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RESEARCH
Research is a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural
phenomena guided by theory and hypothesis about the presumed relation among such
phenomena”.

The term systematic and controlled refer to the degree to which the observations are
controlled and alternatives explanations of the outcome are ruled out. The term
empirical and critical point to the requirement for the researcher to test subjective beliefs
against the objective reality and have findings open to further scrutiny and testing.

Basic Research is the systematic and objective approach to collect/generate the

information to create new knowledge.

Applied Research is the systematic and objective approach to collect/generate the

information, for solving the problem.

“Systematic” refers to the requirement that the research project should be well
organized and planned the strategic and tactical aspects of the research design must be
detailed in advance, and the nature of the data to be gathered must be anticipated.
“Objective” implies that the research strives to be unbiased and unemotional in
performing its responsibility.

Dominant sources of knowledge for the researchers were logic, reason, faith,
speculation and mysticism. In empirical research, knowledge was acquired not through
logic, reason, faith or speculation but through empirical evidence, namely through
evidence based on facts gathered by the researcher.

SOURCES OF TRUTH AND KNOWLEDGE

 Common sense: everyone knows that it is so
 Intuitions: I just know
 Beliefs: It is based on personal conviction
 Tenacity: Verification over the years; time has given it validity.
 Tradition: Practice through generations (It has always been so)
 Personal Experience: Personal testing and experience (It works for me)
 Authority: The word of experts (It is true; Professor X said so)
 Devine and supernatural power: The revelations of God and of other powers.
 Reason and logic: The intellect can capture truth and knowledge directly.
 Scientific methods: Knowledge is derived through empirical procedures.

DIVERSITY OF RESEARCH
Research is diverse and pluralistic. This diversity is associated with a number of criteria
such as its focus, its methods, its purpose and its underlying paradigm. Research may
focus on people and the physical and social environment, or on hidden structures and

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meanings. It can aim to increase scientific knowledge or to emancipate (liberate) people
and change their life-world.

Nevertheless, the most significant, most common and also fundamental distinctions in
social research are qualitative versus quantitative research. Almost every type of
research, regardless of its nature and purpose, is conducted within either a qualitative
or a quantitative strategy.

TYPES OF RESEARCH:
 Basis research is concerned with the production of new knowledge and with the
increase of scientific understanding of the world, and not with the application of
its outcomes. It aims purely at the discovery of knowledge; therefore it is also
referred to as pure research.

 Applied research places a strong emphasis on application and problem solving.

When it is also entails the personal engagement of the researcher, and elements
of change and enlightenment, it is usually referred to as emancipatory research.
Social impact studies, action research, evaluation research, and cost-benefit
analysis are a few examples of applied research.

 Longitudinal research studies social issues on more than one occasion using
the same or different samples.

 Descriptive research aims to describe social system, relations or social events.

 Classification research aims to categorize research units into groups, to

demonstrate differences, explain relationships and clarify social events or
relationships.

 Comparative research aims to identify similarities and/or differences between

research units.

 Exploratory research aims to establish the most basic criteria of the research
topic, often before the actual study has started.

 Explanatory research aims to explain social relations or events.

 Casual research aims to establish a casual relationship between variables

 Theory testing research aims to test the validity of a theory.

 Action research is the application of fact finding to practical problem solving in a

social situation with a view to improving the quality of action within it, involving
the collaboration and cooperation of researchers, practitioners and laymen.

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  Participatory action research (PAR) is characterized by the strong involvement
and degree of participation of members of the public in the research process.

 Evaluation research is employed to assess the suitability, relevance and

effectiveness of certain programme.

 Feminist research focuses on the life of women, is conducted by women, on

women and for women, and employs a variety of research paradigms.

THE PURPOSE OF SOCIAL RESEARCH IS TO:

 Explore social reality for its own sake or in order to make further research
possible explain social life by providing reliable, valid and well-documented
information evaluate the status of social issues and their effects on society.
 Develop and/or test theories.
 Understand human behavior and action.
 Offer a basis for a critique of social reality
 Emancipate (liberate) people
 Suggest possible solutions to social problems.
 Empower and liberate people.

THE GOALS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

 General goals. Understanding for its own sake
 Theoretical goals. Verification, falsification, modification or discovery of a
theory.
 Pragmatic goals. Solution of social problem.
 Political goals. Development of social policy, evaluation of programmes and
practices and social criticism, social change and reconstruction, empowerment
and liberation.

MOTIVES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

 Educational: to educate and inform the public
 Magical: to offer credibility to views held by the researcher and/or their sponsor.
 Personal: to promote the academic status of the researcher.
 Institutional: to enhance the research quantum of the institution for which the
researcher works.
 Political: to provide support to political plans and programmes.
 Tactical: to delay decision or action for as long as the investigation is underway.

AREAS OF BIAS IN RESEARCH

 The research topic: choosing topics that produce favourable data and
consciously ignoring other
 Review of literature: focusing on supportive sources and ignoring others.
 The research purpose: aiming to prove personal conviction.
 The formulation of the research topic: choosing indicators etc. that bias the
research process to a certain direction.

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  The research design: choosing sampling procedures and data collection
methods that favour the production of certain data.
 Fabrication of data: presenting data that have never been collected.
 Falsification of data: changing the contents of the answers.
 Data analysis: choosing a type of analysis that would favour personal views.
 Interpretation: interpreting the findings according to personal beliefs and
convictions.
 Presentation of the findings: presenting the findings in a manner that does not
reflect the real theme of the study.

COMMON ETHICAL PRACTICES

 Ethical standards are an integral part of any research design.
 Researcher records must be securely kept for future reference and evidence.
 Multiple authorships should be clearly explained, recorded and evidenced.
 Publication of multiple papers from the same data is improper.
 Potential conflicts of interests should be disclosed.
 Respondents must be fully informed about research details that may affect them.
 Informed consent must be ensured and documented in all cases.
 Full justification must be given where ethical standards are thought not to be
required.
 Research proposals must obtain approval from relevant ethics committees.
 Problems arising from the research are to be communicated to the ethics
committee.

BASIC ETHICAL STANDARDS IN SOCIAL RESEARCH

 Proper identification: not giving the respondents false impression of the research
or the sponsor.
 Clear information as to the type of questions, the degree of question sensitivity or
stress and the possible (true) consequences of the questioning and the research
in general.
 Concern with the welfare of the respondents, including having regard for mental
and physical health and safety, embarrassment, guilt, discomfort, hazards of
risks to the respondents.
 Free and informed consent: for example, not putting pressure on or deceiving the
respondents.
 Right to privacy regarding their private life, sensitive issues or answering
questions they dislike.
 The right to anonymity, meaning that the respondents’ contributions must remain
anonymous.
 The right to confidentiality: the respondents’ contributions should not be made
available to other people.

INFORMED CONSENT STATEMENT

The statement should….
 Identify the researcher clearly.

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 Introduce the institution that granted the ethics approval and the funding body,
where appropriate.
 Describe the manner in which the respondent was selected, and the
nature/number of participants.
 Explain the nature and purpose of the research in detail.
 Clarify the benefits of the research for the subject and/or the community.
 State specifically the nature and extent of the subject’s planned involvement and
any risks or discomfort associated with the study.
 Offer a guarantee of anonymity and confidentiality of the data.
 Make it clear that the respondent can withdraw from the project at any time.
 Offer alternative research procedures to be used if preferred.
 Provide details of the person who can be contacted by the subject in case of
conflicts or complaints.