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CHAPTER 4
BERNOULLI EQUATION AND APPLICATIONS
4.1 Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss behavior of fluid while it is in motion.
In this chapter the fluid is assumed to be inviscid where the viscosity is
neglected. The continuity equation is derived for a general case. The
Bernoulli’s equation is derived from Newton’s second law of motion. The
fluid flow has a wide range of applications i.e. pipe flow, open channel flow,
flows in ducting, or from a container of a spray paint unit are all cases of fluid
flow.
V
dr
V
r V
V
streamlines
In a steady flow, pathlines, streakline and streamlines are all coincident. Since the
flows that we observe in laboratories are invariably steady flows the lines we
observe re streamlines.
[a] Steady and unsteady flow; steady flow occurs when flow parameters such
as pressure, velocity, density etc. do not change with time. If the flow
parameters vary with time is called unsteady. In many engineering
problem the flow is assumed to be steady.
[b] One dimensional flow is one in which velocity varies only on one
direction such flow occur in long straight pipes as shown in Figure 4.3.
The velocity field is a functional of (r) only.
105
u
r u R
u
x
umax
[c] Laminar and turbulent flow : Flow is said to be laminar when adjacent
fluid layers move at same velocity and paths of individual particles of
fluid do not cross each other. Laminar flow occurs with low fluid
velocities and high viscosity. Flow is said to be turbulent when
streamlines cross each other and there is mixing in fluid flow. It occurs
with high velocities and low viscosity. The two flows are shown are in
Figure 4.6.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.6 (a) Laminar and (b) turbulent flows
M = v/a
107
Where v is the gas speed and a is wave speed = RT . The equation is
useful in deciding whether a particular gas flow is assumed to be
incompressible or compressible. If M < 0.3 density variation can be
neglected and the flow is considered as incompressible. If M > 0.3 density
variation cannot be neglected and flow must to be treated as compressible.
Consider a stream tube be as shown in Figure 4.7. There is no flow across the
tube. If the flow is steady, the mass of fluid entering the system tube in unit time
must be equal to mass of fluid leaving the stream tube at the same time, provided
there is no accumulation of fluid within it.
108
Area A1
Volume v1
Density ρ1 A2
v2
B ρ2
Therefore;
A1v1 A2v2
Example 4.1:
The water flows inside a pipe has an internal diameter of 120mm at flow rate of 600
l/min and flows out through the pipe outlet with a diameter of 50mm. Determine:
Solution:
Where A1 d12 (0.12)2 11.31 10 3 m2
4 4
A2 d 22 (0.05) 2 1.964 10 3 m2
4 4
Thus,
Q 0.01
v1 0.884m / s
A1 11.31 10 3
Q 0.01
v2 5.09m / s
A2 1.964 10 3
110
p
p ds dA
s
Streamline
ds
V z
dz .ds
dA s
p dA
R (radius of curvature)
s g s. A cos
n
x
Particle moving along a streamline
Figure 4.8 Control volume
n
Force= mass × acceleration, ( Fi ma)
i 1
dP
PA ( P s )A gA.s. cos A.s.as
ds
dv dv ds dv
where a s v
dt ds dt ds
dz
replace cos ,
ds
Dividing by s.A ,
dv 1 dP dz
v g 0, (Euler equation)
ds ds ds
The integration product of Euler equation and for incompressible fluid (ρ= constant);
v2 P v2 P
gz cons tan t or z cons tan t
2 2 g g
Example 4.2:
Water is flowing in a pipe with a diameter of 160mm and the water flows at the
velocity of 3m/s, and converge into a pipe of 100mm at 5m below from inlet (Figure
E4.2). Determine:
P1= 350kPa
D1= 160mm
5m
D2= 100mm
V2= ?
Figure E4.2
Solution:
(a) Q A1v1 (0.16)2 (3) 0.0603m3 / s
4
A1 d 160 2
v2 v1 v1 ( 1 )2 3( ) 7.68m / s
A2 d2 100
v12 v2
P1 gz1 P2 2 gz2
2 2
Therefore,
P2 P1 ( v12 v22 ) g ( z1 z2 )
2
1000 2
350 103 (3 7.682 ) 1000(9.81)(5 0) 374kPa.
2
Example 4.3
A 50mm diameter siphon drawing water from a reservoir is shown in Figure E4.3.
Determine the pressure at a section of 2 and the discharge of water at outlet.
2m
5m
V3
114
Figure E4.3
Solution:
v12 v2
P1 gz1 P3 3 gz 3
2 2
Where P1 = P3 = 0 and z1 - z3 = 5m
Q (0.05) 2 9.9 0.019m 3 / s
4
v 2 v2
Po PS gz or Ho h z
2 2g
The sum of the three terms is known as total head. The pressure P is static
pressure ρu2/2 dynamic pressure and the sum of the two terms is called total
pressure or stagnation pressure Po. The static pressure, PS can be measured by
using a wall pressure ‘tap’ or a static pressure probe shown in Figure 4.9.
115
Small holes
Flow
Flow
Streamlines
Stem
Pressure
tap
To manometer or
( a ) Wall pressure tap pressure gauge
Measurement of static pressure (b) Static pressure gauge
A device, known as pitot probe is used to measure the total pressure in a fluid
flow. A pitot-static probe is used to measure the difference between total and
static pressure as one probe to calculate the velocity shown in Figure 4.10.
Static
pressure
Flow holes
Flow
B
Small hole
C
To manometer or
Po
pressure gauge
Measurement of stagnation pressure (b) Pitot - static Tube
velocity is V, then the stagnation pressure, P◦, where the velocity U◦, is zero may
be computed from
2( Po PS ) 2( Po PS )
v2 or v
Thus if the stagnation and static pressure could be measured at a point then the
equation above would give local flow velocity.
PA = PB
Or P1 M h a P2 (h a)
( P2 P1 )
And h M 1 h M 1
v1 2 gh M 1
The Bernoulli’s equation can be applied to external flows, that is, flows around object
submerged in fluid. If finds frequent application in internal flows, such as pipes, bends,
etc.
The Bernoulli equation cannot be applied through a machine such as a propeller or pump
as equation is derived by integrating along a stream-tube or streamline in the absence of
117
moving surfaces such as blades or vanes. Also it cannot be applied to cases where it is
large changes in temperature as it will change the density of the fluid.
Many types of devices using principles involved in deriving the Bernoulli equation have
been developed to measure fluid velocities and flow rates. The Pitot-static tube is an
example to measure velocity. An effective way to measure the flow rate through a pipe is
to place some type of restriction within the pipe as shown in Figure 4.11 and to measure
the differences between low velocity and high pressure at section (1) to high velocity and
low pressure at section (2). Three commonly used types of flow meter are
Venturi meter
Orifice meter
Nozzle meter
Rotameter
Piezometer rings
Direction
of flow
Section 2
Pressure p2
Velocity v2
Area a2
Section 1 Leads to gauge filled with liquid in
Pressure p1 pipeline Spec. wt. =
Velocity v1
Area a1 X
Spec. wt. of gauge liquid = g
Figure 4.11
118
Using Bernoulli’s equation may then substitute values of u1 and u1 from the
continuity relation Q=A1.v1 = A2.v2 to give
P1 Q2 P2 Q2
g 2 gA12 g 2 gA22
2 g P / g P / g
Qideal 1 2
1
2
1
2
A2 A1
h P1 / g P2 / g
1
1
2 gh 2 gh
2 2
Q C d A2 C d A2 2
1 A2 / A1 2 1 m
The coefficient of discharge also accounts for effects for effects of non-uniformity
of velocity over section 1 and 2. Although Cd varies somewhat with the rate of
flow, the viscosity of the fluid and surface roughness, a value of about 0.98 is
usual with of low viscosity (Bristish Standard 1042). The equation above also can
be written in term of the flow coefficient K,
Q KA2 2 gh
Cd
where K and can be obtained from the chart as in Figure
1 A2 / A1
5.12.
If the leads of the U-tube are filled with liquid whose specific gravity is (or g)
and the gravity of the manometric fluid is m and equating pressures at section A-
A.
P1 x P2 x m
P1 P2 x m x m 1
Thus,
P1 P2
h x m 1 x m 1
120
Re d
2 gh
K v
101 102 103 104 105 106 107
1.2
Venturi meters
and nozzles
1.1 d
0.6
D
d
0.5
D
1.0
d
0.4
K D
0.9
Orifices
d
0.8 0.80
D
d d
0.40 0.70
D D
0.7
d d
0.60 0.50
D
D
d
0.20
D
0.6
d
0.10
D
0.5 1
10 102 103 104 105 106 107
4Q
Re d
dv
Figure 4.12
121
Example 4.4:
The pressure difference between the taps of a horizontal venturi meter carrying
water is 35kPa. If d=20cm and D=40cm, what is the discharge of water at 20oC?
Solution:
P 35000
h 3.57m of water
g 9810
0.271m 3 / s
½D
D
A2 = CcA0
D
2
Figure 4.13
An orifice plate is another method to measure discharge where the fluid flows
through a restricted opening as shown in Figure 4.13. Note that the streamlines
continue to converge a short distance downstream of the plane of the orifice.
Hence the minimum-flow area is actually smaller than the area of orifice. To
relate the minimum flow area, often called the contracted area of the jet, or vena
contracta, to the area of the orifice A2, which is defined as
A2 Cc Ao
C d Ao
Q 2 gh
1 C c2 Ao2 / A12
Q KAo 2 gh
123
Cd
where K can be obtained from the chart as in Figure 4.12 and
1 C c2 Ao2 / A12
Example 4.5:
A 15cm orifice is located in a horizontal 24cm water pipe, and a water-mercury
is connected to either side of the orifice. When the deflection on the manometer
is 25cm, what is the discharge in the system.
h x m 1 0.2513.6 1
h = 3.15m of water.
1
2 gh 2
Q C d Ao 2
KAo 2 gh
1 m
Q 0.66 Ao 2 gh
0.66 d 2 29.813.15
4
0.092m 3 / s.
_ Flow
V1 D1 D2
P1 P2
Figure 4.14
The theoretical flow rate is calculated with the same formula as that of a
venturimeter
Q = Cd·Qt
1
2 gh 2
Q Cd A2 2
KA2 2 gh
1 A2 / A1
The selection of a flow meter depends on factors such cost, accuracy, ease of
installation and maintenance. Some of the factors are compared for the orifice
plate, flow nozzle and venturi meter in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1
Flow meter type Head loss Cost
Orifice High Low
Flow nozzle Intermediate Intermediate
Venturi meter Low High
4.7.4 Rotameter
The rotameter as shown in Figure 4.15 consists of a long graduated vertical tube having
uniform taper, arranged with the smaller section at the bottom. A float moves upward or
downward in response to the flow rate until a position is reached where the drag force on
the float is in equilibrium with the submerged weight. Calibration consists of correlating
the vertical elevation of the float with the discharge. The head loss depends on the
friction loss of the tube plus the loss across the floating element. The rotameter does not
provide accuracy as the differential pressure meters, typically in the range of 5% full
scale
126
If Rf = Float radius
Rt = Tube radius of rotameter
l = Distance from the base to the float at tube radius of Rt
= Angle between the tube and the vertical line
Thus,
π R 2 t R 2 f 2R f .δ flow area
Volume flow rate
Velocity
and δ .θ
Q 2R f .θ
Q α
m α 1
127
It can be seen that the calibration line is linear for the rotameter.
Problems
1. A differential pressure gage is connected across the taps of a Pitot tube. When this
Pitot tube is used in a wind tunnel test, the gage indicates a P of 730 Pa. What is
the air velocity in the tunnel? The pressure and temperature in the tunnel are 98
kPa absolute and 20ºC?
2. Blood of specific gravity, s= 1.0 flows through an artery in the neck of a giraffe
from its heart to the head. If the pressure at the beginning of the artery (outlet of
the heart) is equal to 0.212m of mercury, determine the pressure at the end of the
artery when the head is:
3. Two Pitot tubes are shown. The one on the top is used to measure the velocity of
air, and it is connected to an air-water manometer as shown in Figure Q3. The one
on the bottom is used to measure the velocity of water, and it too is connected to
an air-water manometer as shown. If the defection h is the same for both
manometers, then one can conclude that
(a) VA = Vw (b) VA > Vw (c) VA < Vw
128
air
VA
h
water
air
h
Vw
water
Figure Q3
5. The apparatus shown in the figure is used to measure the velocity of air at the
center of a duct having a 10 cm diameter. A tube mounted at the center of the duct
has a 2 mm diameter and is attached to one leg of a slant tube manometer. A
pressure tap in the wall of the duct is connected to the other end of the slant-tube
manometer. The well of the slant-tube manometer is sufficiently large that the
elevation of the fluid in it does not change significantly when fluid moves up the
leg of the manometer. The air in the duct is at a temperature of 20ºC, and the
pressure is 150 kPa. The manometer liquid has a specific gravity of 0.7, and the
slope of the leg is 30ºC. When there is no flow in the duct, the liquid surface in
the manometer lies at 2.3 cm on the slanted scale. When there is flow in the duct,
the liquid moves up to 6.7 cm on the slanted scale. Find the velocity of the air in
the duct. Assuming a uniform velocity profile in the duct, calculate the rate of
flow of the air.
129
V 10cm
P= 150kPa
. 6.7cm
.
2.3cm
Figure Q5
6. If the velocity in an air stream (Pa = 98 kPa, T = 10ºC) is 12m/s, what deflection
will be produced on an air-water manometer if the stagnation tube is 2 mm in
diameter?
Deflection
Stagnation tube
Figure Q6
defined as (P1 + γz1)-( P2 + γz2) is equal to the pressure difference across the
transducer, (PT,1 - PT,2).
P1
l1
PT,1
PT,2
l2
P2
Figure Q8
9. The pressure differential across this venture meter is 100 kPa. What is the
discharge of water through it?
ΔP
d= 1.0m
D= 2.0m
Figure Q9
10. The differential-pressure gage on the venturi meter reads 45 kPa, d = 10 cm, D =
20 cm, and h = 80 cm. What is the discharge of gasoline (S = 0.69, = 3 X 10-4 N
s/m2) in the system?
131
ΔP
Figure Q10
11. Estimate the pressure P1 and velocity V1 of water if V2 = 20m/s and h= 5cm.
1 2
mercury
Figure Q11
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