 Why has the Gulf of Mexico (plus the Caribbean Sea) attracted so much attention from

major world powers for so long? How and when did the United States become a
dominant actor in this area?

The Gulf of Mexico has attracted so much attention from major world powers for so long due to
the nature and climate. The change in temperature from day to night has a huge appeal,
because the days are warm but the evenings into night become quite cool. This region of
Central American is also full of mountain ranges, arid areas, volcanoes and jungles. This soil in
this region is very fertile lending to the appeal for world powers. In addition to the region’s
climate and natural resources, the location has many benefits as well. The connection between
the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean is very desirable. North America grew involved in this area
because of all of the appeal and the location being so close to the United States, ready for
expansion.

 How did the Spanish penetration of Central America differ from the conquest of Mexico?
What implications did this have?

One of the major differences was the arrival of the Spaniards in 1501. At this time many of the
civilizations were stable, self-sufficient villages that bartered and worked with one another.
Within Central America, there were many native cultures and the Spaniards began conquering
them one at a time. In order to establish a new government, the Spaniards took this route
rather than trying to conquer all of them at once. Central America did manage to separate from
Spain and Mexico rather peacefully, despite several disagreements. This prompted and allowed
for the colonial social order to remain. Eventually, the political elite divided the Liberals and the
Conservatives. The Liberals were dedicated supported of the continuation of reforms
implemented by the Bourbon monarchy. The Conservatives, on the other hand, were
landowners who desired stability and order. The takeover of Mexico was followed by huge
change- the government directing its attention to protecting the indigenous communities.

 What are the defining features of “plantation societies”? How do Central American
societies compare with late-nineteenth-century Mexico?

Plantation societies are defined by many characteristics, such as export crops being produced
on large scale plantations. Very few people had the power of land ownership and the
mobilization and control of the harvesting by rural labor. Subsidence farming held inadequate
emphasis and the the elites and owners could live and work at a reasonable location. Where
industrial development was inadequate, due to population and resources, is typically where
this developed. Still resistant to overseas changes, they were underdeveloped and vulnerable.
In Central America, immigration was welcome by the Liberal leaders. Bananas and coffee
dominated as some of the top exports in Central America. Although these exports are in high-
demand, many Central American countries are still at a very high poverty rate.
  What have been the long-term consequences of the construction of the Panama
Canal? What if an inter-oceanic waterway had been built in Nicaragua instead?

In 1878, plans were put into place to build a canal to connect the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific
Ocean. In Panama, this would be done. The United States engineers wanted this to be done
through Nicaragua, but due to financial issues this would not be successful. In 1914 the canal
was complete and would soon become dependent on agricultural exports. Also, the United
States market and the oligarchy helped to support the canal. Tension amongst the surrounding
regions caused many issues regarding the Panama Canal until the United States settled a treaty
in the seventies giving all Panamian sovereignty over the canal. In 1999 this was done. George
H. W. Bush, U.S. president, used Noriega to form economic boycotts, sending troops to Panama
to fight and capture Noriega. All of these issues might have been avoided has the canal been
built in Nicaragua.

 What explains the emergence of armed guerrilla movements in El Salvador and

Nicaragua? Why were the revolutionaries able to take power in Nicaragua, but not in El
Salvador?

Augusto Cesar Sandino, a Liberal activist, waged a guerilla campaign against the United States
intervention. This occurred after they had left Nicaraguan soil. He saw the United States
National guard as a huge threat to what he considered to be a “free” Nicaragua. General
Anastasio Somoza Garcia headed these efforts and ultimately gave the order to execute
Sandino. In a rigged election, Luis Somoza Debayle was elected after and ruled as a tyrant. The
revolutionaries were able to take power in Nicaragua but not in El Salvador due to the
corruption and rigging going on in a seemingly endless cycle. Between 1870 and 1900, there
were four revolts stages by the outraged people. Killings rose to an all time high and may have
been why the revolutions in El Salvador were less than successful.

 Has Central America finally embarked on a period of peace? Why and to what extent?

It does not seem like Central America has finally embarked on a period of peace. In Guatemala,
the Arbenz was accused of being too relaxed with communism making it a threat to the United
States and the rest of the world. In Honduras, the military officers lost control in 1981. The
result of this was peaceful voting, but this did not put an end to issues with neighboring
countries. During the Cold War, the United States turned Honduras into a launching pad for
Contra attacks against the Sandinistas. At the beginning of the presidency of Carlos Roberto
Reina, the economy suffered huge decline. Costa Rica was a democracy and survived the post-
1982 debt crisis years. They were caught up in many other conflicts and wars despite this. Costa
Rica was at risk, as well, due to many Nicaraguan refugees fleeing to here. Central America is
beginning a journey of improvement after many years of civil war.