Indian Journal of

Small Ruminants

DYSTOCIA IN THE SHEEP AND GOAT– A REVIEW

G.N. Purohit
Department of Animal Reproduction, Gynecology and Obstetrics,
College of Veterinary and Animal Science, Bikaner- 334 001, Rajasthan
Manuscript received on 15.04.2005, accepted on 07.03.2006

ABSTRACT

The causes of dystocia and their management in sheep and goat have been
reviewed and the periparturient prediction of fetal viability discussed. The
incidence of dystocia varies between 8 to 50 % in both sheep and goats and
appears to be greater in dams carrying single and male fetuses. Failure of cervical
dilation is the major maternal cause of dystocia followed by uterine inertia.
Lateral deviation of the head and flexion of carpal and shoulder joints are the
commonest fetal causes of dystocia in both sheep and goats followed by relative
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fetal oversize. Dystocia can be corrected by mutation and caesarean section but
only partial subcutaneous fetotomy of one or both limbs is possible in sheep and
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goat. The birth canal of the parturient goat is very fragile and undue force in
pulling out a maldisposed fetus results in uterine rupture with subsequent prolapse
of abdominal organs and hence care must be exercised in manual delivery.
Ultrasonography is the most reliable procedure for predicting fetal viability.
(Indian Journal of Small Ruminants 2006, 12(1): 1-12)

Key words: Dystocia, Fetal causes, Goat, Maternal causes, Sheep.

Sheep and goat are two small
ruminants that resemble closely in many
ways in reproduction although some
differences do exist. The gestation length and
parturition process in both species appear to
be similar with the first stage of labour
lasting 6-12 hrs and the second stage 0.5 to 1
hr (Mehta et al., 1990; Jackson, 1995),
however, vocalization is seen only in the
goat during parturition (Braun, 1997) and
drop in rectal temperature recorded in sheep
(Winfield and Makin, 1975).
INCIDENCE
Difficult births in the ewe flocks have
been described to be 3 % (Jackson, 1995),
however, in another study the incidence was
34 % in Dorset ewes (George, 1976),
whereas, the incidence was 4.1 % of 1510
fine wool Merino ewes lambing (George,
1975). Dystocia was seen in 10 % of single
births, 11 % of twins and 14 % of triplets and
a higher incidence was seen in crossbred
Texels compared to crossbred Finish sheep
(Krueger and Wassmuth, 1974). In West
African Dwarf ewes, the incidence was 5.7
% (Osuagwuh et al., 1980). For goats, the
incidence of dystocia is difficult to interpret
as they are kept in smaller herds and at many
locations as individuals. In one study, the
incidence of dystocia in goats was 8.23 %
(Mehta et al., 2002). Obstetrical problems in
goats are similar to those in sheep (Rahim
 G.N. Purohit

and Arthur, 1982; Majeed, 1994), however, al., 1999). Some facts related with incidence
the incidence of dystocia is considered of dystocia are shown in Table-1.
higher in goats compared to ewes (Sharma et
Table 1: Factors associated with incidence of dystocia in sheep.
Factor Incidence Reference
Age Not related with age George (1975), Kloss et al. (2002).
whereas common in 2 Majeed and Taha (1989b)
years old ewes Majeed et al. (1993)
Sharma et al. (1999)
Sex of fetus More in ewes with male Majeed and Taha (1989b)
fetuses than female Majeed et al. (1993)
Parity More in first and second Echternkamp and Gregory (1999)
parity
Number of fetuses Common in ewes with George (1976)
single fetus Silva and Noakes (1984)
Krueger and Wassmuth (1974)
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Echternkamp and Gregory (1999)

Season of lambing Common in spring and George (1975), George (1976)
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winter lambing Cecilia et al. (1996)

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Breed Higher in Texel ewes Krueger and Wassmuth (1974)

and Cheviot ewes Whitelaw and Watchorn (1975)
Length of Gestation Higher in prolonged Dennis (1974)
gestation
Health of ewes Higher in weak ewes George (1975)

CAUSES
Although, the causes of dystocia can
be classified according to maternal and fetal
origin, however, most reports depict that
fetal maldisposition (especially lateral
deviation of the head) and obstruction of the
birth canal (specially failure of cervix to
dilate) are most common causes of dystocia
in sheep (Blackmore, 1960; Hughes-Ellis;
1958; Thomas, 1990). Nearly similar
findings were recorded in goats (Rahim and
Arthur, 1982; Purohit et al., 2006). Jackson
(1995) described the causes of dystocia in
sheep and goat to be fetal maldisposition,
fetopelvic disproportion, obstruction of the
birth canal, fetal abnormalities, uterine
inertia, uterine deviation and uterine torsion.
For this review, the causes of
dystocia have been discussed under maternal
and fetal causes.
Maternal causes
The maternal causes of dystocia can
be grouped as those because of uterine
inertia, failure of abdominal expulsive forces
and obstruction of the birth canal. Some
other causes described include uterine
rupture, uterine torsion and pelvic fracture
The incidence of maternal causes of dystocia
was reported as 31.4 % (Purohit et al., 2006),
47.1 % (Majeed and Taha, 1989b) and 57.8
% (Sharma et al., 1999) in goats and 35 to 38

2
 Dystocia in the sheep and goat
% (Hughes Ellis 1958; Thomas, 1990) to
46.4 % (Majeed and Taha, 1995) and 50 %
(Kloss et al., 2002) in sheep.
Uterine inertia: In both sheep and goats
primary uterine inertia associated with
hypocalcaemia does rarely occur (Jackson,
1995). However, pregnancy toxaemia can
result into inertia. Inertia is common in does
of 2- 4 years of age (Purohit et al., 2006).
Primiparous/first lambing sheep or goat may
show inertia due to anxiety. Secondary
uterine inertia due to presence of
maldisposed fetus is more common in sheep
and goats (Jackson, 1995; Rahim and Arthur,
1982) while it is common in sheep due to
ring womb (Adams and Nairn, 1983;
Jackson, 1995). Attempts at dystocia
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correction must, therefore, be directed
towards removal of primary cause of
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dystocia followed by manual delivery and
administration of injections of oxytocin
(Jackson, 1995).
Failure of abdominal expulsive forces:
Besides uterine inertia, the causes of failure
of expulsive forces described for sheep
include, severe debility, abdominal wall
ruptures and perinial hernias (Jackson,
1995). Severe pain, age and debility are other
described causes (Kinne, 2002). When any
of these reasons result in dystocia, it is
usually necessary to deliver the fetus with
manual help.
Obstruction of the birth canal: Obstruction
of the cervix or failure of cervical dilation
(often termed ring womb) is a major cause of
ovine dystocia (Adams and Nairn, 1983;
Brounts et al., 2004). The incidence of
obstruction of the birth canal due to
insufficient cervical dilation has been
reported to be 35 % (Blackmore, 1960;
Hughes-Ellis, 1958; Thomas, 1990), 25 %
(Bali, 1982) and 50 % (Majeed et al., 1993)
3
in sheep. In goats, the incidence of failure of
cervical dilation has been reported to be
around 12 % (Rahim and Aurthur, 1982), 15
% (Phillip et al., 1985) and 23.5 % (Majeed
and Taha, 1989a) of total dystocia cases. In a
recent study, failure of cervical dilation
accounted for 45.5 % of the does with
dystocia of maternal origin (Purohit et al.,
2006). The exact etiology of the condition is
not known but a number of predisposing
factors like hypocalcaemia and hypo-
phosphataemia (Al-Sultan and Majeed,
1996), hormonal or mineral imbalances
(Braun, 1997), uterine inertia and breech
presentation (Jackson, 1995) have been
described. Mennekes (1983) however,
considered that the etiology of ring womb in
sheep does not involve estrogens. Likewise,
Adams and Nairn (1983) found that dystocia
in ewes is not caused by circulating
estrogens or their metabolites. Prolonged
dystocia often results in the previously
dilated cervix closing, further complicating
the dystocia. Partial dilation of the cervix
results in the cervical canal opening only a
few centimeters (Braun, 1997). Secondary
uterine inertia is common sequelae to ring
womb. Affected does or ewes have history of
non-delivery of kids or retention of placenta.
Manual examination with fingers reveals a
partially dilated cervix with the cervical
rings palpable and only one or two fingers
can be introduced in the cervix. Attempts at
manual dilation are many times unsuccessful
and may result in tears when done with
undue force. The caprine genitalia are very
fragile and should be handled gently. The
use of a vibrator for cervical dilation has
been suggested for sheep (Turner, 1973).
Although the procedure resulted in dilation
sufficient to allow delivery of fetuses but
complete dilation could not be achieved in
any of the eight ewes treated. The usual
treatment suggested is caesarean section
(Jackson, 1995; Braun, 1997). Although
 G.N. Purohit
calcium borogluconate (20- 60 ml IV),
estradiol and oxytocin have been used but
their efficacy is always questionable. Ring
womb with resultant uterine rupture has been
observed in a goat (Sundaravadanan, et al.,
1996). Drugs like isoxsuprine HCl at the rate
of 10- 40 mg, IV or clenbuterol at the dose of
0.1 mg IM have been suggested for sheep
and goat but only clenbuterol have shown
beneficial effects as a myometrial relaxant in
sheep dystocia (Menard and Diaz, 1987).
Uterine spasmolytics like denaverine HCl
have shown some promise in calving
difficulties in cattle (Barth et al., 1982) but
their use in sheep need to be experienced.
Some of the other causes of
obstruction of the birth canal described for
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sheep and goat include small pelvic area
(Kene, 1991), pelvic deformity (Bansod et
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al., 1993), lack of prelambing relaxation of
vulva, vaginal obstruction by scar tissue and
vaginal septum (Martin et al., 2001), vaginal
prolapse (Jackson, 1995), vaginal or
vestibular fibrosis (Kumar et al., 2004),
uterine torsion (Jackson, 1995) and deviation
of the uterus (Balasubramanian et al., 1991).
Vaginal constriction (11 %) has been
reported in Merino ewes in Australia with an
inferior reproductive capacity (Maxwell,
1977)
Uterine torsion: Torsion of the uterus is rare
in sheep (Smith and Ross, 1985) and goat
(Gupta, 2005). Reports in the goat suggest
that the torsion is around 180° and on the
right side (Vyas, 1987; Chandrahasan et al.,
1990; Bansod and Srivastava, 1991; Sharma
et al., 2004). Although, Rahim and Arthur
(1982) found the incidence of uterine torsion
to be 2 %, in one report uterine torsion
accounted for 41.5 % of the caesarean
sections performed at the referral center
(Phillip et al., 1985) and in other study,
torsion accounted for 21.6 % of the total
cases of dystocia in sheep and goat (Sharma
4
et al., 1999). Torsion usually occurs in early
stage of the first stage of labour in sheep
(Jackson, 1995) and the second stage of
labor in goats (Chandrahasan et al., 1990;
Bansod and Srivastava, 1991). Torsion
typically occurs in does carrying single
fetuses (Braun, 1997). Animals are presented
to the clinic usually with a history of non-
progression of labor. Diagnosis is difficult
and can be made in post cervical uterine
torsion by typical folds in the vagina
(Sharma et al., 2004) or sometimes only
partially dilated cervix. Pre-cervical uterine
torsions or torsions of lesser degree are
difficult to be suspected because of the
inability to perform rectal examination in the
small ruminants. Sometimes torsion is found
during a caesarean section. Although,
rotation of lamb (Jackson, 1995) in uterus
with the hind limbs of the ewe raised or
rolling of the ewe or doe (Jackson, 1995;
Braun, 1997; Gupta, 2005) have been
suggested, but the difficulty of diagnosis and
inability to determine the effect of rolling
suggest caesarean section to be the only
effective means of correcting uterine torsion
in ewes and does. Studies on blood
parameters like blood urea nitrogen,
creatinine, sodium and potassium after
surgical creation of experimental torsion in
periparturient sheep have revealed some
differences but not significantly different to
have any clinical significance in diagnosis of
uterine torsion (Rajasekaran et al., 1995).
The clinical findings or the degree of torsion
were not commented in these studies.
Uterine rupture: Uterine rupture is a
frequent cause of death of ewes suffering
from dystocia (Bali, 1982). Uterine rupture
can result from rolling of ewes suffering
from uterine torsion, administration of
uterine echbolics like oxytocin to ewes
suffering from failure of cervical dilation or
can occur spontaneously (Adams and Nairn,
 Dystocia in the sheep and goat
1983). However, it is more likely to result
from excessive traction applied to a
maldisposed or oversized fetus in an
insufficiently dilated birth canal. The clinical
outcome of an ewe or goat with uterine
rupture remains difficult to assess because of
the variability of symptoms that appear
depending upon the location and extent of
rupture and the time lapse between rupture
and therapy. Uterine rupture during or
subsequent to a difficult birth can result in
aversion of abdominal organs. An
emergency laparotomy is suggested for
repair of the uterine rupture, but it may be
sometimes difficult to repair parts of uterus
ruptured near the cervix due to difficulty in
approach (Purohit et al., 2006).
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Deviation of the uterus: Ventral deviation
of the uterus may be seen in cases of ventral
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hernia (Jackson, 1995; Balasubramanian et
al., 1991) or rupture of the prepubic tendon
(Purohit et al., 2006). These abnormalities
may occur in older ewes heavily pregnant
but often in poor bodily condition (Jackson,
1995). Spontaneous or traumatic injuries can
result into hernia and falling of uterus in the
herniated portion. This is grossly visible by
swelling/enlargement of abdomen to one
side. Manual delivery of the fetus is
suggested (Jackson, 1995) with the ewe/goat
lying down, however, caesarean may be
necessary in some cases (Balasubramanian et
al., 1991).
Fetal causes
The fetal causes of dystocia in sheep
include fetal maldisposition and fetal
oversize.
Fetal maldisposition: Fetal maldisposition
is one of the major causes of dystocia both in
sheep (Hughes-Ellis, 1958; Blackmore,
1960; Thomas, 1990) and goats (Rahim and
5
Arthur, 1982; Braun, 1997; Purohit et al.,
2004) accounting for more than half of the
dystocia cases. Amongst the various
maldispositions, dispositions are known to
be common in anterior presentation of the
fetus (Majeed and Taha, 1989b; Majeed and
Taha, 1995; Grommers et al., 1985; Taha et
al., 1987) with lateral deviation of the head
and neck, and flexion of the carpus and
shoulder being the most common in sheep
(Jackson, 1995) and goat (Braun, 1997;
Purohit et al., 2006), although other
maldispositions may occasionally occur.
Abnormal position of limbs
accounted for 68.5 % of the dystocia in
sheep due to postural abnormalities whereas
abnormal posture of head and neck
accounted for 7.7 % of the cases in one study
(Krueger and Wassmuth, 1974). The
incidence of postural abnormalities has been
reported between 63 to 69 % in sheep and
goat (Sharma et al., 1999; Purohit et al.,
2006). Goerge (1976) found that 31 % of all
lambs assisted during lambing had one or
both legs retained.
Deviation of the head may vary in
degree. It is most commonly deviated
slightly, but sometimes it may be deviated
laterally to the lamb’s body. Rarely it may be
deviated downwards with only the forelimbs
presented. In delayed cases the uterine wall
tightly wraps around the fetus due to loss of
fetal fluids. Great care must be exercised in
correction of such cases to avoid damages to
the uterine wall (Jackson, 1995). Deviation
of the head may sometimes be coupled with
flexion of the extremities. Although manual
correction of the deviation is possible in
sheep and goat with sufficiently dilated birth
canal and in cases presented timely with live
fetuses. It may be difficult in cases presented
beyond 24 hrs of 2nd stage of labor (Mehta et
al., 2002), which may require removal of one
 G.N. Purohit
of the limbs by fetotomy or in some cases
even caesarean section when fetus is dead
and emphysematous.
Carpal and shoulder flexions may be
corrected manually with ease and fetus can
be delivered by traction after sufficient
lubrication. Although, a case of forelimbs
over the head with resultant rectovaginal
fistula has been recorded in a goat (Purohit et
al., 2006) such cases are rare. Posterior
presentations may result in dystocia specially
when there is a single fetus. The incidence
of posterior presentation is known to vary
from 0.8 % (Whitelaw and Watchorn, 1975)
to 1.5 % (Krueger and Wassmuth, 1974) in
sheep and 7.25 % in goats (Majeed and
Taha, 1989b). A case of dorsotransverse
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presentation has been seen in a goat (Purohit
et al., 2004), which was corrected manually
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and the same has been described to occur in
sheep (Jackson, 1995) with an incidence of
1.5 % (Krueger and Wassmuth, 1974).
Abnormalities of position are described to be
encountered in sheep (Jackson, 1995;
Menzies and Bailey, 1997) but the authors
have not seen a single case in goats.
Correction of the postural defects in sheep
(Arthur et al., 1999) and goats (Jackson,
1995) is relatively simple when done
promptly and many times done by the
shepherd. Dystocia due to fetal
maldispositions is usually corrected
manually in sheep (25.2 %) and only a small
number (1.1%) require caesarean section
(Sobiraj, 1994).
Fetal oversize
Fetopelvic disproportion is common
in ewes when the size of individual lamb is
large compared to pelvis (Jackson, 1995).
McSporran and Wyburn (1979) considered
that incompatibility in size between the
maternal pelvis and the lamb at birth is
6
largely responsible for the dystocia and,
selective breeding for freedom from dystocia
in both ewes and rams appear to be a more
effective way of overcoming lambing
difficulties. The condition occurs most
commonly in ewes or does carrying single
fetuses. A prolonged gestation results in
large sized lambs with resultant dystocia
(Dennis, 1974). The size of the fetus can
increase due to fetal emphysema subsequent
to death of the fetus in the birth canal
(Sobiraj, 1994). Fetal monsters can have
relative oversize and result in dystocia. Less
common causes of fetal oversize include
fetal anasarca and fetal hydrops. If the birth
canal is sufficiently dilated, such fetuses can
be delivered by manual correction and
traction. Dead emphysematous fetuses
require partial subcutaneous fetotomy
especially of the limbs. Oversized fetuses,
emphysematous fetuses and fetal monsters
represented 28.4, 13.3 and 7.1% of the sheep
requiring caesarean section for dystocia
correction (Majeed et al., 1993). Phillip et al.
(1985) observed fetal oversize in 9.4 of goats
requiring caesarean section for dystocia
correction. Whitelaw and Watchorn (1975)
reported that 30.2 % of the lambs were
presented normally but were oversized and
5.5 % of the oversized lambs had only the
head presented at the birth canal. It was
found that in cases of un-assisted oversized
lambs either the head alone emerges or the
ewe becomes exhausted. The only assistance
required is pulling of the forelegs.
Congenital anomalies have been described in
kids (Dhoble and Markandeya, 1995;
Balagopalan et al., 1996; Tandle et al., 2000)
and they have been ascribed in sheep and
goats as a cause of dystocia (Majeed et al.,
1992). Majeed et al., (1992) reported that the
incidence of congenital defects more in goats
(55.5 %) compared to sheep (25.0 %).
Conjoined twin monstrosities have been seen
in lamb (Doijode et al., 1992). Monstrosities
 Dystocia in the sheep and goat
seen in goats include diprosopus (Kumar et
al., 1990), Gastro thoracopagus (Solomanraj
et al., 1999); diplopagus (Pandit et al., 1994)
and dicephalus (Majeed et al, 1992).
Conjoined twin monstrosities may require
caesarean section for their delivery. Other
monsters have mostly been seen in goats and
include perosomus elumbis (Dennis, 1974;
Majeed et al., 1992; Kulasekar et al., 1992),
otter kid (Rajguru et al., 2001), Cyclopia
(Goel et al., 1989b; Raju and Rao, 2001)
amorphous globosus (Purohit et al., 2000)
schistosoma reflexus (Dhoble and
Markandeya, 1995; Balagopalan et al., 1996;
Balaswamy and Rao, 1997), anasarca
(Tamuli et al., 1987; Balagopalan et al.,
1996; Krishnakumar et al., 2000; Sharma et
al., 2002; Selvaraju et al., 2005) and
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hydrocephalus (Dennis, 1974; Majeed et al.,
1992; Balagopalan et al., 1996).
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Other causes of dystocia
Some of the other causes of dystocia
described for sheep are vaginal prolepses,
hydroallantois, and those for goat are
hydroallantois and cervical, vaginal or vulvar
tumors.
Vaginal prolapse comprised 31 % of
dystocia treated in sheep at one location
(Bali, 1982) but such an incidence was not
seen in other studies. The prolapsed part
must be replaced back if the fetus is not
present at the vulvar opening, otherwise, the
fetus must be well lubricated and slightly
repelled and then delivered manually.
Vaginal prolapse appeared 11 days before
lambing in one study and only 26 % of the
affected sheep had spontaneous delivery
(Kloss et al., 2002). A pre-term caesarean
had to be done in many ewes.
In studies on sheep, the incidence of
hydroallantois was presented to be 1.5 %
7
(Majeed et al., 1993) or 1.2 % (Bali, 1982).
Goats suffering from hydroallantois are
usually presented in their second stage of
labour with a history of sudden enlargement
of the abdomen after mid gestation (Goel et
al., 1989a; Majeed et al., 1993; Misri and
Singh, 2001; Purohit et al., 2006). The
animals have difficulty in breathing and the
conceptus cannot be palpated by abdominal
ballottment. Caesarean section is suggested
for treatment of such cases with due cares
being exercised while opening the uterus. It
is recommended to siphon out the fluid from
the uterus slowly before opening the greater
curvature of the uterus to deliver the fetus to
prevent development of shock by sudden
fluid loss. Massive fluid replacement before,
during and after the operation is essential to
save the life of the animal (Purohit et al.,
2006)
Tumors of the vagina and cervix are
seldom a cause of dystocia in the small
ruminants. Fibromas of the cervix or vagina
are usually evident as hanging masses after
fetal delivery, which should be removed by
careful excision (Purohit et al., 2006).
Tumors of the uterus are not reported to
cause any difficult delivery, as they are more
likely to prevent a normal pregnancy. Cyst
adenoma of the Bartholins glands has been
reported to cause dystocia in a goat (Sharma
et al., 1996). There was vulvar enlargement
with constriction of the vulvar orifice in the
case reported. The fetus was delivered after
bilateral excision and removal of the tumour
mass.
Periparturient prediction of fetal viability
and dystocia
Various methods have been evolved
to assess fetal viability during periparturient
period in sheep and goat and include
abdominal ballottment, auscultation of fetal
 G.N. Purohit
heart sound, and ultrasonography.
Ultrasonographic detection of the fetal
heartbeat appears to be the most reliable
parameter when the fetus is in uterus.
However, when the fetus is in the birth canal,
it is many times difficult to assess the fetal
viability. Unless much time has passed since
the appearance of fetus in birth canal,
obstetricians must try to avoid positive
comments on viability of the fetus. A
depressed fetus may show no movement
when pressed by hand but may become
active sometime after its delivery.
Radiographic evaluation could be a good
means to define the number of fetuses in
goats (Kene, 1991) but its use to predict
dystocia on the basis of diameter of the fetal
skull is doubtful (McSporran and Fielden,
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1979). Radiographic pelvimetry to assess the
pelvic outlet at the periparturient period
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appears to be of little value in predicting the
size of pelvic outlet at parturition
(McSporran and Wyburn, 1979). Maternal
estrone sulfate levels have been used to
predict pregnancy, fetal viability and fetal
numbers in ewes and have shown some
promise (Illera et al., 2000), but their clinical
validation is not beyond doubt (Ishwar,
1995). Studies on serum haptoglobin in
dystocia affected sheep have shown that
serum haptoglobin concentrations are
significantly elevated in ewes with dead
lambs in utero, compared to those ewes
which had live lambs delivered. There was
an indication that sheep with a serum
haptoglobin concentration above 1.0 g/l
represented a poor surgical risk (Scott et al.,
1992). However, with a smaller trial like this
and with the potential problem of animals
being usually presented to the referral
centers after sufficient delay, obstetricians
have little option than to opt for a caesarean
instead of euthanizing an ewe (Scott, 1989)
and hence such prognostic indicators have
limited value. Periparturient prediction of
8
dystocia in small ruminants therefore appears
to be difficult. Fetal death is significantly
associated with a prolonged duration of
dystocia (Brounts et al., 2004). Periparturient
diagnosis of twins enables timely
administration of obstetrical assistance
(Echternkamp and Gregory, 1999).
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