“Doing science” in the classroom

How is inquiry defined? – very broadly.

Inquiry   is   a   multifaceted   activity   that   involves   making

observations; posing questions; examining books and other
sources   of   information   to   see   what   is   already   known;
planning investigations; reviewing what is already known
in   light   of   experimental   evidence;   using   tools   to   gather,
analyze,   and   interpret   data;   proposing   answers,
explanations   and   predictions;   and   communicating   the
results. Inquiry requires identification of assumptions, use
of   critical   and   logical   thinking,   and   consideration   of
alternative explanations. (p. 23 of the National Science Education Standards)

Structuring our own thinking about the planning

process: The 5 interrelated phases of inquiry

1. Hooking students & building a knowledge base to prepare for inquiry 
2. Crafting questions, hypotheses, predictions & initial models
3. Designing and conducting the investigation
4. Analyzing data and representing it as evidence
5. Reconsidering the model, coordinating evidence and theory 

We will take a disciplined approach to understanding each of these phases of inquiry. 
Although they are intimately connected with one another, we can consider each of the phases
one by one. 

For each of the phases, we will ask 5 questions:

• How does this phase fit into the overall context of the inquiry process?
• What are typical actions that teachers and students would undertake in this phase?
• For students, what knowledge and skills are necessary in this phase?

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 • How can teachers scaffold the student activities in this phase?
• How can the teacher assess student understandings and skills in this phase?

This guide meant to provide suggestions for thinking about each phase. Not all strategies 
suggested are needed to conduct a successful inquiry experience with your students. For 
each phase blank spots are left for you to add ideas…
Model-Based Scientific Inquiry
The diagram shows how the phases of inquiry are interdependent and iterative.

Select tentative model

Composed of entities
and relationships
Observe
Model shapes observations in Argue for revised model
terms of entities, relationships
Rhetoric based on conclusions

Develop question Argue connections between

Refers to some evidence and claim
aspect of model Claims relate to aspects
of focal theory/model

Create hypothesis Analyze data

Predictions based on Forms basis of empirical claims and
potential validity of model arguments for revisions of model

Design and conduct investigation

A note on scaffolding scientific inquiry

Vygotsky suggested that we not measure what a child can do by his or herself but rather what
he or she can do with the help of others. Our role as educators is to actively guide students as 
they experience science. Scaffolding is a term that collectively describes the types of 
guidance teachers or more capable peers provide. These social interactions and collaborations
are critical to help students actively build ideas about him or herself and about science. The 

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 idea is that through the use of scaffolding teachers can, over time, provide an appropriate 
amount of challenge, promote self­regulation, and grant the student more responsibility for 
learning and mastering science. In this way, scaffolding requires teachers’ attention to social, 
emotional, and cognitive elements of the student and his or her environment. 

This guide outlines types of scaffolding that correspond with each inquiry phase. Through 
scaffolding it is our hope that students learn about the nature of science, about how to do 
science, about science, and about science in relation to their lives. 

Phase 1. Hooking students & building a knowledge base

How does this phase fit
into the overall context of
the inquiry process?
What are the typical
actions that teachers and
students undertake in this
phase?
To help make inquiry content-rich, versus content-lean, the experience needs to be
rooted in content related to physical, chemical, or natural phenomena. In this way
inquiry can help students learn through model-building.
Students
 Write questions that are relevant
 Provide examples, make a diagrams
 Identify vocabulary OR describe processes in own terms
 Create analogies
 Read
 Identify relevant information
 Journal writing
 Concept mapping

Teacher
 Survey class’ prior knowledge, instincts, feelings about the topic
 Create opportunities for class discussion
 Emphasize processes not vocabulary
 Clarify vocabulary
 Give students guiding questions
 Provide questions that push students to think beyond reading
 May provide direct instruction for basic content knowledge
 May provide common experiences for students to start thinking about scientific
phenomena (i.e. field trips)
 Model ways to organizing class information and new information  representing
knowledge and looking for gaps in information

For students, what  Organizing thinking & research

knowledge and skills are
necessary in this phase?
 Defining key terms
 Know what resources are available
 Where to look for existing information
 Distinguishing & evaluating sources
 Comparing & contrasting sources
 Reading comprehension and metacognition skills

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  Methods of science thought & argumentation
 Know appropriate tools for research and how to use them
 Draw connections from previous experiences
 Understand microscopic and macroscopic content levels
 Ideas about how scientists work together
 Ideas about how historically thoughts have changed in science
 How to contact experts
 Motivation to learn

How can teachers Start with students’ prior knowledge & experiences
scaffold the student  Survey class’ prior knowledge, instincts, feelings about the topic (KWL
activities in this phase? charts)
 Draw connections from previous experiences
 Engage students in brainstorming about a topic

Organize new information and distinguish what is important

 Model ways to organizing class information and new information (make a
diagram or a concept map)
 Help students focus on science processes not vocabulary
 Provide guiding content questions that can help the students conduct
background research

Link students’ knowledge to Models

 In small groups have students consolidate knowledge, make posters and
explain to class (class can begin to create a unified model if doing similar
inquiry projects)
 Model ways to represent knowledge (create an analogy or a skit)
 Draw a preliminary model
 Encourage students to look for gaps in information, revise model
 Ask questions about the topic from the microscopic to macroscopic levels,
revise model

Make processes explicit

 Make explicit ideas about how scientists work together to build background
knowledge
 Make explicit ideas about how scientific thoughts have changed in over time

How can the teacher  Ask questions that have to do with processes or popular science
assess student  Pre instruction quiz & post (assess prior knowledge)
understandings and skills  Eliciting ideas (formative evaluation)
in this phase?  Create a debate- stress taking sides and looking for holes in their thinking

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 In small groups have students consolidate knowledge
 Journal writing
 Make posters and explain to class
 Multiple choice class test
 Use what they know to ask questions
 Free-write & pictures
 KWL

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Phase 2. Crafting questions, hypotheses, predictions & initial models
How does this phase fit
into the overall context of
the inquiry process?
What are the typical
actions that teachers and
students undertake in this
phase?
For students, what
knowledge and skills are
necessary in this phase?
How can teachers
scaffold the student
activities in this phase?
Crafting scientific questions for research depends on the previous phase and also
provides a guide to research. This phase also encourages student ownership of ideas
related to the research.
Students
 Creating questions that are personally relevant and interesting to the students
 Coming up with questions that are actually testable and solvable & practical
 Coming up with questions that have to do with learning science content
 Brainstorming about a topic
 Critically looking at background knowledge, initial understandings, or models
 Finding holes in previous knowledge
 Identifying assumptions
 Discussing possible outcomes of an experiment
Teacher
 Survey class’ prior knowledge about writing questions
 Create opportunities for class discussion about types of questions, variables,
controls, writing hypotheses, & making predictions
 Move students from wonderment to experimental questions
 Provide questions that push students to ask questions beyond reading & beyond
simple comparisons
 Guide hypothesis writing (i.e. show students how to use “if-then” statements
 Model ways to develop initial models, represent knowledge and look for gaps in
information
 Know that questions drive scientific inquir
 Know what a solvable question is
 Know what constitutes assumptions & different types of assumptions
 Understand the historical context of the scientific question- past trends in research
and gaps in understandings
 Know what sort of question is good for inquiry
 Operationalize & measure variables
 Use variables in questions & models
 Types of models
 Identifying controls & incorporating controls into models
 Use part of the model to develop & justify a question
 Determine the scientific scope of a question- macroscopic/microscopic focus
Distinguish scientific questions & create a common language
 Provide questions that are personally relevant and interesting to the students as a
starting place for helping students think about different types of questions
 Create a table of questions and have students identify various types of questions
in relation to different types of scientific studies: descriptive, correlational and
experimental studies
 Assist students in devising questions that are actually testable, solvable &
practical—explicitly define the differences among various types of questions
(basic information, wonderment, co-variation questions) and provide criteria for
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How can teachers
scaffold the student
activities in this phase?
cont.
“testable, solvable & practical” Ask: Could this question be answered by
collecting data? What words/phrases do I need to clarify (operationalize)?
 Have all students generate wonderment questions and then develop them into
testable questions as a class
 Model the question writing process & make it visible to students in initial
experiments
 Have students practice evaluating their own questions or revising each others’
questions based on criteria provided
 Provide examples from real research- have students analyze the types of
questions that were asked and the types of hypotheses tested
 Have students create new questions and hypotheses from results of an
experiment (either from the literature or from a previous experiment in the
classroom)

Link students’ knowledge to models

 Help students see how their questions relate to their initial models
 Help students understand how their questions link to science content
 Encourage students to be cognizant when they alter their questions and
hypotheses- Have them discuss this question: How did knowing background
information or thinking about experimental outcomes influence their questions?

Break down hypothesis writing

 Lead brainstorming sessions about alternative hypotheses (other explanations for
the same phenomenon) and all possible outcomes
 Use if-then statements to help students structure hypotheses (following an if
statement should be a description relating to a central model)
 Help students state the assumptions that are in their initial model and how these
influence their hypotheses

Make processes explicit

 Include discussions about: Good questions and hypotheses are not just present at
the start or the completion of a study, several related questions are raised and
hypotheses devised during the process. In fact asking good questions is
characteristic of inquiry across disciplines. Moreover it encourages critical
thinking when reading, regardless of content.
 Help students think about the whole process, beyond just writing questions. Ask:
What kinds of things would we need to measure in order to answer the question?
How would you go about collecting data? Then revise questions.

How can the teacher  Examine complexity of prediction and questions & the ways in which the model is
assess student applied
understandings and skills  Examine how students create new questions and hypotheses using a revised model
in this phase? from results of an experiment
 Examine if students can identify the assumptions that go into their initial model
used to create their hypotheses
 Have students keep journals (or a paper trail) of how their ideas about questions,
hypotheses & initial models have developed and write/or articulate how these have
changed over time

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Phase 2 Supporting Activities
 Work toward having students write questions every day at the start of class.  The teacher can start by writing 
questions and discussing why he/she chose the questions to the class.  Eventually students should write and answer 
their own questions.  For example, students could write two content­related questions and one personal interest or 
real­life application question at the start of class.  
 Alternate assigning homework questions from the book with student generated questions about content or related 
content.  Provide feedback on student choice of questions in addition to content response.  
 Encourage students to ask questions during a lecture.  For example, interrupt lecture every five minutes to allow 
students to record and discuss questions they have about the material or related issues.
 When reviewing homework or guiding questions from a lab or activity, have the class generate one possible 
explanation and then challenge the students to devise two other plausible explanations.  

Phase 3. Designing and conducting the investigation

How does this phase fit
into the overall context of
the inquiry process?
What are the typical
actions that teachers and
students undertake in this
phase?
The study design is dependent on the question asked, the theoretical model, and the
type of analysis that will be applied. This phase is a reflection of what is already known
(methodologically & conceptually) and it functions as a method for collecting data that
can contribute to the development of a theoretical model.
Students
 Operationalizing variables, controls and considering limitations & assumptions
 Determining & conducting a series of experiments that help students refine
questions
 Evaluating data as it is collected to guide further experimental refinements
 Determining limitations of methods used
 Designing flow charts, data sheets
 Noting changes in procedures and why changes were made

Teacher
 Providing discussions for students to evaluate designs in light of theory, previous
research methods, & initial data collection
 Scaffolding discussions about limitations & assumptions
 Guiding students in making data tables- drawing on questions asked, models used,
important variables, & analysis that will be conducted
 Direct instruction on particular methods useful to the students’ investigations

For students, what  Analyze initial data

knowledge and skills are
necessary in this phase?
 Know that a number of different investigations may be necessary in order to
answer one question
 Know that a science experiment is often reshaped several times depending on
preliminary evidence
 Know how to operationalize & include relevant variables and controls in an
experimental design

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  Know that science depends on repeated trials; the reliability of the data collected is
often established by conducting multiple trials using the same materials and
procedures
For students, what  Know that scientists constantly try to refine methods as theories evolve
knowledge and skills are  Understand how the chosen research methods corresponds with methods typically
necessary in this phase? used to research the concept
Cont.  Identify types of limitations & assumptions and how they influence study design
 Know that scientists collect data to answer questions by carefully controlling
procedures so that:
- they use the same procedure each time
- they only vary one variable at a time(fair test)
 Know that scientists seek to make very precise observations, which often involves
using measurement with devices that are calibrated to a standard
 Know that scientist systematically observe, and when those observations are
measurement, they are recorded in chart form.

How can teachers Examining variables in relation to the questions & procedures
scaffold the student
activities in this phase?
 Have students create a data table for the investigation and discuss problems
that arise.
 Have students circle variables within their questions and then operationalize
each- students define what it means so that others can understand.
 Help students walk through their variables, identifying which they are
changing (IV) and which they are measuring (DV). Then help them identify
additional variables that they may not have taken into account—some of these
can be written as assumptions.
 Provide students with several examples from recent scientific findings.
Provide an overview, a list of materials, and a brief description of the
procedures for each experiment. Then have students identify what they would
use for a control and variables. Compare student controls and variables to the
actual ones used by the researchers. Have students evaluate the researchers’
controls and variables and decide if they are suitable for the experiment or if
the students’ ideas might work better. Have student groups report their
findings and justify their arguments to the class.

How can the teacher  Provide class discussions that foster student-student discourse about
assess student methodological choices- evaluate both questions asked by students and rational
understandings and skills provided by students who are designing the study
in this phase?  Examine components of students’ data tables, flow charts & student justification
for their designs
 Examine students’ written limitations and assumptions & how they explained these
in light of their study

Phase 3 Supporting Activities

 Have students write a detailed guide for how to work effectively in groups.  Tell students that they are writing for
a younger audience learning how to collaborate.
 Have students read about a scientific phenomenon from their textbook or newspaper articles.  Allow the students 
to work in groups and develop a list of procedures would nullify or support the studies. Have students evaluate other
students’ lists and discuss how these procedures align with the variables that were studied.   

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 Have the students read about a high­tech or procedure intensive technique.  For example, if studying genetics,
students could read about DNA gel electrophoresis.  Have students make a list of the materials and procedures.
They will need access to books or the web to research how the procedure is accomplished and what materials would
be needed.
Phase 4. Analyzing data and representing it as evidence
How does this phase fit
into the overall context of
the inquiry process?
What are the typical
actions that teachers and
students undertake in this
phase?
For students, what
knowledge and skills are
necessary in this phase?
How can teachers
scaffold the student
activities in this phase?
 
  
 
This phase is a product of the other phases. It is a sense-making component in which
data is considered as evidence that supports, refutes or adds to theoretical models.
Students
 Compare and contrast multiple data sources.
 Consider data in light of models.
 Working with data tables & drawing graphs.
 Work with peers to discuss findings.
Teacher
 Provide opportunities for discussions about locating trends in data, using data to
establish claims.
 Show students multiple types of representations of data and attributes of each.
 Use concept building activities to help students understand the value of a claim
that is supported with evidence.
 Provide opportunities to practice writing claims using multiple sources of
evidence.
 Know that scientists organize their data and represent them in ways to help them
find patterns
 Know that scientists construct knowledge claims describing the patterns that they
found in their data.
 Know that claims may be empirical relationships and/or theoretical explanations.
Making sense of numbers & graphs
 Have students present their data tables to classmates. Classmates can help
presenters identify 1) trends in their tables, 2) outlier data points, 3) discuss the
types of graphs that would best suit the data, and 4) discuss any calculations or
statistical tests that might describe the study results.
 Have students highlight portions of their data tables and describe how they
developed a claim based on their data.
 Choose articles that relate to the topic being covered and that contain graphs.
Graphs from various sources (newspapers, magazines, journals) can be compared
with the description of what the graph is supposed to represent. Students can
decide if the graph is an accurate representation of the research. If it does portray
the major findings clearly then students should justify why they believe it does. If
it does not accurately portray the major findings, students should suggest how the
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 authors might improve the graphs. Students should present their arguments to the
class for feedback.

 Have students assess the percent error and then correlate the amount of error
with an explanation of possible sources of error. Students could use a “round
robin” to review and add to each group’s error assessment. The group that started
with a particular data set would consider other student comments and present the
combined effort assessment to the class.

How can the teacher  Examine both students’ data and claims together and provide feedback on the
assess student specificity and generalizability of their claims.
understandings and skills  Examine students’ graphical representations and their justification for their choices.
in this phase?

Phase 4 Supporting Activities

 When presenting a new concept in class, especially a concept that is based on an experiment, ask student “How 
could you measure this?” or “If we graphed this, what would it look like?”
 Again, relevant journal or magazine articles can be evaluated.  Students can evaluate data sets and make note of 
the context in which the authors made mathematical manipulations.  Over time, student can evaluate if the 
researchers did appropriate calculations given their data.
 Provide an overview (include outcome predictions or expectations) as well as graphs from scientific research that
relates to current topics covered in class.  Have students write short paragraphs about what the graphs indicate and 
whether or not it matched with the researchers’ predicted outcome.

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 Phase 5. Reconsidering the model, coordinating evidence and theory

How does this phase fit
into the overall context of
the inquiry process?
What are the typical
actions that teachers and
students undertake in this
phase?
This phase is dependent on all phases and helps students engage in model building. As
such they move from evidence, to claims, to theory- looking for interconnections
between the three.
Students
 Refining models by considering evidence along side of initial models and
background literature.
 Incorporating additional literature to refine models.
 Asking questions of peers, teachers, experts, literature.

Teacher
 Providing opportunities for students to make sense of their data in light of initial
models and additional background research.

For students, what
knowledge and skills are
necessary in this phase?
 Know that scientist may invent ideas to provide explanations for patterns and these
are called theories (e.g., there are particles of matter that are “positively” and
“negatively” charged;) this idea can be used to present their knowledge claims to the
scientific community for review.
 Know that the adequacy of knowledge claims is a function of the strength of the
evidence (data) supporting them.
 Know that knowledge claims evolve over time as the scientific community
evaluates the extent to which the evidence supporting the knowledge claim is refutable.

How can teachers
scaffold the student
activities in this phase?
Direct attention back to models & evaluate evidence
 Have students draw their original model and then highlight the part of the
model that their data can best speak to.
 Have the students work in groups to summarize their 2-3 key findings from
their studies. They should focus on the pieces of their data that support, refute or
add to what is already known. This means that the students should also write down
2-3 statements that their model or theory would support or predict. Help the
students write these statements in the simplest way possible. Then have the
students draw lines that connect the statements from their findings with their
statements from their models.

Findings Theory/ Prediction from Model

Trends in data & results of statistical
tests
General statements supported by
research, statements made in
supporting textbooks, or statements
that (based on one’s model) describe
why the specified outcomes occur

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How can teachers
scaffold the student
activities in this phase?
Cont.
 Have students construct arguments for their models using the following
techniques:
1) Seeking a gapless model- Students can look for shortcomings in the
models they create. Asking: “What are the assumptions underlying this
model and how might those assumptions invalidate the model?” “Are
there any ‘missing links’ in this model?”

2) Putting the model at risk- Students can test their models by thinking of
alternative hypothetical conditions. Asking: “Are there any cases in which
this model does not apply?” “What counter-evidence exists?” “What are
our biases favoring this model?” “What ‘excuses’ are we making for this
model and how did we try to ‘patch’ the model together based on those
excuses?”

3) Detecting flawed evidence- Students can examine the accuracy of the

evidence that they used to make the model. Asking: “How might our
evidence have been different under different experimental conditions?”
“How might a ‘limited sample’ affect our findings and thus our model?”
“Is it possible that we had ‘confounding variables’ in our study and how
might this affect our model?”

4) Building from counterevidence- Students can examine the

counterevidence for their models and build revised models. Asking:
“What is the core of our model that holds in the face of counterevidence
and what can be considered ‘minor discrepancies’?” “How can we use the
core of the model and tweak other parts of the model to alleviate
problems with counter-evidence?”

How can the teacher  If students have conducted similar inquiries, they could participate in a debate in
assess student which they present claims and models. Strength of claims and connections within
understandings and skills models could be evaluated. Questions that students ask classmates could also be
in this phase? evaluated.
 Alternatively students could combine their claims and models to develop a model
that incorporates all students’ models.

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Overall themes that should be infused into inquiry experiences
• The interests and the culturally relevant experiences of students
• Connections with the Essential Learnings
• Placing inquiry into the larger context of curriculum
• Collaborative work among students
• Including writing in the process

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