Experiment 12.

Langmuir Probes

Updated GP, JK, and MD August 22, 2017

1 Safety First

There are two DC power supplies used in this experiment, one with (0 to 2000) V voltage
range for providing the discharge current for the glow discharge you will be using, and second
for adjusting the Langmuir probe potential in (0 to 120) V range. Both are potentially able
to deliver a fatal electric shock. Please, remember to switch off both power supplies before
connecting or disconnecting any cables. After the circuit has been changed, ask a tutor to
check it and obtain permission to switch on the power supplies.

2 Aim

• Determination of some physical properties of a plasma using a Langmuir probe.

• Obtain the gas breakdown voltage curve as a function of the gas pressure (Paschen curve).

3 Theory

3.1 Senior Plasma Physics Lectures

There is a series of lectures on plasma physics presented by Joe Khachan on YouTube. Espe-
cially lectures 11 to 14 are recommended for this experiment. You can find them at this address:
USYD - Senior Plasma Physics Lectures.
12–2 S ENIOR P HYSICS L ABORATORY

3.2 The glow discharge

In this experiment plasma is created by applying a sufficiently large electric potential differ-
ence between two electrodes inserted into low-pressure gas contained in the discharge tube.
Free electrons and positively charged ions are then produced continually. A fast electron that
strikes an atom or an ion can excite the electrons in the atom or ion to higher energy levels.
During spontaneous emission, an atom goes then to lower energy levels and energy is released
in the form of photons (not necessarily visible). A glow discharge consists of a number of
bright and dark regions. For the discharge used in this experiment, only the positive column is
visible, as the various cathode glows and dark spaces are hidden in the hollow cathode. The
hollow cathode arrangement minimizes sputtering of metal from the cathode onto the walls of
the discharge tube. The greater part of the voltage drop across a glow discharge (and hence the
region of strongest electric field) occurs across the dark space adjacent to the cathode where
there is considerable positive space charge. In contrast, measurements show that the electric
field in the positive column is relatively small and uniform, which implies that the resultant
space charge ρ is small (ρ = ε0 ∇ · E = −ε0 ∇2 V ); that is, the electron density is closely equal
to the positive ion density. An ionized gas, which maintains a close equality of positive and
negative space charge, is called plasma.

For nitrogen filling gas, the electron mass is some 50 000 times less than the mass of the pos-
itive ions and the electrons are thus much more mobile. Moreover, in elastic collisions, they
lose only a very small fraction of their energy to the neutrals or ions. On the other hand, a
positive ion loses the greater part of its excess energy at each collision with a neutral molecule,
as the masses of the ion and neutral are essentially equal. Thus the kinetic energy of the ions
is much the same as that of the neutral molecules (that has good thermal contact with walls
of discharge tube), which are close to room temperature, while the average electron energy is
some 100 times that of the neutral gas. Thus the average electron velocity is of the order of
2000 times that of a neutral molecule or a positive ion. The electrons are very fast and mobile;
the positive ions are very sluggish.

At a typical filling pressure of ≈ 40 Pa, the number of neutral gas molecules at room temper-
ature is approximately 1 × 1022 m−3 . The mean free path of a typical electron at this pressure
is of the order of half a millimetre. The electron motion is thus highly erratic, being a random
walk diffusion on which is superimposed a slow drift velocity in the applied electric field. The
electron drift velocity is of the order of 1/10 of its total velocity.

3.3 Plasma behaviour

If an electrically isolated probe is inserted in the plasma, it is rapidly charged to a negative po-
tential as it collects the electrons, which quickly diffuse to it. When it is sufficiently negatively
charged most of the electrons will be repelled as only the most energetic can reach the probe.
Being negatively charged the probe now attracts the sluggish positive ions, which diffuse into
its vicinity, and the probe potential stabilizes when this small positive ion current equalizes the
small electron current due to the high energy tail of the electron distribution. In such circum-
stances, the probe is said to be floating and its potential is called the floating potential. Such a
process also occurs at the glass walls of the tube: the loss of electrons due to diffusion is thus
considerably reduced by the negative charge built up on the walls. The diffusion of electrons
to the walls is therefore limited by the rate at which positive ions can diffuse to the walls where
L ANGMUIR P ROBES 12–3

they neutralize and can then re-enter the discharge as atoms. Electron diffusion controlled by
the slow rate of diffusion of the sluggish positive ions is called ambipolar diffusion.

Thus between the relatively undisturbed, neutral plasma (where the electron density ne is equal
to the positive ion density ni ) and the boundary wall, there is a region in which the electrons
are repelled and the positive ions are attracted. This region has a positive space charge and,
consequently, a rapidly changing potential. Its thickness is the order of the Debye shielding
length λD where

! !
ε0 kB Te TeV
λD = = 7.4 × 103 (1)
ne e2 ne

where

e is the electron charge,

kB is the Boltzmann constant,

Te is electron temperature in kelvin,

TeV = kB Te /e is electron temperature in electronvolts, (11 600 K = 1 eV),

ne is the electron density in m−3 .

The temperature T of particles in plasma is often expressed as the value of the energy kB T
in units of electronvolts. Thus a ‘temperature’ of 1 eV corresponds to 11 600 K. Note that this
energy value is not the average energy of the particles, which would be 32 kB T .

Since the degree of ionization in a glow discharge is around 1 part in a million, electron-ion
collisions are rare and very little electron-ion recombination occurs. Most of the electron loss
is by diffusion to the walls. The electron loss is made up in the discharge by the very high
energy electrons in the tail of the electron energy distribution, which are energetic enough to
ionize the neutral molecules. The light from the plasma is due to molecules and atoms excited
by the more energetic electrons.

3.4 The Langmuir probe

The Langmuir probe is a small metal wire. It is named after Irving Langmuir (1881-1957), an
American physicist who was one of the pioneers of the study of the plasma state, and coined
the term plasma. An ideal plasma for investigation by the Langmuir probe is one where the
electrons and ions are fully thermalized at equal temperatures and where the particle mean free
paths greatly exceed the Debye length. Under these conditions, the Langmuir probe current-
voltage characteristics may be expected to conform to a simple theory. In the glow discharge,
the electron-electron collision probability is small, and the electron gas cannot be expected to
be in thermal equilibrium. Under these conditions, the electrons in the plasma can only be ap-
proximately described by an electron temperature. Moreover, the ion temperature is many folds
less than the electron temperature, and the Debye length is of the order of an electron-neutral
12–4 S ENIOR P HYSICS L ABORATORY

mean free path.

It is to be expected that the Langmuir probe characteristics taken under the plasma condi-
tions of this experiment do not closely agree with textbook idealization. A further cause of
departure from idealized characteristics is the effects of impurities in the gas and on the probes
themselves. Careful experiments under ultra high vacuum conditions of cleanliness with ultra-
pure gases indicate that minute traces of impurities in the gas and on the probe surfaces have
large effects on the probe characteristics. But in spite of all its problems and difficulties, the
Langmuir probe has proved a most valuable tool for plasma diagnostics and is of great value in
probing plasmas in the laboratory and in space.

The probe current-voltage characteristic shown in Fig. 12-1 can be divided into three regions:

• for V < VF (the floating potential, for which the current collected is zero) the probe
current is mainly positive ion current.

• for VF < V < VSP (the space plasma potential), the current is mostly due to electron
diffusion to the probe. It is expected to vary exponentially with the probe voltage. Note
that when the probe is at potential VSP it is at the same potential as the plasma; thus
electrons and ions diffuse to the probe as if they were unaffected by its presence.

• For V > VSP the current is space charge limited electron current, and for a cylindrical
probe in an ideal plasma, the square of the current is expected to vary linearly with the
probe voltage.

Fig. 12-1 Current voltage characteristic for Langmuir probe

It is assumed that the probe current does not disturb the plasma equilibrium by making the probe
diameter less than the electron mean free path, and that the electrons are in thermal equilibrium
among themselves at a temperature Te with a Maxwellian kinetic energy distribution.

Let

ne be electron density in the undisturbed plasma at potential VSP

L ANGMUIR P ROBES 12–5

n is electron density in the immediate vicinity of the probe surface at potential V < VSP .

Then from the Boltzmann law

−e(VSP −V ) −(VSP −V )
n = ne e kB Te
= ne e TeV
(2)
The electron current diffusing to the probe will be given from kinetic theory by

1
IP = Anev̄ (3)
4
where v̄ is the average electron speed and A is the surface area of the probe:
! !
8kB Te 8eTeV "
v̄ = = = 6.7 × 105 TeV m s−1 (4)
πme πme
where me is the mass of electron.

For VF < V < VSP , IP is obtained from equation (3) with the aid of equation (2)
−(VSP −V )
IP = ISP e Te . (5)

Taking natural logarithm of both sides:

VSP V
lnIP = lnISP − + , (6)
TeV TeV
where ISP is the probe current at V = VSP and is given by

1
ISP = Ane ev̄, (7)
4
where A is surface area of the probe. The slope of the curve lnIP versus V is given by

dlnIP 1
= . (8)
dV TeV
Thus a plot of the natural logarithm of the probe current, lnIP , against probe voltage, V , should
be linear in the region between the space plasma potential, VSP , and the floating potential, VF .
The slope of this line determines the electron temperature from equation (8). This analysis
assumes that the positive ion current is small and can be neglected in most of this region; this
is a reasonable assumption except very close to VF .

Using the value obtained for TeV the mean electron speed can be obtained from equation (4)
and then the electron density from equation (7).

A second method of calculating the electron density, described in [2] involves plotting IP 2
as a function of V for V > VSP .

For V < VF the positive ion current to the probe can be investigated. This is discussed in
[3].
12–6 S ENIOR P HYSICS L ABORATORY

An alternative to the single probe is the double probe which involves using two probes close
to each other in the plasma and plotting the IP : V characteristic between them. This is also
discussed in [3].

4 Experimental Procedure

4.1 The apparatus

Fig. 12-2 Schematic block diagram of Langmuir probe

A block diagram of the apparatus is shown in Figure 12-2. The positive terminal of the auxiliary
(0 to 120) V probe supply is connected to the anode (grounded) of the discharge tube, the
negative terminal to the probe being investigated, with the current meter set at µA range.

• Connect all cables according to the block diagram and ask a tutor to check it.

• Close the air inlet tap to the backing pump, start the pump, and after 1 minute open the
vacuum isolation tap to evacuate the discharge tube.

• When the vacuum gauge indicates a pressure below 20 Pa (0.2 mbar), nitrogen gas can
be admitted. Ensure that the gas supply is turned ON (check the tap at the wall manifold).

• Slowly open the needle valve to admit nitrogen to a pressure of around 60 Pa (0.6 mbar)
into the discharge tube.

• Switch on all connected electrical equipment, but do not apply high voltage to the dis-
charge tube yet.

• Allow 10 minutes for the gas pressure to stabilize before proceeding with any measure-
ments.

• Adjust high voltage to 700 V and switch on the high voltage output. The breakdown
occurs (pink glow) in the discharge tube.

• Adjust the probe voltage (auxiliary power supply) to give zero probe current.
 L ANGMUIR P ROBES 12–7

• Record this voltage and switch high voltage output off.

The probe is then at its floating potential where the electron and ion currents are equal. At
more positive probe voltages (decrease in the auxiliary supply voltage) the probe draws mostly
electron current, whereas at more negative probe voltages the probe will draw mostly positive
ion current.

Question 1: We use a rotary vane pump to achieve low gas pressure in the discharge tube.
To measure the gas pressure we use a Pirani vacuum gauge. Explain how these instruments
operate and the principles on which they work?

4.2 Langmuir Probe Characteristic

• Measure the current and voltage on probe 2. 1 Repeat above procedure for voltages in
range 0 V to -120 V in steps (especially small near to the floating potential).
• Plot the current as a function of the voltage. This is best done using QtiPlot.
• Plot a graph which will allow you to find the space plasma potential.
• Find the electron temperature in eV and in K. Give an explanation of the method you
have used.
• Calculate the average electron speed Eq. (4) and then determine the electron density from
an estimate of ISP Eq. (7). In our experiment, Langmuir probes are made of tungsten
wire with an exposed length of 6 mm and diameter of 0.2 mm.
• Use the ideal gas law to determine the number density (number of nitrogen molecules per
cubic metre) at the operating pressure. Calculate the fractional ionization of the medium.

C1 ◃

4.3 Electric Field in the Positive Column

• Measure potential of the cathode using multimeter. Calculate the average electric field in
the discharge tube.
• Measure floating potentials of two or more probes close to the anode and then estimate
the electric field in the positive column. Compare your result with the average electric
field in the discharge tube.

• Calculate the current density j from the discharge current, and the estimated cross section
of the gas discharge tube. Internal diameter of the tube is 40 mm. The current can be
calculated from the voltage on the 100 kΩ load resistor. Use a multimeter to measure the
voltage on the resistor.
1
To do this adjust the voltage from the auxiliary power supply to the desired value, then switch on high voltage
output. After ≈3 s, needed to stabilise the current reading, press the ”Hold” button on the multimeter and switch
high voltage off. Record the voltage and current of the probe. Depress ”Hold” button again to activate continuous
measurement of the current. Switching high voltage off is important to avoid the temperature of gas changing
throughout the duration of the experiment.
 12–8 S ENIOR P HYSICS L ABORATORY

I
j= , (9)
A
where I is discharge current and A is the area of the cross-section of the discharge tube.

• Obtain the drift velocity of the electrons using your results of current density and electron
density. Compare it with the mean thermal speed of the electrons as calculated from the
measured electron temperature.

C2 ◃

4.4 Sparking Potential

Fig. 12-3 Electric block diagram of the apparatus used to measure break down voltage.

This is the minimum potential required to produce breakdown in a gas, and is a function of the
pressure and the electrode spacing and shape.

• Switch off all the electrical equipment and connect it as shown in Figure 12-3.
• Ask a tutor to check your connections before proceeding.
• Switch on the HV power supply and oscilloscope.
• Increase the voltage to achieve discharge in the gas, which now will be visible as short
flashes of light.
• Observe the voltage on the cathode which is connected to channel 1 of the digital os-
cilloscope through the 99 MΩ resistor. When the voltage of the cathode suddenly drops
down, the highest voltage is the sparking potential.
• Vary the pressure and determine the sparking potential as a function of the gas pressure.
At very low pressure you have to observe the voltage on probe 1 to find when the dis-
charge occurs, but still measure potential on the cathode at this time. If a discharge is not
automatically extinguished as it normally does, switch the HV off and then on again. For
this use the “High Voltage” switch not the “Power” switch.
 L ANGMUIR P ROBES 12–9

• Plot a sparking potential as a function of the pressure multiplied by the distance between
the anode and the cathode. Such plots are called Paschen curves.

• Determine the minimum sparking potential. Compare your result with the accepted
value.

Question 2: Comment on the physics that leads to a minimum in the Paschen curve.

5 Shut down

• Turn all voltage knobs to zero then turn off both the high voltage and probe supplies.

• Close off the nitrogen supply at the needle valve and the tap at wall manifold.

• Close the vacuum valve between the discharge tube and the pump.

• Stop the pump, and admit air to the pump through the air admittance valve.

C3 ◃

References

[1] M.A. Lieberman and A.J. Lichtenberg, Principles of Plasma Discharges and Materials
Processing, Wiley & Sons (New York, 1994), section 6.6

[2] J.B. Hoag and S.A. Korff, Electron and Nuclear Physics, Van Norstrand (New York,
1952), Chapter 8

[3] M.A. Heald and C.B. Wharton, Plasma Diagnostics with Microwaves, Wiley (New York,
1965), page 380.

[4] A.M. Howatson, An Introduction to Gas Discharges, Pergamon Press (Oxford, 1965)