
individual tuyeres, and, 23 after blow-out, 331
raceway profile, and, 527-9 bell-less top furnaces, 314-25
Blast volume-flow rate, 154-5 control of, 299-325
Blow-in, 280 bell-less top, by, 323-5
Blow-out, 280 bell top furnace, in, 311-13
burden distribution after, 331 model of, 364-6
Bosh gas volume, 259, 261 movement and cohesion zone,
Boudourd reaction, 170 24-30
621
622 INDEX
Burden-contd. Chiba No.1 furnace, 6, 15, 16, 23,

distribution-contd. 24, 27, 28, 30, 73
upper shaft, in, 325-6 Chiba No.3 furnace, 571, 572, 589,
flow, 185-6 590,593
high temperature properties of, Chiba No.4 furnace, 571
427-83 Chiba No.5 furnace, 571, 572
cohesive zone model and direct Chiba No.6 furnace, 321, 324, 572
measurement of cohesive Chute, material flow effect, 316
zone, 483-91 Circulating elements, 30-41
factors for evaluating, 472-3 amounts of circulation, and, 1
relationship with operating effect of water quenching, 30-1
performance, 476-83 effect on cohesion zone, 50-3
materials, changes in properties Circumferential probing, 71
of,41-53 Cohesion zone, 14,24-30,370
profiles blast furnace operation, and, 84
measurement of, 78-81 change of height of, 76
moving armor, 304 characteristics of, 52
redistribution at time of next direct measurement of, 74-8, 491
charging, 309-11 distribution of charged materials,
trajectory 25-7,29
distributing chute, 317-21 distribution of stave temperature,
formulation of, 302-4 and,78
large bell, 301-4 effect of circulating elements, 50-3
effect of height, 373
effect of shape, 374-5
CaO-MgO-Si02-Alz03 system, 437, 440 estimating shape of, 66, 490
CaO-SiOr Al20 3-MgO system, 488 estimation models for, 77-8,483-6
CaO-Si0 2-Al 20 3 system, 548 features of, 25-7
Ca. Si02-2CaO .Al20 3 •Si02- FeO flow chart for shape of, 189
system, 440 formation of, 24
2CaO. Si02 -2CaO .Al20 3 . Si02- FeO gas flow pattern, 84
system, 442 measurements and estimations of,
Carbon 74-8
balance, 507-8 operation conditions, and, 24-41
consumption distribution, 537 operation variables and resultant
solution loss, 268 shape of, 28
transport, 507-8 profile estimation, 238-63
Cast-house mechanization, 614-15 control indices, 253-8
Charging equipment, 299 general description of
Chemical rate constant, 514 mathematical model, 239-53
Chemical rate processes, 513-14 reaction rates, 583
Chemical reaction equations, 532-3 relation to distribution and
Chemical reactions, 118, 119, 121, movement of burden, 24-30
170,582 relationships between rough
mass transfer with, 200-2 shapes and top gas data, 72
raceway, 532-4 shaft pressures, and, 76
simulation for experimental blast state of descent, 25-7
furnace, 534-42 V-shaped, 375
INDEX 623
Cohesion zone-contd Darcy equation, 394

W-shaped, 375 Dead coke zone
Coke coke movement, 350-2
bed state in hearth, 396-7 profile and inclination, 347, 360-2
behavior in raceway, 71 Dead man, 258, 370
combustion in raceway, 504 Degradation index during reduction
consumption rate, 517 (RDI), 414, 417
dam, 310-11 Diffusion coefficient, 123
layer angle, 333 Diffusion rate, 127
layers, 13 Direct reduction of molten wustite,
distribution of, 17-18 128-30
movement Discharge rate effect on burden
dead coke zone, 350-2 descent, 337-40
hearth, 350-2 Dissection of quenched blast
raceway, 344-9 furnaces, 3-63
particle size effects, 536-7 general in-furnace situations and
particle velocity distribution in peculiar phenomena, 5-14
raceway, 529-30 Distributor plates, 24
particles Dripping characteristics, 436-7
flowing into raceway, 500 Dropfrequenc~257
involvement in raceway, 498-500 Dropping zone
pockmarked, 20 distribution of variables in,
properties sampled through 591
tuyere,502 gas and liquid flow, 376-95
reactivity effect on turbulent zone mass and heat transfer, 585
temperature, 503 reaction rates, 583
sampling, 88 volume and blast furnace
slag reactions, silicon transfer, operation, 255
556-62 Dry zone, 388-90, 394
source to raceway, 344-7 Dummy index, 216
temperature at tuyere level, 144-6 Dynamic behavior, 263-80
zone, 14 models, 118-21
permeability, 347-9 Dynamic characteristics analysis,
Combustion zone, 14, 500, 505, 506, 121
509, 511, 512 Dynamic response, 272-3
kinetic model of, 513-16 step change, to, 276
reaction rates, 583-4 Dynamic simulation, 118
shell structure around, 22
situations in and around, 20-4
structural arrangement near, 22 Effective thermal conductivity
Computer aided operation, 608 burden, 187
Computer control, 117,608 fluid, 186-7
Continuity equations, 184, 216, 393, Energy
522,524 balance, 607
Control models, 116-21 conservation, 196, 205
Core behavior, 16-19 consumption, 606, 619
Counter-current flow region, 377-88 savings, 162
Cross flow region, 388-95 Equation of motion, 196, 522
624 INDEX
Ergun equation, 113, 116, 184, 215, Gas-contd.

308,349,445,448,449,523, distribution index, 573
582, 583 flow, 184-5
analysis, 215-24, 229-38
computation, 221-4
FeO-MgO system, 436 distribution, 71, 573
Ferro-chrome, 620 numerical simulation, 364-76
Ferro-manganese, 620 dropping zone, 376-95
Ferro-silicon, 620 pattern, 221-4
Finite element method, 116,214-38 rate
Flexible operation, 605-11 effect on burden descent, 337
Flooding phenomena, 382-5 radial distribution of, 166-9
Flow phenomena, 297-413 tuyere level, 140
Flow velocity distribution at each resistance, 370-1, 483, 486
height in furnace, 373-4 lumpy zone, 373
Fluidization before onset of through fused packed bed,
flooding, 385-8 445-71
Fractional open area measurement, tuyere zone, 508-13
453-5 two-dimensional, 366-9
Fractional reduction profile, 165 metal reactions, silicon transfer,
Friction factor and shrinkage 535
degree, 450 motion, 196-200
Frossling's equation, 122 permeability
Fukuyama No.4 furnace, 90 effect of softening properties,
Fukuyama No.5 furnace, 312, 331 486
Furnace test, 484-5
conditions, indices for judging, pressure drop, 380-2,483, 582
569-70 through ore and coke layers,
life, 611-14 174
reactions, probing, 71 streamlines in raceway, 531
Fused packed bed temperature
gas flow resistance through, 445-71 distribution, 324
pressure drop in, 446-50, 456 measurement of, 77-8
tuyere level, at, 144-6
Galerkin method, 229 utilization ratio, 420
Gangue Global formulation, 97-296
composition Graphite tracers, 19
acidic pellets, 44, 53
slag composition and, 55
high equilibrium melting point, Hearth
488 coke bed state in, 396-7
minerals, 439-44 heat index, 570
Gas metal flow in, 395-408
composition mathematical simulation of,
above stockline surface, 66 405-8
distribution of, 77-8, 208, 213, 324 reaction rates, 584-7
tuyere axis, 542 reactions, 53-7
tuyere level, 140 slag flow in, 395-408
INDEX 625
Hearth-contd. Hydrogen effects on raceway

slag flow in-contd. volume, 506
mathematical simulation of,
405-8
volume and productivity, 610 Icawasaki No.3 furnace, 41
Heat Indirect reduction of iron ore, 170
balance, 101, 136, 183 CO, by, 122-7
equations, 230, 533 H 2, by, 132-3
gas phase, 577 Induration stage, 423-4
metal and slag phases, 579 In-furnace conditions, 608, 610
solid phase, 578 In-furnace reactions, 582-7
ore and coke layers, 171 Input conditions, 203-5
exchange between gas and solid, Input variables, 269-72
268 Instrumentation for blast furnaces,
exchange coefficient, 268 development of, 64-71
loss coefficient, 269 Interaction force between gas and
requirement and availability, coke, 523
98-102 Internal state models, 121
slag formation, of, 138 Internal state of furnace, one-
transfer, 202, 229-38, 514-16 dimensional mathematical
coefficient, 148, 149, 203-4, 586 formulation for, 146-51
Heating, mineral phase changes Interphase heat transfer coefficient,
during, 425-6 187
Heavy oil injection, 272-5, 503-4 Interpolation function, 216
Higashida No. 5 furnace, 5 Iron ore agglomerates
High pressure operation, 151-3 high temperature properties of,
High temperature 414-97
properties of burden, 472-83 mineral phases in, 426-37
cohesive zone model and direct Iron ore diameter, 153-4
measurement of cohesive
zone, 483-91
factors for evaluating, 472-3 Janssen's theory, 356
relationship with operating ns reduction degree, 417
performance, 476-83
properties of iron ore agglomerates,
414-97 K value, 480
reduction 427-31, 452 K20-Na20-Si02 system, 444
Hirohata No. 1 furnace, 6, 13, 25, 28, Kakogawa No. 1 furnace, 59-62, 476
30, 33, 35, 39,40,42,47, 72, Kakogawa No.2 furnace, 476
73, 181, 191 Kawasaki No.2 furnace, 5, 6, 18, 22,
Hirohata No.3 furnace, 75, 477-8 26, 28, 30, 33, 35, 73
Holdup, 377-80 Kawasaki No.3 furnace, 5, 6,17,22,
absence of gas flow, 377-9 24,26,28,30,35,38,50,51,
estimation of, 586 53, 55, 57, 73, 194
influence of gas flow, 379-80 Kawasaki No.4 furnace, 5, 6, 25, 28,
liquid distribution, 390-92 30
Horizontal probe in blast furnace Kimitsu No.3 furnace, 259
shaft,82 Kinetic model, 108-16
626 INDEX
Kokura No.1 furnace, 33, 534 Magnetite-magnesioferrite solid

Kokura No.2 furnace, 6,13, 15, 16, solution, 423, 433-4
23,27,28,30,35 Manganese reaction, 562-3
Kukioka No.4 furnace, 6, 15, 20, 25, partition ratios, 567-70
28,73 partition reactions, 566-75
Marker materials, 13
Mass balance equation
Laser measurement method, 80 gas phase, 577
Layer inclination and burden metal and slag phases, 578-9
descent, 329-33 solid phase, 577
Layer properties, 219 Mass balances in ore and coke
Layer structure at horizontal cross- layers, 173
section, 341 Mass conservation, 196,205
Layer structure model, 166-94 Mass fraction
Lime, X-ray diffraction analysis, distribution, 206
43 Fe203 and Fe, of, 213
Limestone Mass transfer
decomposition, 130-2, 170 coefficient, 122, 514
Lining wear effects, 333 process,200-2,514-16
Liquid Material balance, 135-6, 196
dropping model, 394 Mathematical models. See Models
flow and modelling
distribution Measurements in operating blast
dripping zone, 210 furnaces, 64-93
raceway, 390-2 before blowing out and results of
dropping zone, 376-95 dissection, 72-4
tuyere zone, 508-13 development of, 64-71
motion, 200 future development, 91-3
Loaded softening experiments, objectives of, 64-5
51 relationship between measurement
Longitudinal distributions of and furnace operation, 72-91
process variables, 178-80 reports of, 67-70
Low temperature disintegration, targets of, 92
433-7 Mechanical profilometer, 78-9
Lower region of furnace, 546 Melt bath, 14
indices for judging condition of, Melt formation
568-75 metallic iron stage, 425
reactions involved in, 546-602 wustite stage, 424
Lower shaft probe, 84 Melting characteristics, 436-7
Lumpy zone, 13 Melting of ore, 268
estimation of reducibility in, Metal
414-17 composition changes, 53-7
gas flow resistance in, 373 droplets, compositional changes
measuring technique, 82 in, 57
reaction rates, 582 flow
reduction behavior in, 414-20 during tapping, 402-5
volume, and blast furnace hearth in, mathematical
operation, 254 simulation of, 405-8
INDEX 627
Metal-contd. Navier-Stokes equation, 521, 522

flow-contd. Non-uniform gas flow, 113
in hearth, 395-408 Notch number, 79
properties, 587 Numerical analysis of furnace
Metallic iron operation, 174-8
distribution after reduction, 426-7 Numerical simulation, gas flow
formation, 425 distribution, 364-76
MgO Numerical solution, two-dimensional
effects on high temperature model, 188-94
properties of agglomerates,
433-7
effects on wetting by sulfur- One-dimensional models
containing slag, 561-2 dynamic, 263-80, 507-20
MgO-Al203-SiOrCaO-FeP3 static, 121-65
system, 423 Operating conditions, 24-41, 208,
Microwave profile meter, 79-80 218
Mineral phase changes, 420-44, 466-8 Operation diagram, 103-8
during heating, 425-6 Operational condition index, 570
during reduction, 420-6 Operational performance, 606
Mineral phases Operational state in furnace, indices
in iron ore agglomerates, 426-37 representing, 253-8
softening viscosity of, 466-8 Ore coke distribution, 371-3
Mini-probe layout, 85 Ore layers, 13
Mitzushima No.2 furnace, 594-6 distribution of, 5
Mixed zone Orifice model for gas flow
observed by dissection, 342 resistance, 451-5
peripheral region near wall, 340-4 Oxygen enrichment, 157, 516, 518,
permeability on wall, 343-4 538
shaft angle effect on, 340-2 Oxygen partial pressure, 568
Models and modelling, 608
classification of, 97
global formulation, 97-296 Particle properties, 353
productivity prediction, 151-65 Particle size
raceway, 506-42 distribution
review of, 97-121 ore layer, 321
Mohr's circles, 352, 358, 360-2 type (A), 235, 238
Moisture evaporation in burden, 268 type (B), 237, 238
Molar fraction on tuyere axis, 535, effect, 235, 352-4
542 reaction rate constant, 419
Momentum balance, 183 segregation at furnace top, 321
Momentum transfer, 196-200 Particle streamlines in raceway,
Movable armor, 300, 304 531
burden profiles obtained by use Peclet number, 186
of,304 Pellets, high temperature properties
Moving-bed reactor, 125 of,476-8
Permeability distribution, 24
Permeability resistance index, 255
Nagoya No. 1 furnace, 59-62 Prereduction degree
628 INDEX
Prereduction degree-contd. Raceway-contd.

influence on softening viscosity, observation of, 90
464-6 particle streamlines in, 531
softening viscosity, and, 464-6, pressure distribution in, 530
468-71 profile and blast volume, 527-9
Prereduction of iron ore, 159-62 reactions in, 503-6
Pressure distribution Radial distribution
furnace wall, 224 fractional reduction, 181
raceway, 530 model, 196
Pressure drop particle diameter, 233
fixed and moving beds, 349 temperature, 235
fused packed bed, 446-50, 456 temperature and melting level,
measurement in stack, 344 180-1
Productivity, 608 voidage,233
analysis of operation, 259-63 Radial non-uniformity, 113
hearth volume, and, 610 Radioisotope measurement method,
model predictions, 151-65 74-5
Profilometer for blast furnace Rankin's constant, 356
burden, 78-81 Reaction interface model, l33
Pulverized coal injection, 538 Reaction rate constant, 123, 417-20
effect of FeO (%) in sinter, 421
gas utilization ratio, and, 420
Quantitative television microscope Reaction rate equation, 203
(QTM), 453-5 Reaction rates, 110, 111, 121-35,
Quenching methods and their 582-7
effects, 4-5 cohesive zone, 583
combustion zone, 583-4
dropping zone, 583
Raceway, 20, 498-545 hearth, 584-7
behavior of materials in and lumpy zone, 582
around, 23 Reactor behavior, 112
chemical reactions in, 532-4 Reactor model, 109
coke behavior in, 71 Reduction
coke combustion in, 504 liquid FeO by carbon, 267
coke particles involvement in, metallic iron distribution after,
344-9,498-500,529-30 426-7
coke source to, 344-7 mineral composition change
conditions at, 205, 500-2 during, 466-8
factors influencing shape, 23-4 rate, 111
gas streamlines in, 531 Reichardt diagram, 97-102
H2 effects in blast, 506 Repeated index, 216
liquid flow distribution for, 390-2 Response curves for step changes, 118
mathematical models, 506-42 Reynolds number, 269, 514
one-dimensional, 507-20 Root level, 261
two-dimensional, 520-42 Runge-Kutta-Gill method, 111,316
measurement and observation of,
498-506
movements at lower part of, 20-3 S-value, 480-3
INDEX 629
Sakai No.2 furnace, 83 Slag, silica reduction in, 135

Scaffold fonnation effects, 333-4 Slag basicity effect on reduction, 430
Sensors, 608, 610, 611 Slag changes in sinter, 47-8
development and use of, 78-91 Slag composition and gangue
Shaft angle effect on mixed zone composition, 55
fonnation, 340-2 Slag content effect on reduction, 430
Shaft diameter probe (SDP), 82 Slag droplets
Shaft probes, 71 composition, 55, 57
Shaft temperature during experiment Slag flow
with formed coke, 502 during tapping, 398-402
Shaft wall probe (SWP), 82 in hearth, 395-408
Shear stress measurement, 352 mathematical simulation of,
Shell fonnation, 20-3 405-8
Shell structure around combustion Slag formation
zone, 22 factors contributing to, 56
Shrinkage curves, 458, 460 reactions, 53
hematite ore and synthesized schematic representation of, 56
minerals, 434 Slag-less steelmaking process, 616
numerical optimization, 463, 464 Slag-metal-gas reactions, 546-602
prereduced iron ore, 461 Slag-metal reactions, silicon
synthesized samples in wustite transfer, 553-4
stage, 435 Slag phase analysis, 432
Shrinkage degree, 458-9, 470-1, 483, Slag properties, 587
489 Slip frequency, 257
fractional open area, 456 Softening behavior, 431-5
friction factor, and, 450 rheological model of, 467
Shutdown of blast furnace, 273-80 Softening melting zone, 258
Silica reduction in slag, 135 reducibility at, 420
Silicate fonnation, 38-41 Softening properties
Silicon effect on gas penneability, 486
behavior, 549-53 quantitative detennination of,
distribution, 551-3 458-71
reactions, 547-62 sinter, 486-90
circulation behavior, 38-41 Softening test, 458-71
models of, 564-97 Softening viscosity, 462-71
partition ratios, 567-70 influence of prereduction degree,
partition reactions, 566-75 464-6,468-71
transfer, 553-62 mineral phases, 466-8
coke-slag reactions, 556-62 specific prereduction degree,
gas-metal reactions, 535 468-71
slag-metal reactions, 553-4 Solids flow, 200
Sinter during charging and control of
slag changes in, 47-8 burden distribution,
softening properties of, 486-90 299-325
structure and composition of, 50 lower part of furnace, 336-52
Sintered ore, high temperature tuyere zone, 518-20
properties of, 478-83 upper part of furnace, 325-34
Size segregation constant, 322 Solution-loss reaction, 127-8, 134
630 INDEX
Specific heat of gaslburden, 187 Temperatures at top of the furnace,

Specific heat of materials, 143 136-40
Stagnant coke cone profile, 188 Theoretical flame temperature
Static pressure model, 77 (TFT), 140-3,503,583,584,
Stave temperature model, 77 594-7
Steady-state two-dimensional Thermal flow ratio, 594, 596, 616
modelling, 182-3 Thermal index, 117
Steelmaking process Thermal state index, 570
continuous, 618 Thermodynamic properties, 186-7
innovation, 615-18 Three-interface unreacted core
slag-less, 616 model, 125-7
Step change, dynamic response to, Throat diameter probe (TDP), 82
276 Titanium reaction, 563-4
Stream function vector, 524 Top zone, 13
Stress distribution, 352-60 Transport coefficients, 130, 132, 133
Sulfur Transport equations, 116
behavior of, 31-41 Transport phenomena, 264-9
partition ratios, 567-70 Transport properties, 186-7
partition reactions, 566-75 Tsurumi No.1 furnace, 6, 13, 17,26,
Surface angle 28, 30, 32-5, 38, 41, 43, 49,
burden descent and, 331 52-5, 57, 73, 331
decrease with burden descent, Tuyere probe, 88
308-9 Tuyeres
Surface angle of burden, 304-9 coke properties sampled through, 502
absence of gas flow, 304-5 diameter of, 15
influence of gas flow, 305 state of materials distribution in
front of, 20, 21
Two-dimensional models, 520-42
Tapping gas flow heat transfer and
flow of slag and metal in hearth chemical reactions, 195-213
during, 395-408 numerical solution, 188-94
metal flow during, 402-5 steady-state, 182-3
slag flow during, 398-402
temperature variation of molten
iron and slag during, 580-1 Unsteady-state heat transfer in ore
Technology development related to and coke layers, 170
innovative steelmaking Upper shaft, burden distribution in,
process, 615-18 325-6
Temperature
distribution, Ill, 206
dripping liquid, 212 Vertical probe, 75-7, 86-7
gas and solid, 210-12, 229 Vertical sonde, 71, 87
tuyere axis, 535, 542 Void fraction, 235, 349, 448-50, 453
estimation, 104 Vorticity vector, 524
measurement, 66
profile, 102, 103, 116, 164
variation of molten iron and slag Wall erosion, influence on material
during tapping, 580-1 flow, 342
INDEX 631
Water-gas reaction, 133-4 Wustite-contd.

Water-gas shift reaction, 134, 267 formation, 424
Water quenching effect on circulating
elements, 30-1 X-ray microanalyzer (XMA), 49
Wen's equation, 364
Wustite
direct reduction, 128-30 Zinc behavior, 31-41

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BLAST FURNACE PHENOMENA AND MODELLING

List of the Members, the Advisory Members and Staff of

Committee on Reaction within Blast Furnace,

ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE

Sale Distn'butor in the USA and Canada

WITH 43 TABLES AND 443 ILLUSTRATIONS

© ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD 1987

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Blast furnace phenomena and modelling.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Blast furnace phenomena and modelling.

ISBN-I 3: 978-94-010-8035-4 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-3431-3

Special regulations for readers in the USA

Phototypesetting hy Tech-Sct, Gatc~'hcad, Tync & Wear

function, changes in properties of burden materials, burden distribution,

Part I: Phenomena in the Blast Furnace

Chapter 1 Dissection of Quenched Blast Furnaces 3

1.7 Changes in Properties of Burden Materials 41

Chapter 2 Measurements in Operating Blast Furnaces 64

Part II: Modelling of the Blast Furnace

Chapter 3 Global Formulation 97

3.2.6 Temperature of gas and coke at tuyere level. 144

Chapter 4 Flow of Gas, Liquid and Solid . " 297

4.1.1 Burden distribution of bell top furnaces 301

Chapter 5 High Temperature Properties of Iron Ore

5.3.1 Measurement of pressure drop in fused packed bed 446

Chapter 6 The Raceway 498

Chapter 7 The Lower Region of the Blast Furnace and the

Part III: Flexibility and Adaptability of Blast Furnace

Chapter 8 Blast Furnace Ironmaking Technology in the Near

Phenomena in the Blast Furnace

Dissection of Quenched Blast Furnaces

1.1.1. Background to the Present Study

conducted dissections, more recent data were available, making the

1.1.2. Methods of Quenching and their Effects

~ ~'O 0.5 1.0 1.5

Fig. 1.1. Descent of burden following blowout (Tsurumi 1 BF).

1.1.3. General In-furnace Situations and Peculiar Phenomena

TABLE 1.1 t:I:l

(0) H.Oholo 11lF (b) Ku~JOko 4SF

Fig. 1.2. Inside arrangements of dissected blast furnaces.

rra:a O'e 10\e'

~ 1[11J1 Fused '0 ... tj

III Ko"csok , 4SF Ig i Kowoso~ , 3BF

15 ~ M..-ed IO,e' ~--l

Fig. 1.3. Functional structuring of blast furnace.

1.2. RELATION BETWEEN BEHAVIOR OF DESCENDING

1.2.1. Fundamental Descent Behavior of Burden in the Shaft

1.2.2. Asymmetrical Descent of Burden

Further, in the Chiba 1 BF, in which asymmetrical distribution was

1.3. BEHAVIOR OF THE CORE

Generally, the core is made up of coke deposited conically, whose top

raceway making an angle of30-50 o. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.5, where

Coke flowing into raceway

Fig. 1.5. Schematic view of movements in the central core.

As may be judged from Fig. 1.6, which shows the distribution of

--- ---L- -5L---:

o Cubic 5 doys 21 hrs. 090

Fig. 1.7. Presence of graphite tracers (Chiba IBF).

1.4. SITUATIONS IN AND AROUND THE COMBUSTION ZONE

1.4.1. State in Front of the Tuyere Nose

Fig. 1.8. State of materials distribution in front of tuyere (Kukioka 4 BF). tv

Roce- _ ' _ Shell