LEARNING
LEARNING
Basic Processes of Classical Conditioning
A relatively permanent change in
behavior brought about by
experience.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
A type of learning wherein a neutral
stimulus comes to bring about a
response after it is paired with a
stimulus that naturally brings about
that response.
Developed by Ivan Pavlov in one of his
experiments where he used a dog.
Pavlov attached a tube to the salivary
gland of a dog, allowing him to
measure how much the dog salivates.
He first presented a meat and
observed  the  dog’s  salivation.  Next  he   CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR): a
paired the meat with the sound of the
bell to produce salivation and
repeated the process until the dog
salivates with only the sound of the
bell.
NEUTRAL STIMULUS: before
conditioning, this stimulus does not
naturally bring about the response of
interest (bell)
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS):
stimulus that naturally brings about a
particular response, without having
been learned (meat)
UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UCR):
natural, innate, reflexive response;
unlearned (salivation to meat)
CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS): once
the neutral stimulus, it has been
paired with a UCS to bring about a
response formerly caused only by the
UCS (bell)
response that, after conditioning,
follows a previously neutral stimulus
(salivation to the bell)
Standard Classical Conditioning Paradigm
1. UCS UCR
2. NS(CS) + UCS UCR
3. CS (alone) CR
*Step 2 is repeated until the Neutral
Stimulus is capable of producing the
Conditioned Response
In classical conditioning, the
conditioned stimulus must be continuously
paired with the unconditioned stimulus;
otherwise, the conditioned response will
decrease in repetition. This is known as
extinction.
EXTINCTION
Occurs when a previously conditioned
response decreases in frequency and
eventually disappears.
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
Occurs when there is the
reemergence of an extinguished
conditioned response after a period of
rest and no further conditioning.
RECONDITIONING
Occurs after extinction has taken
place and the conditioned stimulus is
paired again with the unconditioned
stimulus.
Generalization and Discrimination
STIMULUS GENERALIZATION
a conditioned response follows a
stimulus that is similar to the original
conditioned stimulus; the greater the
similarity, the greater the likelihood
for generalization. (e.g. the dog
salivate at the sound of a church bell)
STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION
if two stimuli are sufficiently different
from each other that one brings about
the conditioned response but the
other does not. (e.g. the dog does not
salivate because of a flash of light)
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Learning in which a voluntary
response is strengthened (more likely
to recur regularly) or weakened (less
likely to recur regularly), depending on
its favorable or unfavorable
consequences.
REINFORCEMENT
the process by which a stimulus
increases the probability that a
preceding behavior will be repeated
REINFORCER
any stimulus that increases the
probability that a preceding behavior
will occur again
Primary Reinforcer – natural and
innate (e.g. food, shelter, clothing)
Secondary Reinforcer – paired with a
primary reinforcer or conditioned (e.g.
money)
Types of Reinforcement
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
a stimulus added to the environment
that brings about an increase in a
preceding response
Example: Being given a new laptop
after  you  become  a  Dean’s  Lister.
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
an unpleasant stimulus whose
removal leads to an increase in a
preceding response
 Example: You are no longer obliged to
wash the dishes after you got high
grades.
PUNISHMENT
The process by which a stimulus
decreases the probability that a
preceding behavior will happen again.
Types of Punishment
POSITIVE PUNISHMENT
Adding an unpleasant stimulus to the
environment.
Example: Being required to clean the
house after failing one subject.
NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT
Removing a pleasant stimulus from
the environment.
Example: being grounded after
breaking the curfew. (Removal of
privilege to go out)
OPERANT CONDITIONING vs. CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
Classical Conditioning:
o Stimulus-Response (S-R)
Operant Conditioning:
o Response-Stimulus (R-S)
DISADVANTAGES OF PUNISHMENT
Punishment can be effective, but
there are also disadvantages:
Frequently ineffective if not delivered
soon after undesirable behavior.
Physical punishment can send
message of approval & even
encouragement of physical aggression
in other situations.
Sometimes difficult for punisher to
control the degree/amount of physical
punishment.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Different patterns of frequency &
timing of reinforcement following
desired behavior.
Can be Continuous Reinforcement
Schedule or Partial (Intermittent)
Reinforcement Schedule
CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT
SCHEDULE
Reinforcing of a behavior every
time it occurs.
Learning occurs more rapidly.
PARTIAL (INTERMITTENT)
REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE
Reinforcing of a behavior some
(but not all) of the time it occurs.
behavior lasts longer after
reinforcement stops
Fixed-Interval Schedule
reinforcement provided only if a fixed
time period has elapsed
overall response rates relatively low
e.g. weekly paycheck
 Variable-Interval Schedule
time between reinforcements varies
around some average
e.g.: giving surprise quizzes that vary
from every three days to every three
weeks
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Learning by watching the behavior of
another person (Model).
Albert   Bandura:   the   “social   cognitive  
approach”

SHAPING REFERENCES
The process of teaching a complex
behavior by rewarding closer and Feldman, R. S. (2011) Essentials of
closer approximations of the desired Understanding Psychology (9th
behavior. edition). New York: McGraw-Hill
First, reinforce any behavior that is
remotely similar to the desired Feldman, R. S. (2010) Psychology and Your
behavior. Life. Philippines: McGraw-Hill
Then reinforce only responses that are
closer to the desired behavior.
Then reinforce only the desired
behavior.

COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING

Cognitive Learning Theory

focuses on the thought processes
(cognitions) that underlie learning
developed approaches that focus on
the unseen mental processes that
occur during learning, rather than
concentrating solely on external
stimuli, responses and reinforcements
(e.g. expectations)

TWO TYPES OF LEARNING W/O PRIOR

REINFORCEMENT

LATENT LEARNING
Learning in which a new behavior is
acquired but is not demonstrated until
some incentive is provided for
displaying it.

Cognitive Map
Mental representations of spatial
locations and directions.