FLOW MEASUREMENT

Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. It can be measured in a variety of
ways.
Both gas and liquid flow can be measured in volumetric or mass flow rates (such as liters per second or
kg/s). These measurements can be converted between one another if the materials density is known.
The density for a liquid is almost independent of the liquid conditions, however this is not the case for
a gas, whose density highly depends upon pressure and temperature.
In engineering contexts, the volumetric flow rate is usually given the symbol Q and the mass flow rate
the symbol m.

Orifice Plate
Orifice plate is a plate with a hole(fixed area) through it. It is placed in the flow and constricts the flow.
The hole is in the middle of the plate. It is usually placed in a pipe in which fluid flows.

As fluid flows through the pipe, it has a certain velocity and a certain pressure. When the fluid reaches
the orifice plate, with the hole in the middle, the fluid is forced to converge to go through the small
hole; the point of maximum convergence actually occurs shortly downstream of the physical orifice, at
the so-called vena contracta point. As it does so, the velocity and the pressure change. Beyond the vena
contracta, the fluid expands and the velocity and pressure change once again. By measuring the
difference in fluid pressure between the normal pipe section and at the vena contracta, the volumetric
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and mass flow rates can be obtained from Bernoulli’s Equation.

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 Principle of working
It works on the Bernoulli's Principle. It says that there is a relationship between the pressure of the fluid
and the velocity of the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa.

Assuming a horizontal flow (or neglecting a minor elevation difference between the measuring points)
the Bernoulli's equation can be modified to:
p1 + 1/2 ρ v12 = p2 + 1/2 ρ v22 (1)

where
2
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p = pressure
 ρ = density

v = flow velocity

Vertical flow can be adapted by adding elevation heights h1 and h2 in (1).

Assuming that the velocity profiles are uniform in the upstream and downstream section the continuity
equation gives
q = v1 A1 = v2 A2 (2)

where

q = flow rate

A = flow area

Combining (1) and (2), assuming A2 < A1, gives the "ideal" equation:

q = A2 [ 2(p1 - p2) / ρ(1 - (A2 / A1)2) ] 1/2 (3)

For a given geometry (A), the flow rate can be determined by measuring the pressure difference p1 - p2.
The theoretical flow rate q will in practice be smaller (2 - 40%) due to the geometrical conditions.
The ideal equation (3) can be modified with a discharge coefficient:
q = cd A2 [ 2(p1 - p2) / ρ(1 - (A2 / A1)2) ] 1/2 (3b)

where

cd = discharge coefficient

The discharge coefficient cd is a function of the jet size - or orifice opening - the
area ratio = Avc / A2

where

Avc = area in "vena contracta"

Vena Contracta is the minimum jet area that appears just downstream of the restriction. The viscous
effect is usually expressed in terms of the non-dimensional parameter Reynolds’s number
Due to the Bernoulli and Continuity Equation the velocity of the fluid will be at it's highest, and the
pressure at it's lowest in "vena contracta". After the metering device and "vena contracta" the velocity
decrease to the same level as before the obstruction. The pressure recover to a pressure level lower than
the pressure before the obstruction and adds a head loss to the flow.
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Equation (3) can be modified with diameters to:

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 q = cd π/4 D22 [ 2(p1 - p2) / ρ(1 - d4) ] 1/2 (4)

where

D2 = orifice, venturi or nozzle inside diameter

D1 = upstream and downstream pipe diameter

d = D2 / D1 diameter ratio

π = 3.14

Equation (4) can be modified to mass flow for fluids by simply multiplying with the density:
m = cd π/4 D22 ρ [ 2(p1 - p2) / ρ(1 - d4) ] 1/2 (5)

When measuring the mass flow in gases, its necessary to considerate the pressure reduction and change
in density of the fluid. The formula above can be used with limitations for applications with relatively
small changes in pressure and density.

Construction
The standard concentric orifice plate is made of Stainless Steel with 3 to 10 mm thickness. Other
materials such as Monel, Hastelloy etc, are used to avoid corrosion and contamination. Some orifice
plates are made with one side of the hole beveled at a 45 deg angle. The sharp or un-beveled edge
should be mounted in the line facing the incoming flow i.e. upstream. The ratio of the orifice bore to
the internal pipe diameter is called as the Beta Ratio. The Beta Ratio should fall within prescribed
limits to maintain measurement accuracy.
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 Classification
Orifice plates are available in different types;
1)concentric
2)eccentric
3)segmental
Thin sharp edged concentric orifice plate is the most commonly used device for flow measurement.
Eccentric orifice plates have the bore offset from the centre to minimize problems in use with solids
containing fluids. Segmental orifices are used for slurry services. Vent and Drain holes are provided in
some applications.

Characteristics and Specifications

1)Environment
2)Wetted Material
3)Accuracy
4)Temperature
5)Pressure
6)Head Loss
7)Line Sizes
8)Process Connection
9)Installation
10)Pipe Requirements
11)Weight

Advantages
1. Relatively low cost
2. Proven accuracy and reliability
3. Can be used for small to big pipe sizes
4. Long term stability
5. No calibration required

Disadvantages
1. Relatively high permanent pressure loss
2. Difficult to use for slurry services
3. Square root (non linear) relationship
4. Straight pipe run required upstream and downstream
5. Difficult to measure pulsating flow.
5

Orifice Tap Connections

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There are five common tap locations for taking differential pressure measurements across the orifice
 plate. Flange taps are the mostly used which are located 1 inch upstream and downstream of the orifice
plate and are used above 2 inches pipe size. Corner taps are located directly at the faces of the orifice
plate and are used below 2inches pipe size. Vena Contracta Taps are used to measure maximum
differential pressure and have upstream tap at one pipe diameter and downstream tap at calculated vena
contracta point ( downstream point in pipe where the static pressure is minimum). Radius taps are
having connections at one pipe diameter upstream and half pipe diameter downstream. Pipe taps are
used to measure permanent pressure loss across the orifice plate. They are located two and half pipe
diameter upstream and eight pipe diameter downstream.

Connectivity to other devices

Mounted on pipes and digital displays are also available
Testing Methods
Orifice tests are developed under European Standards and ASTM Standards.
Catalogs for example
Catalog for orifice flow meter is shown below.
Service: For metering compatible liquids and gases.
Wetted Material: 304 SS, Buna-N gaskets.
Accuracy: 0.6% of full scale flow. (Beta = 0.2-0.6) ±0.7% for
Beta greater than 0.6.
Temperature: -50 to 200°F (-45 to 93°C).
Pressure: Limited only by pipe and flange rating restrictions.
Line Sizes: 1/2˝ to 24˝.
Process Connection: 1/4˝ female NPT.
Installation: Standard flange, any rating (orifice flanges not
required).
Pipe Requirements: General requirements 10 diameter
upstream and 5 diameter downstream of orifice plate.
Weight: Varies with line size. See chart.
Features
Mounted with Standard Flanges
Corner Type Metering Taps
Corrosion Free Material
Simplified Installation
Stainless Steel Wetted Parts
Proven Through a Wide Range of Applications for Energy
Efficiency
Assures Long Term Reliability and Accuracy

Selection Criterion
1)The Effect on Orifice Plates of Diameter Steps in Upstream Pipework and of Swirl
2)Aging Effects on Orifice Metering Systems
3)The Evaluation of Wet Gas Metering Technologies for Offshore Applications
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 Magnetic Flow

A magnetic flow meter (mag flow meter) is a volumetric flow meter, which does not have any moving
parts and is ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquid which is conductive or water based.
Magnetic flow meters will generally not work with hydrocarbons, distilled water and many non-
aqueous solutions). Magnetic flow meters are also ideal for applications where low pressure drop and
low maintenance are required.

Principle of working

Above diagram shows working principle of insertion type flow meter

The operation of a magnetic flow meter or mag meter is based upon Faraday's Law, which states that
the voltage induced across any conductor as it moves at right angles through a magnetic field is
proportional to the velocity of that conductor.
Faraday's Formula:
E is proportional to V x B x D where:

E = The voltage generated in a conductor

V = The velocity of the conductor
B = The magnetic field strength
D = The length of the conductor

To apply this principle to flow measurement with a magnetic flowmeter, it is necessary first to state that
the fluid being measured must be electrically conductive for the Faraday principle to apply. As applied
to the design of magnetic flowmeters, Faraday's Law indicates that signal voltage (E) is dependent on
the average liquid velocity (V) the magnetic field strength (B) and the length of the conductor (D)
(which in this instance is the distance between the electrodes). In the case of wafer-style magnetic
flowmeters, a magnetic field is established throughout the entire cross-section of the flow tube (Figure
1). If this magnetic field is considered as the measuring element of the magnetic flowmeter, it can be
seen that the measuring element is exposed to the hydraulic conditions throughout the entire cross-
section of the flowmeter. With insertion-style flowmeters, the magnetic field radiates outward from the
inserted probe.

Construction
The low maintenance design–with no moving parts, high accuracy, linear analog outputs, insensitivity
to specific gravity, viscosity, pressure and temperature, and the ability to measure a wide range of
difficult-to meter fluids (such as corrosives, slurries and sludge)–differentiates this type of metering
7

system from other flow meters. Most simple industrial flow meter is shown below.
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 Classification
They are classified as follows
1)In Line Magnetic Flow Meter
These cost-effective magnetic flow meters combine superior noise immunity with high purity Alumina
ceramic detection tubes, allowing precise flow measurements in a wide range of applications.
2)Insertion Style Magnetic Flow Meter
Simple installation, easy maintenance, and state-of-the-art microprocessor technology make theM best
alternative to traditional full-line magmeters. The current output provides a universal signal to
recorders, valves, and a host of process control and data acquisition devices.
1)Low Flow Magmeters
They are small plastic-bodied magnetic flow meter capable of measuring the pulsating flows from air
and solenoid-driven metering pumps, the meter is primarily designed for electrically-conductive
chemicals and fluids of varying viscosities. In addition to measuring and displaying flow rate and total
flow, this magmeter unit has a variety of outputs. For continuous transmission of a flow signal, there is
a 4 to 20 mA, and 0 to 5 volt signal, and a frequency signal proportional to flow. In addition, there are
relay alarm outputs for low and high flows with user-set flow levels.

Characteristics and Specifications

Following are the general specifications of magnetometers
Repeatability
Resolution
Accuracy
Tilt Specifications
Pitch Accuracy
Roll Accuracy
Tilt Range
Tilt Resolution
Tilt Repetability
Calibration
Hard Iron Calibration
Soft Iron Calibration
Mechanical Specifications
Dimensions (L x W x H)
Mounting Options
Connector for RS-232 Interface
I/O Specifications
8

Latency from Power-On

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Latency from Sleep Mode

 Maximum Sample Rate
RS-232 Communication Rate
Output Formats
Power Specifications
Supply Voltage
Typical Current Draw (Continuous Output) – Max.
Idle Mode
Sleep Mode
Environmental Specifications
Operating Temperature
Storage Temperature
Shock
Advantages
1)Is ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquid which is conductive or water based.
2)Does not have any moving parts.
3)Less cost.
Disadvantages
1)Bulky size.
2)Accuracy gets limited by bubbles in the liquid.
3)Magnetic flow meters will generally not work with hydrocarbons, distilled water and many non-
aqueous solutions.
4)Magnetic flow sensors are sensitive to electrical noise which is present in most piping systems.

Connectivity to other devices

They are mounted on a location on the pipe where the flow profile is fully developed and not affected
by any disturbances Magnetic flow sensors are sensitive to electrical noise which is present in most
piping systems. In plastic piping systems, the fluid carries significant levels of static electricity that
must be grounded for best magmeter performance. l

Catalogs for example

Catalog is shown below for example.

Heading Specifications
Resolution N/A
Repeatability N/A
Magnetometer Specifications
Calibrated Field Measurement Range ± 80 uT
Magnetic Resolution 0.01 uT
Magnetic Repeatability ± 0.2 uT
Tilt Specifications
Pitch Accuracy N/A
Roll Accuracy N/A
Tilt Range N/A
Tilt Resolution N/A
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Tilt Repetability N/A

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Calibration Specifications
 Hard Iron Calibration N/A
Soft Iron Calibration N/A
Mechanical Specifications
Dimensions (L x W x H) 6.4 x 5.1 x 3.175 cm
Weight 45 g
Mounting Options Screw mounts/standoffs; horizontal
Connector for RS-232 Interface 10-Pin
I/O Specifications
Latency from Power-On 430 ms
Latency from Sleep Mode 100 ms
Maximum Sample Rate 16 samples/second
RS-232 Communication Rate 300 to 38400 baud
Output Formats TCM2 Protocol; NMEA0183
Power Specifications
Supply Voltag 5 VDC (reg.); 6-18 VDC (unreg.)
Typical Current Draw (Continuous Output) - Max.
Typical Current Draw (Continuous Output) - Typ. 15-20 mA
Idle Mode 7 - 13 mA
Sleep Mode 2.5 mA
Environmental Specifications
Operating Temperature -20° to +70° C
Storage Temperature -30° to +90° C
Shock
Vibration
Humidity

Selection Criterion
Magnetic flow meter for a certain operation is selected by considering following points.
1)Conductivity, abrasive property of the liquid.
2)Analog output is required or not
3)Digital display is needed or not
4)Minimum and maximum flow rate
5)Minimum and maximum temperatures
6)Minimum and maximum pressure
7)Size of the pipe
8)If the pipe is always full with liquid
9)Compatibility of the fluid with wetted parts

Testing Methods
Various inspection and calibration methods are developed by NWI (National water initiative) of
Australia with association with industries. They have developed a mobile unit to measure accuracy of
metered outlets.
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 Vortex

Vortex Technology has been an economical way to monitor constant liquids, steam and constant density
gas flows. A vortex (pl. vortices) is spinning often turbulent flow of fluid. Any spiral motion with
closed streamlines is vortex flow. The motion of the fluid swirling rapidly around a center is called a
vortex. The speed and rate of rotation of the fluid are greatest at the center, and decrease progressively
with distance from the center.

Principle of working
An obstruction in the form of float in a pipe creates vortices on the downstream side of the obstruction.
Temperature or pressure sensors measure the vortices to gauge the strength of flow.

Construction

Above diagram shows construction of vortex flow meter.

Classification
1)Integral type
2)Remote type

Characteristics and Specifications

Performance Specifications
Fluid to be Measured
Measuring Flow Rates
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Accuracy
Repeatability
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Calibration :
 Normal Operating Condition
Process Temperature Range
Process Pressure Limit
Ambient Temperature Range
Ambient Humidity
Power Supply Voltage
2)Mechanical Specifications
Material
Coating Color
Degree of Protection
Hazardous Area Classifications
Electrical Connection
Signal Cable
Weight
Mounting
3)Electrical Specifications
Output Signal :
Analog \
Transistor Contact Output
4)Communication Requirement
Communication Signal
HART communication signal
Conditions of Communication Line
Load Resistance
Supply Voltage
Space from other Power Line
Communication Distance
Load Capacitance
Load Inductance
Input Impedance of Receiver Connected
to the Receiving Resistance
5)General
Damping Time Constant
Pulse Output Function
Self -diagnostics and Alarm Output
Analog Output Function
Status Output Function
Flow Switch
Data Security During Power Failure
Correction
Instrument Error Correction
Reynolds Number Correction
Gas Expansion Correction
Down-scale or Up-scale burn out
Indicator
Testing Methods
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Various inspection and calibration methods are developed in association with industries.
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 Advantages
1)Reliable
2)No moving parts to wear or fail.
3)Electronics can be remote mounted up to 30.5 m
4)No fluid to sensor contact. No holes to clog.
5)Wide range ability
6)High flow turn down ratio up to 80:1.
7)Dual signal processing technology improves accuracy at low flows.
8)High accuracy

Disadvantages
1)They sense external vibrations in addition to the passing vortices. External vibrations degrade the
output signal from the sensor, and restrict the lower end of the usable measurement range of the flow
meter. External vibrations are caused, for example, by the operation of nearby pumps, valves, or other
process machinery.
2)Liquid stream must have particulates, bubbles, or other types of solids in order to reflect the
ultrasonic signal

Connectivity to other devices

Mounted on pipes where flow is to be measured and direct digital display can be provided depending
on the model.

Catalog for example

Catalog of vortex flow meter is shown below.

Performance Specifications
Fluid to be Measured :Liquid, Gas, Steam (Avoid Multiphase Flowand Sticky Fluids)
Measuring Flow Rates 10m/s for liquid and 80m/s for gases maximum
Accuracy : ±0.75% of Reading (Liquid)±1% of Reading (Gas, Steam)
Repeatability : ± 0.2% of Reading
Calibration :This flowmeter is factory-calibrated using awater flow.Temperature and flow calibration
by water
flow when Multi-Variable Type is selected.
Normal Operating Condition
Process Temperature Range :–29 to 260 °C (general)–196 to 100 °C (Cryogenic Version:option)–29
to 450 °C (High Process TemperatureVersion:option)
Process Pressure Limit :–0.1MPa (–1 kg/cm2) to flange rating.
Ambient Temperature Range :–29 to 85 °C (Remote type detector)–40 to 85 °C (Remote type
converter)
–29 to 85 °C (Integral type)–29 to 80 °C (Integral type with Indicator)–30 to 80 °C (Remote type
converter
Ambient Humidity : 5 to 100% RH (at 40 °C)
Power Supply Voltage : 10.5 to 42 V DC (Refer to Figure 2 ; Relationship Between Power Supply
Voltage and Load Resistance)
Mechanical Specifications
Material (General Type):Body; SCS14A casting stainless steel (equivalentto CF8M,SUS316)(The
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flange size 250 mm and 300 mm areJIS SUS304.)Shedder bar;Duplex stainless steel(DCS1,only
for15mm is DSD1-H,Both equivalent to JIS
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SUS329J1,ASTM CD4MCu)DCS1 and DSD1-H are registered trademarksof Daido Tokusyu Steel
 Co.Gasket; JIS SUS316 stainless steel with polytetrafluoroethylene coating.Converter housing and
case,cover ;Aluminum alloy
Coating Color:Converter case, cover : Deep sea moss green(Munsell 0.6GY 3.1/2.0) (Polyurethane
corrosion resistant coating)
Degree of Protection:IP67, NEMA4X, JIS C0920 water tightprotection.
Electrical Connection:JIS G1/2 female, ANSI 1/2 NPT female,ISO M20 × 1.5 female
Signal Cable:Model DYC cable, used for remote detector and converter. Max. length : 30 m. Outer
Sheath Material: Heat resisting polyethylene Durable Temperature : –40 to 150 °C
Weight:
Mounting: Integral type and Remote type detector ,Flange mounting or wafer mounting by flange
adjacent to the pipeline.
Remote type converter : 2 inch pipe mounting.
Electrical Specifications
Output Signal : Dual Output (Both Analog and Transistor contact output can be obtained
simultaneously). And pulse output wiring.
Analog : 4 to 20 mA DC, 2-wire system.
Transistor Contact Output:Open collector, 3-wire system.Pulse,alarm,status output are selected
byparameter setting.
Contact rating: 30 V DC, 120 mA DCLow level: 0 to 2 V DC.
Communication Requirement :
Communication Signal :BRAIN or HART communication signal (superimposed on a 4 to 20 mA DC
signal)
Conditions of Communication Line :
Load Resistance :250 to 600 Ω(including cable resistance).
Supply Voltage :
16.4 to 42 V DC for digital communications BRAIN and HART protocols .(16.4 to 30 V DC for
intrinsically safe type).
Space from other Power Line: 15cm or more (Parallel wiring should be avoided.)
HART:
Communication Distance: Up to 1.5km,when using multiple twisted pair cables. Communication
distance varies
depending on type of cable used.
Cable Length for Specific Applications:Use the following formula to determine cable length for
specific applications.
65 106
L = (Cf 10,000)
(R C) C
where:
L=length in meters.
R=resistance in Ω (including barrier
resistance)
C=cable capacitance in pF/m.
Cf = maximum shunt capacitance of reciving
devices in pF/m.
NOTE:HART is a registered trademark of the
HART Communication Foundation.
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Functions:
Damping Time Constant :0 to 99 Sec (63% response time)
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Pulse Output Function:Pulse output is selected from scaled pulse, unscaled pulse, frequency (number
 of pulses
output per second at 100% of output). Pulse frequency : Max 10 kHz Duty cycles : Approx.50% (1:2 to
2:1)
Self -diagnostics and Alarm Output : In case alarm (over range output signal, EEPROM error,
vibration noise, abnormal
flow such as clogging, bubble) occurs, an alarm signal is output and indicated. The alarm signal output
goes from
close(ON) to open(OFF) during alarming.
Analog Output Function: Analog output is selected from flowrate and temperature value when option
code /MV is
selected.
Status Output Function :
Flow Switch: In case flow rate decreases under the flow set value,a status signal is output. Status
signal output mode can reverse (ON/ OFF) .
Data Security During Power Failure: Data (parameter, totalizer value, etc) storage by EEPROM. No
back-up battery required.
Correction:
Instrument Error Correction: Vortex flowmeter instrument errors can be corrected by segment
approximations.
Reynolds Number Correction: Output error at Reynolds number 20000 or less is corrected by using
five-break-point
line-segment approximation.
Gas Expansion Correction: When measuring a compressibility gas and steam, this expansion factor is
useful to correct
the error at high velocity of flow (35m/s or more).
Indicator:
Flow rate (% or engineering units) or temperature value and totalizer can be indicated simultaneously.
Short message for self diagnostics indicated. Local parameter setting can be operated by key switches.
In mounting direction, the right and left 90° is rotatable.
Selection Criterion
Following points should be considered
1)Area where it is to be used
2)Availability
3)Cost effectiveness
4)Display needs
5)Remote metering is required or not and speed of communication of entire system
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 Ultrasonic Flow Meter
It measures velocity of gas or liquid flowing through pipe using acoustic sensor. An ultrasonic flow
meter (non-intrusive Doppler flow meters) is a volumetric flow meter which requires particulates or
bubbles in the flow. Ultrasonic flow meters are ideal for wastewater applications or any dirty liquid
which is conductive or water based. Ultrasonics flow meters will generally not work with distilled
water or drinking water. Aerations would be required in the clean liquid applications. Ultrasonic flow
meters are also ideal for applications where low pressure drop, chemical compatibility, and low
maintenance are required.
Principle of working
The basic principle of operation employs the frequency shift (Doppler Effect) of an ultrasonic signal
when it is reflected by suspended particles or gas bubbles (discontinuities) in motion. This metering
technique utilizes the physical phenomenon of a sound wave that changes frequency when it is
reflected by moving discontinuities in a flowing liquid. Ultrasonic sound is transmitted into a pipe with
flowing liquids, and the discontinuities reflect the ultrasonic wave with a slightly different frequency
that is directly proportional to the rate of flow of the liquid (Figure 1). Current technology requires that
the liquid contain at least 100 parts per million (PPM) of 100 micron or larger suspended particles or
bubbles.
Construction
Following figure shows the general construction of ultrasonic doppler flow sensor.

Classification
Ultrasonic flow meters come in three different types:
1)Transmission (contra propagating transit time) flow meters
2)Reflection (Doppler) flow meters
3)Open-channel flow meters
Characteristics and Specifications
Physical Specifications
Pipe Diameter (inch)
Mounting
End Fittings
Process Operating Conditions
Process Media Type
Operating Pressure (psi)
Media Temperature (F)
Flow Performance Range
Meter Type
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Velocity Flow Rate (ft/sec)

Gas Volumetric Flow Rate (SCFM)
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Accuracy (±%)
 Output Options
Electrical Output
User Interface
Display
Front Panel Interface
Features
Additional Variables Measured
Approvals (CE/EX)

Advantages
1)Low maintenance
2)Non intrusive,
3)Suited to large pipes,
4)Clamp-on models available
Disadvantages
1)High initial cost
2)some models need clean fluids

Connectivity to other devices

They are mounted on pipe and in some devices digital display is provided and in other analog output is
provided which can be used for further signal conditioning.

Testing Methods
An increasing need for reduced uncertainty has forced metrologists to look for novel ways to improve
the calibration standards for flow. The NIST is experimenting with the use of an advanced ultrasonic
flowmeter (AUFM) to improve flow measurement and to detect the dynamic properties of calibration
facilities. Ultrasonic technology is evolving rapidly and technical advances have significantly improved
flow measurement in continuous industrial processes. The AUFM couples multipath ultrasonic sensing
capabilities with pattern recognition software to predict likely flow fields and their probability of
existence. The knowledge encoded in the AUFM is derived from training exercises that use
computational fluid dynamics and experimental results to teach a flow field recognizer (FFR) via a
learning algorithm. A four-path ultrasonic flowmeter prototype has been used to demonstrate the
AUFM operational principle. Results showed that the four-path meter can successfully identify flow
patterns among several selected flow fields. The results also indicated that the ability of the FFR to
identify flow patterns increases as the accuracy of the sensor increases, while decreases as the number
of flow patterns considered increases. In addition to being used as a flow diagnostic tool, the AUFM
could prove beneficial in field applications where installation effects can lead to gross errors when
ultrasonic signals are evaluated using conventional integration techniques

Catalogs for example

catalog is shown below.

Physical Specifications
Pipe Diameter (inch) 4.00 to 40.00
Mounting In-line
End Fittings In-line Flanged
17

Process Operating Conditions

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Process Media Type Liquid

Operating Pressure (psi) ? to 3705
 Media Temperature (F)
Flow Performance Range
Meter Type Volumetric Flow Meter
Velocity Flow Rate (ft/sec)
Gas Volumetric Flow Rate (SCFM)
Liquid Volumetric Flow Rate (GPM) 1430.93 to 143533.48
Accuracy (±%)
Output Options
Electrical Output Current; Voltage
Interface Options Serial/Digital
User Interface
Display
Front Panel Interface
Approvals Canadian Standards Association; CE, EX

Selection Criterion
Following points are considered while selecting ultrasonic flow meter.
Whether liquid have particulates of 100 ppm of 100 microns in size
Hand held or continuous process monitor is required or not
Analog output is required or not
Minimum and maximum flow rate for the flow meter
Minimum and maximum process temperature
Minimum and maximum process pressure
Size of the pipe
Whether the pipe always full

Turbine
A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow. Claude Burdin (1788-1873) coined
the term from thel Latin turbo, or vortex during an 1828 engineering competition.
Turbine flowmeters continue to be the most popular way to measure flow electronically in a wide range
of industries. A review of the advantages turbine flowmeters have to offer provides insight into the
growing popularity of this versatile flow transducer.

Principle of working
Inside a turbine flowmeter, the flowing medium engages a vaned rotor, causing it to rotate at an
angular velocity that is directly proportional to the flow rate. As the turbine rotates, an ac voltage is
induced in a magnetic pickup coil mounted outside the fluid process. As each turbine blade passes the
base of the pickup coil, the magnetic flux density is affected, inducing a voltage pulse. Each
pulse represents a distinct volume of fluid that has been displaced through two adjacent rotor blades.
The pulse rate generated is thus a very accurate measure of flowrate, and the total number of pulses an
equally accurate measure of displaced volume. The turbine flowmeter is an intrusive flow measurement
device, and, therefore, the pressure- drop characteristic is an important consideration. Pressure drops at
the maximum rated flow are indicated for each individual product shown on this page. These values
18

are based on water at 16°C (60°F). The most precise equation for calculating pressure drops in
liquids with specific gravities and viscosities different from those of the fluid in which the flowmeter is
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calibrated (usually water at S.G. = 1.0; viscosity = 1.0 centipoise) is as follows:

 (∆)P2 = (∆){(P2/P1) ^0.81}{(µ2/µ1)^0.27}{(Q2/Q1)^1.82}

Note: The pressure drop produced in a turbine can cause the flowing fluid to flash or produce vapor
bubbles which can damage the meter. To prevent this, a minimum downstream pressure = (1.25 x
vapor pressure) + (2 x P2) is required.

Construction

The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft with blades attached.
Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to the flow, so that they rotate and impart energy to
the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and water wheels
Classification
Flow meters types are
1)Volumetric
2)Velocity.
Volumetric turbine flow meters measure flow rate in units of volumetric flow, for example, mL/min.
Velocity turbine flow meters measure flow rate as in units of velocity, for example, ft/sec.

Characteristics and Specifications

1)Linearization
They are linear which provides a significant increase in accuracy. The output of the flow sensor varies
by the same percentage as the flow through the meter.
2)Accuracy
The sensors have a good forward flow accuracy (in most of the cases +/-1% full scale) while
monitoring hydraulic liquids with viscosity and specific gravity similar to factory calibrated fluids.
2)Bi-directional flow capability
Turbine flow sensor are inherently bi-directional, as the turbine will function normally in reverse
condition.
3)Flow straighteners
While flow straighteners are manufactured into each sensor, it is recommended that at least 10 port
diameters of upstream pipe with no obstructions to the flow sensor and a least 5 port diameters
downstream pipe be provided to obtain laminar flow.
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4)Filtration
Alll applications should be filtered to at least 40 micron. placing the flow sensor at a higher elevation in
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the system will avoid collection of debris, sediment, and dirt in the sensor.
 5)Viscosity
As long as the fluid viscosity remains within a range of 50-500 SUS or 10 cST to 100cST, the flow
sensors will stay within the +/-1% of full flow specifications.
6)Repeatability
Flow meter repeatability is within +/-0.2%. This is particular important in cyclical applications which
require consistent readings
7)Material used
8)Maximum working pressure and temperature.
7)Output signals.
8)Memory is there or not.
9)Response time.

Advantages
1)Wide flow rangeability
2) Outstanding accuracy at low cost
3)Construction materials that permit use with many process fluids
4)Simple, durable, field repairable construction
5)Flexibility in connecting to associated electronic readout devices for flow control and computer
interface
6))Wide variety of process connections
7)Operation over a wide range of temperatures and pressures
8)Bi-directional flow capacity in many models.

Disadvantages
1)Straightening of flow is required.

Testing and calibration

Best and easiest way to test a turbine flow sensor is replace it with well calibrated rotameter and match
both the reading on full load pipe then on 50 % loaded pipe.
Flow meters are generally calibrated with 0.879 specific gravity, 140 SUS (32cST) hydraulic oil,
irrespective of final fluid use. Standard calibration is done using 3-points however, 5- and 10-point
calibration certification is also available. If accuracy greater than 1% is required, it can be
accomplished through additional calibration measures.

Connectivity to other devices

Proper application of a turbine flowmeter requires that there be a suitable piping section both
downstream and upstream of the meter if it is to achieve optimum accuracy. Whereas an inlet straight
pipe run of 10 pipe diameters and an outlet straight pipe run of 5 pipe diameters provide the necessary
flow conditioning in general, some applications require an upstream flow straightener. Such
applications include custody transfer. A flow straightener consists of a section of piping which contains
a suitably dimensioned and positioned thin walled tube cluster to eliminate fluid swirl.

Catalog for example

Catalog is shown below.
Maximum Working Pressure: 150 psi PVC, 200 psi carbon steel
Maximum Temperature: Carbon Steel: 93°C (200°F)
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PVC: 49°C (120°F)

Accuracy: ±1% FS
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Signal: Square wave pulse

 Power: 6 to 24 Vdc
Materials
Meter Body: PVC or carbon steel
Flanges: Van Stone w/steel backing flange for PVC bodies, 150# ANSI for carbon steel bodies
Turbine Rotor: PVDF
Rotor Shafts: Zirconia ceramic
Bearings: Sapphire journal, ruby ball
FTB700-D (Optional Display)
Power: 11 to 24 Vdc, 20 mA max
Rate: 8-digit auto range
Total: 8-digit, selectable decimal
Memory: Non-volatile (no battery needed)
Pulse Output: 0.1 second, open collector
Analog Option 4 to 20 mA, user-programmable
FTB700-T (Optional Blind Transmitter)
Output: 4 to 20 mA
Loop Power: 12 to 26 Vdc (isolated)
Accuracy: ±1%
Response Time: 3 seconds, 95% FS

Selection Criterion
Turbine flowmeters are available in a range of standard materials, which permits selection of the
optimal
combination of useful range, corrosion resistance and operating life for a particular application. A low
mass rotor design allows for rapid dynamic response, which permits the turbine meter to be used in
pulsating flow applications. Deflector cones eliminate downstream thrust on the rotor and allow
hydrodynamic positioning of the rotor between deflector cones. This positioning of the low mass rotor
provides wider rangeability and longer bearing life than that of conventional turbine flowmeters.
Integral flow straightening tubes or vanes minimize the effects of upstream flow turbulence. The
housing is made of nonmagnetic materials, and the rotor is made of magnetic or magnetized materials.
Bearings are chosen based on media service, cost and accuracy considerations. Selection of the
materials of flowmeter construction is usually dictated by the requirements of media compatibility,
availability and by cost considerations.

Rotameter
A Rotameter is a device that measures the flow rate of liquid or gas in a closed tube.
Principle of working
A rotameter consists of a tapered tube, typically made of glass, with a float inside that is pushed up by
flow and pulled down by gravity. At a higher flow rate more area (between the float and the tube) is
needed to accommodate the flow, so the float rises. Floats are made in many different shapes, with
spheres and spherical ellipses being the most common. The float is shaped so that it rotates axially as
the fluid passes. This allows you to tell if the float is stuck since it will only rotate if it is not. Readings
are usually taken from the top of the float. Some manufacturers may use a different standard, so it is
always best to check the documentation provided with the device.
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Note that the 'float' does not actually float in the fluid: it has to have a higher density than the fluid
otherwise it will float to the top even if there is small flow.
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 Construction

Classification
A technical classification of rotameter has following types
1)Multi phace flow rotameter
2)Metal tube rotameter
3)Glass tube rotameter
Characteristics and Specifications
Physical Specifications
Pipe Diameter (inch)
Mounting
End Fittings
Process Operating Conditions
Process Media Type
Operating Pressure (psi)
Operating Temperature (F)
Flow Performance Range
Liquid Volumetric Flow Rate (GPM)
Gas Volumetric Flow Rate (SCFM)
Accuracy (±%)
Output Options
Electrical Output / Display
Features
Additional Variables Measured
Approvals (CE/EX)

Advantages
1)A rotameter requires no external power or fuel, it uses only the inherent properties of the fluid,
along with gravity, to measure flow rate.
2)A rotameter is also a relatively simple device that can be mass manufactured out of cheap materials,
allowing for widespread use in places such as third world countries.
Disadvantages
1)Due to its use of gravity, a rotameter must always be vertically oriented and right way up, with the
fluid flowing upwards.
2)Due to its reliance on the ability of the fluid or gas to displace the float, the graduations on a given
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rotameter will only be accurate for a given substance. The main property of importance is the density
of the fluid, however viscosity may also be significant. Floats are ideally designed to be insensitive to
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viscosity, however this is seldom verifiable from manufacturers specs. Either separate rotameters for
 different densities and viscosities may be used, or multiple scales on the same rotameter can be
utilized.
3)Rotameters normally require the use of glass (or other transparent material), otherwise the user
cannot see the float. This limits their use in many industries to benign fluids, such as water
4)Rotameters are not easily adapted for reading by machine: although magnetic floats that drive a
follower outside the tube are available.
Testing methods
Best and easiest way to test a rotameter is replace it with well calibrated rotameter and match both the
reading on full load pipe then on 50 % loaded pipe. Besides that some destructive tests are used to
check robustness of material used. They are according to TR20 standards
Connectivity to other devices
They are mounted on pipe and in some devices digital display is provided and in other analog output is
provided which can be used for further signal conditioning.
Catalog for example
Physical Specifications
Pipe Diameter (inch) 0.12
Mounting In-line
End Fittings Compression (optional feature); In-line
Threaded; Tube End/Hose Nipple (optional
feature)
Process Operating Conditions
Process Media Type Gas
Operating Pressure (psi) 0 to100
Media Temperature (F)
Flow Performance Range
Meter Type Volumetric Flow Meter
Velocity Flow Rate (ft/sec)
Gas Volumetric Flow Rate (SCFM)
Liquid Volumetric Flow Rate (GPM) 0-
0.0018
Accuracy (±%)
Output Options
Electrical Output Current; Voltage
Interface Options Serial/Digital
User Interface
Display
Front Panel Interface
Approvals SO 9001, UKAS Quality
Selection Criterion
1)Minimum and maximum flow rate for the flow meter
2)Minimum and maximum process temperature
3)Minimum and maximum process pressure
4)Size of the pipe
5)Whether the pipe always full
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6)Cost effectiveness
7)Availability
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