Q.

1 (A)
Q.1 (B)

Q.2 (A)
Q.2 (B)
Q.3 (A) Q.3 (B)
Q.4 (A)
Q.4 (B) Q.5 (A)
Q.5 (B)
Q.6 (A)
Consider that N atoms are present in the Si or Ge crystal. In different orbits, electrons of each atom
will have discrete energies. If all atoms are isolated, the electron energy will be same i.e. separated
from each other by a large distance. The atoms are close to each other (2 to 3 Å) in a crystal and
therefore the electrons interact with each other and also with the neighboring atomic cores. In the
outermost orbit, the interaction (overlap) will be more felt by the electrons, while the inner orbit or
the core electron energies may remain unaffected. So we need to consider the changes in the energies
of the electrons present in the outermost orbit only for understanding the electron energies in Si or
Ge crystal. The outermost orbit for Si is the third orbit (n=3) and for Ge, it is the fourth orbit (n=4).
The total number of electrons present in the outermost orbit is 4 (2s and 2p electrons). Hence the
total number of outer electrons present in the crystal is 4N. The maximum possible number of outer
electrons present in the orbit is 8 (2s+6p electrons). So, out of the 4N electrons, 2N electrons are in
the 2N s-states (orbital quantum number l =0) and the 2N electrons are present in the available 6N p-
states. This is the case of well separated or isolated atoms.
If these atoms start coming nearer to each other to form a solid, the energies of these electrons in the
outermost orbit may change (both increase and decrease) due to the interaction between the electrons
of different atoms. The 6N states for l=1, originally having identical energies in the isolated atoms,
spread out to form an energy band. Similarly, the 2N states for l=0, having identical energies in the
isolated atoms, split into a second band, separated from the first one by an energy gap.
At smaller spacing, there comes a region in which the bands merge with each other. The lowest
energy state that is a split from the upper atomic level appears to drop beneath the upper state that
comes from the lower atomic level. No energy gap exists in this region, where the lower and upper
energy states get mixed.
The energy bands again split apart and are separated by an energy gap Eg when the distance between
the atoms decreases. The total number of available energy states 8N has been re-apportioned
between the lower and upper energy bands each of 4N states. Here there are exactly many states in
the lower band (4N) as there are available valence electrons from the atoms (4N). So this band, the
valence band is completely filled while the upper band, the conduction band is completely empty.
The Energy band gap is the gap between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the
conduction band. Depending upon the material, it may be large, small or zero. We can classify
materials into conductors, insulators and semiconductors based on the energy gap. Figure above
shows the difference between energy bands of metals, insulators and semiconductors.
Conductors: In case of conductors, the valence band and the conduction band overlaps. Here there
is overlap electrons from valence band can easily move into the conduction band. This makes a large
number of electrons available for electrical conduction. If the valence band is partially empty, the
electrons from its lower level can move into the higher level. This makes conduction possible. So the
resistance of such materials is low or the conductivity is high.
Insulators: In this case, a large energy band gap Eg (Eg >3 eV) exists between the two bands. Here
no electrical conduction is possible, due to the absence of electrons in the conduction band. In case
of insulators, the energy gap is very large that electrons cannot be excited from the valence band to
the conduction band by thermal excitation.
Semiconductors: Here in this case, a finite but small band gap (Eg <3 eV) exists. At room
temperature, some electrons from valence band can acquire enough energy to cross the energy gap
and enter the conduction band due to the small band gap. These electrons (in small numbers) can
move in the conduction band. Thus the resistance of semiconductors is not high as that of insulators.
Q.6 (B)
There are two operating regions: P-type and N-type. And based on the applied voltage, there are
three possible “biasing” conditions for the P-N Junction Diode, which are as follows:
Zero Bias – No external voltage is applied to the PN junction diode.
Forward Bias– The voltage potential is connected positively to the P-type terminal and negatively to
the N-type terminal of the Diode.
Reverse Bias– The voltage potential is connected negatively to the P-type terminal and positively to
the N-type terminal of the Diode.
Zero Biased Condition- In this case, no external voltage is applied to the P-N junction diode; and
therefore, the electrons diffuse to the P-side and simultaneously holes diffuse towards the N-side
through the junction, and then combine with each other. Due to this an electric field is generated by
these charge carriers. Electric field opposes further diffusion of charged carriers so that there is no
movement in the middle region. This region is known as depletion width or space charge.
Unbiased Condition
Forward Bias- In the forward bias condition, the negative terminal of the battery is connected to
the N-type material and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-Type material. This
connection is also called as giving positive voltage. Electrons from the N-region crosses the junction
and enters the P-region. Due to the attractive force that is generated in the P-region the electrons are
attracted and move towards the positive terminal. Simultaneously the holes are attracted towards the
negative terminal of the battery.By the movement of electrons and holes current flows. In this
condition, the width of the depletion region decreases due to the reduction in the number of positive
and negative ions.
Forward Bias Condition
V-I Characteristics- By supplying positive voltage, the electrons get enough energy to overcome
the potential barrier (depletion layer) and cross the junction and the same thing happens with the
holes as well. The amount of energy required by the electrons and holes for crossing the junction is
equal to the barrier potential 0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si, 1.2V for GaAs. This is also known as
Voltage drop. The voltage drop across the diode occurs due to internal resistance. This can be
observed in the below graph.
Forward bias V-I Characheristics
Reverse Bias- In the forward bias condition, the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the
N-type material and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the P-type material. This
connection is also known as giving positive voltage. Hence, the electric field due to both the voltage
and depletion layer is in the same direction. This makes the electric field more stronger than before.
Due to this strong electric field, electrons and holes want more energy to cross the junction so they
cannot diffuse to opposite region. Hence, there is no current flow due to lack of movement of
electrons and holes.
Depletion layer in Reverse Biased condition
The electrons from the N-type semiconductor are attracted towards the positive terminal and the
holes from the P- type semiconductor are attracted towards negative terminal. This leads to the
reduction of the number of electrons in N-type and holes in P-type. In addition, positive ions are
created in N-type region and negative ions are created in the P-type region.
Circuit diagram for Reverse bias
Therefore, the depletion layer width is increased due to the increasing number of positive and
negative ions.
V-I Characteristics- Due to thermal energy in crystal minority carriers are produced. Minority
carriers mean hole in N-type material and electrons in P-type material. These minority carriers are
the electrons and holes pushed towards P-N junction by the negative terminal and positive terminal,
respectively. Due to the movement of minority carriers, a very little current flows, which is in nano
Ampere range (for silicon). This current is called as reverse saturation current. Saturation means,
after reaching its maximum value, a steady state is reached wherein the current value remains same
with increasing voltage.
The magnitude of reverse current is of the order of nano-amperes for silicon devices. When the
reverse voltage is increased beyond the limit, then the reverse current increases drastically. This
particular voltage that causes the drastic change in reverse current is called reverse breakdown
voltage. Diode breakdown occurs by two mechanisms: Avalanche breakdown and Zener breakdown.
I = IS[exp ( qV/kT )-1]
K – Boltzmann Constant
T – Junction temperature (K)
(kT/q) Room temperature = 0.026V
Usually IS is a very small current approximately in 10-17 …… 10-13A
Therefore, it can be written as
I=IS[exp(V/0.026)-1]
Q.7 (A)
Q.7 (B)
The resistivity of most metals increases with increase in temperature and vice-versa. There are some metals
and chemical compounds whose resistivity becomes zero when their temperature is brought near 0° Kelvin (-
273°C). At this stage such metals or compounds are said to have attained superconductivity. For example,
Mercury becomes superconducting at approximately 4.5 Kelvin (-268.5°C). Superconductivity was discovered
by Heike Kamerlingh Ocnes at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands in 1911. The transition from
normal conductivity to superconductivity takes place almost suddenly; it occurs over a very narrow range of
temperature-about 0.05 K The temperature at which the transition takes place from the state of normal
conductivity to that of superconductivity is called transition temperature.
There are two types of superconductors commonly known as Type I and Type II superconductors. Type I
superconductors are soft superconductors. They are usually pure specimens of some elements i.e. metals.
They have very little use in technical applications. Type II superconductors are hard superconductors. They
are usually alloys of metals with high value of resistivity in normal state. These are very useful as compared to
Type I materials.
Experiments have shown that if a current is induced in a mercury ring at a temperature of 4.5 K, it will
continue to flow for years without taking any power from the source of supply. Similarly a lead ring carried a
current of several hundred amperes over a year with no change. Lead becomes superconducting at 7.22 K
Explain the Applications of Superconductors.
1.Superconductors are used for producing very strong magnetic field of about 20 - 30 T which is much
larger than the field obtained from an electromagnet and such high magnetic fields are required in
power generators.
Efforts are being made at present to develop electrical machines and transformers utilizing
superconductivity. Calculations show that if we could use superconductors as conducting material, in
addition to superconducting magnets, which are already being produced, it is possible to manufacture
electrical generators and transformers in exceptionally small size, having an efficiency as high as
99.99%.
 2.Magnetic energy can be stored in large superconductors and drawn as required to counter the voltage
fluctuations during peak loading.
3.The superconductors can be used to perform logic and storage functions in computers.
4.A superconductor material can be suspended in air against repulsive force from permanent magnet. The
levitation can be used in transportation.
5.As there is no heat loss in superconductors (i.e. I2R loss is zero), so power can be transmitted through
the superconducting cables.
Superconducting materials if used for power cables enable transmission of power over very long distances
using a diameter of a few centimetres without any significant power loss or drop in voltage.
Superconducting solenoids which do not produce any heat during operations have been produced. However, it
must be noted that superconductivity can be destroyed if the magnetic field exceeds a critical value. It has
been possible to design electromagnets using superconductivity for use in laboratories and for low
temperature devices like the maser.

Q.8 (A)

Q.8 (B)