526

f the various elements of weather and climate, changes in air pressure are the least noticeable.
. In listening to a weather report, generally we are interested in moisture conditions (humidity
and precipitation), temperature, and perhaps wind. It is the rare person, however, who
wonders about air pressure. Although the hour-to-hour and day-to-day variations in air pressure are
not perceptible to human beings, they are very important in producing changes in our weather. For
l example, it is variations in air pressure from place to place that generate winds that in turn can bring
I changes in temperature and humidity (1 . > Av »). Air pressure is one of the basic weather elements
I and is a significant factor in weather forecasting. As you will see, air pressure is closely tied to the other
elements of weather in a cause-and-effect relationship.

FOCUS om CONCEPTS
To assist you in learning the important concepts in this chapter, focus on the following questions:
<5: What is air pressure and how is it measured?
=.'§: What force creates wind, and what other factors influence wind?
tiii What are the two types of pressure centers? What wind patterns and weather conditions are associated
with each type?
What is the idealized global circulation? How do continents complicate patterns of global circulation?
ti: What are the names and causes of some local winds?
tr How is wind measured?
What is El Niiio and how is it different from La Nina?
1 What factors control and influence the global distribution of precipitation?

Understanding Air Pressure
In Chapter 16 we noted that air pressure is simply the pressure
exerted by the weight of air above. Average air pressure at sea level
is about 1 kilogram per square centimeter, or 14.7 potmds per square
inch. This is roughly the same pressure that is produced by a col-
umn ofwater 10 meters (33 feet) in height. With some simple arith-
metic you can calculate that the air pressure exerted on the top of a
small (50 centimeter by 100 centimeter) school desk exceeds 5,000
kilograms (11,000 pounds), or about the weight of a 50-passenger
school bus. Why doesn’t the desk collapse under the weight of the
ocean of air above? Simply, air pressure is exerted in all directions-
down, up, and sideways. Thus, the air pressure pushing down on
the desk exactly balances the air pressure pushing up on the desk.
You might be able to visualize this phenomenon better ifyou
imagine a tall aquarium that has the same dimensions as the
desktop. When this aquarium is filled to a height of 10 meters (33
feet), the water pressure at the bottom equals 1 atmosphere (14.7
pounds per square inch). Now, imagine what will happen if this
aquarium is placed on top of our student desk so that all the force
is directed downward. Compare this to what results when the desk
is placed inside the aquarium and allowed to sink to the bottom.
In the latter situation the desk survives because the water pressure
is exerted in all directions, not just downward as in our earlier
example. The desk, like your body, is “built” to withstand the pres-
sure of 1 atmosphere. It is important to note that although we do
not generally notice the pressure exerted by the ocean of air
around us, except when ascending or descending in an elevator
or airplane, it is nonetheless substantial. The pressurized suits
used by astronauts on space walks are designed to duplicate the
atmospheric pressure experienced at Earth’s surface. Without
these protective suits to keep body fluids from boiling away, astro-
nauts would perish in minutes.
The concept of air pressure can be better understood if we
examine the behavior of gases. Gas molecules, unlike those of the
liquid and solid phases, are not “bound” to one another but are
freely moving about, filling all space available to them. “Then two
gas molecules collide, which happens frequently under normal
atmospheric conditions, they bounce off each other like very elas-
tic balls. If a gas is confmed to a container, this motion is restricted
by its sides, much like the walls of a handball court redirect the
motion of the handball. The continuous bombardment of gas
molecules against the sides of the container exerts an outward
push that we call air pressure. Although the atmosphere is with-
out walls, it is confined from below by Earth's surface and effec-
tively from above because the force of gravity prevents its escape.
Here we define air pressure as the force exerted against a surface
by the continuous collision of gas molecules.
 _ . .=1:-F 7' _,;*,_2;J;_;5';:';=_=_-=-E=-'-EEII _. :__' '_ =='_ _ -e,f:- I _.='-I ' ' _ .. .2 '_“?f;§"1 " .- *:*'-‘~.‘- ' f;§3-'-I-_'*'i_ -,rfi“,_@1 fEf1f_'_
. . ..?*"" =5-‘ " '1-;.;-5-‘-ii" 1 ==-- =-§'*".i-=“'if-?_ E.
. ' " 12-#51 3?--2 "*1?-
. --=- __T.
§‘5_'=-:5‘-.1~ i_?_.-“'_"
YT ' ='1-
.-1:?
_'_-.= ;
--'1 ~=-=-*1_;':‘_ .-1'7"
.. - _'
_ ,-.-
___-xiii" - _ -
'--‘---
" ii’?
T;
'
IIII; E13:
'- " ""3-i
' 2-—:;;;:=;;i?
.;.-2:: .' -"- -_ - =~- . :;1 2-. > - ::'
-'.-2-3: =£_,:=:Es=;= = - " -_ ' "-- - -' " "'
*:‘ :===‘=»=rs;;=Es -. -:==_._ 1-* -
‘._'.;____. . =1" -s- - —'-—'—'-+-;-__:-'-'J_;==;=-'<' '
.

FIGURE 18.1 Strong winds blowing snow during a blizzard. (Photo by AGRfoto/Alex Rowbotham/Alamy)

A CONCEPT CHECK 1 8 ' 1 t t A 1 FIGURE 18.2 Simple mercury barometer. The weight of the column
Q What is air pressure? of mercury is balanced by the pressure exerted on the dish of
Q Express air pressure in pounds per square inch and kilograms mercury by the air above. If the pressure decreases, the column of
per square cemimetel-_ mercury falls; if the pressure increases, the column rises

Vacuum
Measuring Air Pressure , _. . ».-_. -.=_.>-=q-h_\
P
|
|
.

'2'

9->"'2:Z-IF31. ITI
\nl'l1
Fr:r;S.s;t:r;;rti::rm
When meteorologists measure atmospheric pressure, they employ
a unit called the millibar. Standard sea-level pressure is 1013.2 Mercury
millibars. Although the millibar has been the unit of measure on column Height
76 cm
all U.S. weather maps since Ianuary 1940, the media use “inches (29.92 in.)
of mercury” to describe atmospheric pressure. In the United
States, the National Weather Service converts millibar values to
inches of mercury for public and aviation use. Air 1i Air
Inches ofmercury are easy to understand. The use of mercury pressure .1 pressure ,
ii‘.

for measuring air pressure dates from 1643, when Torricelli, a stu-
dent ofthe famous Italian scientist Galileo, invented the mercury
barometer (bar = pressure, me tron = measuring instrument).
Torricelli correctly described the atmosphere as a vast ocean of air
/

- “ii: -_;
i7?
_.. . .i:I?iii:E'-T

that exerts pressure on us and all objects about us. To measure this Mercury ' . ‘T
. F-I-2%
- 7 _ -2 -;le_=§-;;_=_-I

force, he filled a glass tube, which was closed at one end, with mer- in a -_- - '-7;=Z
:32‘
:-- =1-;;=_—;*5
?%T~'=E€E"- - .

container E.
...:.?;
_I1.''
-.-=.==‘?x-
' :r—=-
.

cury. He then inverted the tube into a dish ofmercury (Figure 1.8.2).
528 CHAPTER 18 Air Pressure and Wind

Torricelli found that the mercury flowed out of the tube rmtil the possibility of precipitation, whereas rising air pressure generally
weight of the column was balanced by the pressure that the indicates clearing conditions. It is useful to remember, however,
atmo-sphere exerted on the surface of the mercury in the dish. In that particular barometer readings or trends do not always cor-
other words, the weight of mercury in the column equaled the respond to specific types of weather.
weight of the same diameter column of air that extended from the One advantage of the aneroid barometer is that it can eas-
ground to the top of the atmosphere. ily be connected to a recording mechanism. The resulting
When air pressure increases, the mercury in the tube rises. instrument is a barograph, which provides a continuous record
Conversely, when air pressure decreases, so does the height of of pressure changes with the passage of time (fr,=‘irj;rrrrtr.;=": '_ur.»<f%).
the mercury column. With some refinements the mercurial Another important adaptation of the aneroid barometer is its
barometer invented by Torricelli is still the standard pressure- use to indicate altitude for aircraft, mountain climbers, and
measuring instrument used today. Standard atmospheric pres- mapmakers.
sure at sea level equals 29.92 inches of mercury.
The need for a smaller and more portable instrument for mea-
suring air pressure led to the development of the aneroid
(an = without, ner = fluid) barometer Instead of CONCEPT cr-nszcx 1 8.2
having a mercury column held up by air pressure, the aneroid Q What is standard sea level pressure in millibars? In inches of
barometer uses a partially evacuated metal chamber. The cham- mercury‘?
ber, being very sensitive to variations in air pressure, changes Q Describe the operating principles of a mercury barometer and
shape, compressing as the pressure increases and expanding as an aneroid barometer.
the pressure decreases. A series oflevers transmits the movements
of the chamber to a pointer on a dial that is calibrated to read in
inches of mercury and/or millibars.
As shown in Figure 18.3, the face of an aneroid barometer
intended for home use is inscribed with words like fair, change, Students Sometimes Ask. .
min, and stormy. Notice that “fair weather” corresponds with
high-pressure readings, whereas “rain” is associated with low What is the lowest barometric pressure ever recorded?
pressures. Although barometric readings may indicate the pres- All of the lowest-recorded baro- Wilma in October 2005. The
ent weather, this is not always the case. The dial may point to metric pressures have been as- world record, 870 millibars
“fair” on a rainy day, or you may be experiencing “fair” weather sociated with strong hurricanes. (25.70 inches), occurred during
when the dial indicates “rainy.” If you want to “predict” the The record for the United States Typhoon Tip (a Pacific hurri-
weather in a local area, the change in air pressure over the past few is 882 millibars (26.12 inches) cane), in October 1979.
hours is more important than the current pressure reading. Falling measured during Hurricane
pressure is often associated with increasing cloudiness and the

Aneroid Barometer. this instrument has a partially

evacuated chamber that changes shape, compressing as atmospheric An aneroid barograph makes a continuous record of
pressure increases, and expanding as pressure decreases. pressure changes. (Photo courtesy of Qualimetrics, Inc., Sacramento, California)

” CHANGE ‘-,
.‘,4 0%}

//H 4-*“‘”'” 3
’ /
frf? _ K ,@f])l|r|il A

II
I“ k
““\.$! IA M
I 4-

IIII ‘F H3

%
‘V
-‘ml
-I-I’-H .1 1
.-

Q5“ ’/P “="o">“°

11“
Q
O
0*”
96‘
0
'<_, . .
."=_.‘__ __,_
:;,T.il—t r
E_.: -. _ _ ; 5;. __é ;_,;,_;:__:-'
. ' L; F I,
‘J
N0
\_
- fl____;____.»-*"/

)4
~@>\.
‘ - _ _, _.

VQ‘ ‘§. ‘.32

;*§'OqL”;'0
_‘_‘.'
629“
G_; 090
“Q‘\;‘>.i.,§’>>
90 94 60 1‘
\{l,|.,.--I-‘.1’, _ I/
§1i§
31.5
' --_____ __-

h\'“"~ -__ --
 Factors Affecting Wind 529

Factors Affecting Wind Pressure-Gradient Force

Pressure differences create wind, and the greater these differ-
Earth's Dynamic Atmosphere ences, the greater the wind speed. Over Earth’s surface, variations
P Air Pressure and Wind
U-'l"|'l' 01,6‘
mmZ4 (‘II
:E!i? H‘!
in air pressure are determined from barometric readings taken at
hundreds of weather stations. These pressure data are shown on
In Chapter 17 we examined the upward movement of air and its a weather map using isobars, lines that connect places of equal
role in cloud formation. As important as vertical motion is, far air pressure The spacing of isobars indicates the
more air moves horizontally, the phenomenon we call wind. Vlfhat amount of pressure change occurring over a given distance and
causes wind‘? is expressed as the pressure gradient (gradus I slope).
Simply stated, wind is the result of horizontal differences in air You might find it easier to visualize a pressure gradient if you
pressure. Airflowsfi'om areas ofhigher pressure to areas oflower think of it as being similar to the slope of a hill. A steep pressure
pressure. You may have experienced this when opening a vac- gradient, like a steep hill, causes greater acceleration of an air
uum-packed can of coffee. The noise you hear is caused by air parcel than does a weak pressure gradient (a gentle hill). Thus,
rushing from the higher pressure outside the can to the lower the relationship between wind speed and the pressure gradient
pressure inside. Wind is nature’s attempt to balance such inequal- is straightforward: Closely spaced isobars indicate a steep pres-
ities in air pressure. Because unequal heating of Earth’s surface sure gradient and high winds, whereas widely spaced isobars indi-
generates these pressure differences, solar radiation is the ulti- cate a weak pressure gradient and light winds. Figure 18.5
mate energy sourcefor most wind. illustrates the relationship between the spacing of isobars and
If Earth did not rotate, and if there were no friction between wind speed. Notice that wind speeds are greater in Ohio, Ken-
moving air and Earth’s surface, air would flow in a straight line tucky, Michigan, and Illinois, where isobars are more closely
from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. But spaced, than in the western states, where isobars are more widely
because both factors exist, wind is controlled by a combination of spaced.
forces, including (1) the pressure-gradient force, (2) the Coriolis The pressure gradient is the driving force of wind, and it has
effect, and (3) friction. We now examine each of these factors. both magnitude and direction. Its magnitude is determined from

1='5~i '* it Isobars are lines connecting places of equal sea-level pressure. They are used to show the distribution of pressure on
daily weather maps. Isobars are seldom straight, but usually form broad curves. Concentric rings of isobars indicate cells of high
and low pressure. The “wind flags" indicate the expected airflow surrounding pressure cells and are plotted as "flying" with the
wind (i.e., the wind blows toward the station circle). Notice that where the isobars are more closely spaced, the wind speed is
faster. Closely spaced isobars indicate a strong pressure gradient and high wind speeds, whereas widely spaced isobars indicate a
weak pressure gradient and low wind speeds.

I '- 1028 1032 T032 1 1024 1 l‘-11020 .,_;.,_,_,..»'to 1o24. 1I ” II . A

. . \ ff MIIGS
I ' I" ;??~ perhour
01°”
.'1;_. H
p g, "C
, /“Rx
y p W
O’,“"r :1“? _
, Z-' _
@ \ Cam ‘

. p _ I‘in = . 2 ;\Q\6 I U13:: Q l . . _ _p ,', ’_ I. y C

\ 1 —.; fa l
i 1 * 1

O\- 7“ 9‘ , Q, .1; 3-8 1

. ’ 1' . I. A . , ii \ ._ I
if C } » /i ‘ ‘\r___ 15-20 ‘
i
Q1’Q\
Cf/“KT , <§$
T 9.- ””’ ‘ “ i
\>---. 21-25 1
1 _ 9 -_- '-‘ 1
J _'

‘ii * 1 \ri__ 26-31

_
-
.
'

,I
, ' ._ -_ , _
.
(1 ;
»
- 0
06,0
L1
.-
_|
1 °
,
"1
. . -(1 »»- 3
‘ \rx.__
i1 32-37
as-43 p I
1'
l
i Q3; 44-49
702$: ‘i -. . * ;
I
1
l
1 ,
.
I
i 5-~
,1
1

.
‘ ccc T

'1 r .
- - ‘T . \3AL\_‘ so-54
55-60
. 1 I A - ' f if . 61-66
; ' l ‘ ‘
1 7028
'

. 1 r
i

1 67-71
-' 1
A r2—rr I

r1rrr11
78-83
.

:
I

I
_ -

i
W /Qgars , _34“89 i
1023 11024 P _ 1020 1020 1024 1°?“ p 1°?” 4 mb
p interval
, l N 119-123
530 CHAPTER 18 Air Pressure and Wind

the spacing of isobars. The direction of force is always from areas target, Earth would have rotated 15 degrees to the east during its
of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure and at right angles to flight. To someone standing on Earth it would look as if the rocket
the isobars. Once the air starts to move, the Coriolis effect and veered off its path and hit Earth 15 degrees west of its target. The
friction come into play, but then only to modify the movement, true path of the rocket is straight and would appear so to some-
not to produce it. one out in space looking down at Earth. It was Earth turning under
the rocket that gave it its apparent deflection.
Note that the rocket was deflected to the right of its path of
- - motion because of the counterclockwise rotation ofthe Northern
Conohs Effect Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, the effect is reversed.
The weather map in Figure 18.5 shows the typical air movements Clockwise rotation produces a similar deflection, but to the left
associated with high- and low-pressure systems. As expected, the of the path of motion. The same deflection is experienced by wind
air moves out ofthe regions ofhigher pressure and into the regions regardless of the direction it is moving.
of lower pressure. However, the wind does not cross the isobars at We attribute the apparent shift in wind direction to the Cori-
right angles as the pressure-gradient force directs it. This deviation olis effect, This deflection (1) is always directed at right angles to
is the result of Earth’s rotation and has been named the Coriolis the direction of airflow; (2) affects only wind direction, not wind
effect after the French scientist who first thoroughly described it. speed; (3) is affected by wind speed (the stronger the wind, the
All free-moving objects or fluids, including the wind, are greater the deflection); and (4) is strongest at the poles and
deflected t0 the Tight Of their path Of motion in the Northern weakens equatotwatd, becoming nonexistent at the equator,
Hemisphere and to the lejtin the Southern Hemisphere. The rea- It is of interest to point out that any “free-moving” object
son for thiS deflection can be illustrated by imagining the path Of will experience a deflection caused by the Coriolis effect, This
a rocket launched from the North Pole toward a target located on fact was dramatically discovered by the United States Navy in
the equator If the rocket tOOl( an hour to reach itS World War II, During target practice long-range guns on battle-
ships continually missed their targets by as
.. - , . .- . . . . . . much as several hundred ards until ballis-
The Coriolis effect illustrated using a one-hour flight of a rocket traveling from Y
the North Pole to a location on the equator. A. On a nonrotatirig Earth, the rocket would tic Corrections were made for the Changing
travel straight to its target. B. However, Earth rotates 15° each hour. Thus, although the Position of 3 Seemin-SIY Stationary target-
rocket travels in a straight line, when we plot the path of the rocket on Earth’s surface, it Over a short distance, however, the Coriolis
follows a curved path that veers to the right of the target. effeet is relatively Smelt

1
.- lH
-.< *1

North
P1 '1 - Friction with Earth’s
_ , .-I _/
Ge ,.3‘
Surface
ff" ' 1 i

l
1i
The effect of friction on wind is important
only within a few kilometers ofEarth’s surface.
l
-_
-1 ii
‘\
.__\
1
.-.-.
3,.-J"
F“-~:.:g - i
We know that friction acts to slow the move-
Vi‘\ _-n-lP" ' 1;
-__‘
J!
1
I--..4_.
’ 1'
, _
1.-_ _ _ _ _ -_. . ._7.__,;,_
--.¢_1.‘.‘
WV
\‘
A..
.,.-.n»-"'-

,---”
__ _/—'
'
'/1”
I,--, . I .»
2; _
r I
,1 1,
1
ment of air '.'-i;§;i~. ‘;.-1"). As a consequence,
“I F ltariet /. J,\ wind direction is also affected. To illustrate
\,\“;Y;‘;v
15511201 105° 90° 75° so" 45° Equator friction’s effect on wind direction, let us look
it
at a situation in which it has no role. Above
it
it
the friction layer, the pressure-gradient force
i>

and Coriolis effect work together to direct the

A- N°"l‘°’Ifl’Ii"9 Eflfih Target flow of air. Under these conditions, the pres-
* sure-gradient force causes air to start moving
North ' across the isobars. As soon as the air starts to
Bole ., , ‘ii move, the Coriolis effect acts at right angles
to this motion. The faster the wind speed, the
ii
/ /. I <_ , greater the deflection.
~ l -_._ ~_
._‘ 1, Eventually, the Coriolis effect will balance
‘\
Y.

1 J
- - ,1 1
-__
~ ‘r-ii; \\
‘\
\\
the pressure-gradient force, and the wind will
1- _ ._ _ _
- . .___

/ ~. blow parallel to generally

the isobars
---._, -._-. _ _ _ _A_

--.-.__
Upper-air winds take this path and
’ 150-135- 1200 105» 90° 750 60» Equator i are called geostrophic winds. Because of
1 the lack of friction with Earth’s surface,
geostrophic winds travel at higher speeds than
ii
do surface winds. This can be observed in
B. Rotating Earth my “\ Target 1 by noting the wind flags, many of
— ---- ~ - -~ 1 1 l which indicate winds of50-100 miles per horn‘.
 Factors Affecting Wind 531

to wind speed. Friction lowers the wind

.;+- 1- .L-. -. - ";"”__5“g“
.1-F‘: -1:-‘Z1: '
.

I"-13-T
A >2;-_ ;=
: _=: t‘

.'i'F> =5" '_

-__-
'. J '
1,:-L_.
1 ",1;
' I-._—:‘:__:
,~\_:
._

'_
..';';‘.j_-‘i'E:.'-
-5' -"‘ ‘*“ ‘
“ '
speed, so it reduces the Coriolis effect.
. _-._.-_._.__ Because the pressure-gradient force is not
affected by wind speed, it wins the tug of
war shown in The result is a
d¥4N|j, l;,j movement of air at an angle across the
/y/I isobars toward the area of lower pressure.
“S ‘*/ill The roughness of the terrain deter-
mines the angle of airflow across the iso-

l\\\\\1\11\\1\li i\ -7-
bars. Over the smooth ocean surface,
friction is low and the angle is small. Over
rugged terrain, where friction is higher, the
iii? 1., C - _
angle that air makes as it flows across the
'~ ' " .; cs. ‘~- ‘.?.=.--. .

.1
' 5'21:5
e: '1.-:.;=

- - -
_"_nKe-

,. . ....
11:;-..,-.-a ._
up -==;’"§‘3"5=u..:_

._,_
-
.l"L%»-.n.nn1§=i-1 a-§J=:!£':‘;i‘;...-§--1 7.4.. =1: 1 77 J
isobars can be as great as 45 degrees.
-:
"‘>""""' if
- -1
1--" -'=*
. ‘*-.'.*";.=
‘
"H
-:= >_j
-' *-
:_ "1-‘
“r .
.7".
' ‘‘E?-ii
T1"-=
2-1*: E -'.---_: " ‘-"-;_ . ..
*1 . 1- --.
In summary, upper airflow is nearly
' ' -- -.-- 1-I
1- -:.%-_‘-e‘*--;.- iff‘ "-I-:-.-i;;._ .;- . - -- 1
~-_-;._,:_ ‘.1 - _-- . a;-:1, rgzzfil-3-,.4.._
‘- -*
. ,
_->:JI
.
--»=-:~—‘-
*'
- '-=1- --. - _,__

"‘*1 ;.-_‘. - .' =-:_--=-=----‘-1.;

__ 1-

-I3.-I-I Y ‘E-" ’ ’"‘i‘-4”-'--'1-;-_

__->_<—--.=;¢- .
'-
.

'
---

~
.
..-- -. - -
"'-‘- _
"T-,:
-::":__: _
parallel to the isobars, whereas the effect
of friction causes the surface winds to
move more slowly and cross the isobars
1 fig;
at an angle.
-- .1 The effect of friction is to slow the wind. In this image, a snow fence reduces wind
speed, thereby diminishing the ability of the moving air to carry snow. As a result, snow
accumulates as a drift. (Photo by Garry Black/Superstock)

The most prominent features of upper-level flow are the jet

streams. First encountered by high-flying bombers during CONCEPT cuscx 1 8.3
World War ll, these fast-moving rivers of air travel between 120 Q What force is responsible for generating wind?
and 240 kilometers ('75 and 150 miles) per hour in a west-to-east Q Write a generalization relating the spacing of isobars to the
direction. One such stream is situated over the polar front, which speed of wind.
Q How does the Coriolis effect modify air movement?
is the zone separating cool polar air from warm subtropical air.
Q Contrast surface winds and upper-air winds in terms of speed
Below 600 meters (2,000 feet), friction complicates the air-
and direction.
flow just described. Recall that the Coriolis effect is proportional

..--:-; The geostrophic wind. The only force acting on a stationary parcel of air is the pressure-gradient force. Once
air begins to accelerate, the Coriolis effect deflects it to the right in the Northern Hemisphere. Greater wind speeds result in
a stronger Coriolis effect until the flow is parallel to the isobars. At this point the pressure-gradient force and Coriolis effect
are in balance and the flow is called a geostrophic wind. In the “real” atmosphere, airflow is continually adjusting for
variations in the pressure field. As a result, the adjustment to geostrophic equilibrium is much more irregular than shown.

' LOW PRESSURE Pressure

gradient force
900 mb

' .
A ,;=:=r1'+'-F1.-.
| '3':-1'
-»- _1_.'; 1, -' I“-—" " -7'~
O .
9 1.-; ' ‘s
1 '1“.<. ’- 1' — - '1 - . t
1

-1;’ ii.“ -/j

_'z_'-
-"'.l*. .,|
..1+-_
,,,
'.
'= 1;-
'-" ‘ i» p 904- mb
, Pressure ,_.;_.4,§<_.;,,y, _,-{
- gradient . ,_ * Coriolis . J . 1 1
force '1» 3-,1r.*r'?_,v,./g:{,; -_:-,0 _. _--]_ j
'11 /I‘ I":
_ effect _ _ _
.- orro IS
I . -;-1* -
, -r _; - e Iéf-“feet 1‘ ~~"- - ‘
..- - -
ill
. 1
908 mb, -
.
l Starting I
.fl'i_
,1
.,r_.‘-J?‘
P 1.: - 1 - - .
'- . ;,_
,_. i

p r';r;'-"_..-;< " -'-'_:i;;!-,’;;‘.¢f,;r.{:,'l'{._lV:’,

i 1 is .. -
a~pwwgaa%u"H’ ’ 1
912 mb
- > .§fi"“.-i="."'i£1f-iH“ ~*-~. “-;~ ~.-'4-‘Q. .
“Iii ":""";‘r““ if”
'~*-'. :'I?"‘-‘”"
..-if ,1“ "._ “”"'
Flow aloft " . r - ” .1‘ - ' ' HIG PRESSURE
' 7 ""A ‘ f‘“'|'W,'_a"“fTP"‘;"rr'G7’_1"-}' T.‘ '-5.-'1 C “""'_ '7'-"""""W"_‘“" - __" ‘WW-
*-=‘-:;_ '
i-’i-5' ._ /d
. _ '\§,*=“--
-1.;
%J=_|.:.§%|."@;‘
1)! . - .- .

.' I ' 1 i IJ 1

H‘
‘Lu.
--1
1_..1 -’t’§i*3~f=;1
-vi-<1‘ r~Z(.Z?,1‘-
H ;-1* .-1-
2,???‘
- . ,' 1':.-.Qr>§}1:rr.-:r-1,13%.» 1
.ssasaa~ee-P-'1‘ - _ ‘i’-'5,"-*. 1'-'-11¢. 11:1-

Surface
"‘_X”
. _"
_ "'' ___'-

7 ’
~
' ‘- __\
. 5x-.4 -
r l”1'“-=-.‘“"~;."*“‘T
- \
87""
'" »-,_>_"‘~.- 1-"~,\¢':."-'T‘* " " ‘. - I f

. _ 3‘>_-‘1-ir§i?1it._.~_ \_. ,;. .: J ' I‘.-1'.;-1'3‘;-__ '5

 532 CHAPTER 18 Air Pressure and Wind

"HIT _ ’ Q-Pi-L - ' ' g A H}:-H esao ‘ 1 ‘

is
1% ‘I5 Lites. _ I K "
_ \=\§ __ fixer.
__H’ ff; ,’ 7“,=
-,.- L) 1 "”‘-t . at ‘kn ‘ F FMBFFNJUY if 71

. 3} I, H, _ Q\ .1 3/ 5,9,9 @ 1 Calm
.r I" “’ 61'\>__ T ‘
1 I 1 1
. 1 _ ~

565° F22- 1?? ‘

' 1
9979 _- J
r

/ Q7//f F 3
}
Y
1\ '.
-. . F
56*“ _1_______
' -. 1

9&6} h
.| I
1
E
I

’_.
\i A 9-14
\L____‘\
63>)0 _ g I
l. i
1
' 513° \i__ 1 15-20
i
1 /> . $- _ --.\. __
\. g
J \3__ F 21-25 F

<6\
" 1
I. _ _\ -_- ‘ I“ ' _ . 1' 5790
_ i _- 1 z . --_:---1 -1 »* (-' *5L= =~
- :
- 4-f
5» '
‘r
I
_- I _ _
_-f -
1 ' - F
\l_\__ 13 26-31
I

.6535
I. If ';'
I -» .‘ E 1 L . __ _"|)

\:-_‘d|i|’
.-' g
:

_ 6'.
=_|—-
g 1 _:' "iv
.5,.
a
.=
__ __. * ‘1

3
' -; R
Q; 1 32-37
F
ir —- __ H. 2;
i_ _. I i I R ,.
53/ \|
F \l3_\_ F as-43 F
5970 \.\- In ‘J.’ _ __
1 F; _ - > I
62%’ \LL_ 44-49
s

F
§>/"’
\A_\L_1_ so-54 ‘

F
,_-_ I
n '1 I ; _._ - w \. -l

.
‘I
\
.5
1
1
=
F’ _
_\_ _
__ =
1 %u\‘
' 1 ‘. -
I
‘
55-so A
Q-3_ ‘g g__ g;.g~;;zE=-t;j‘\ s/
F
F A
67-71 1
61-66 i

F
5790 ‘L i _ \ ‘z -7 H
_:
1-’._
7
, '* . .’
_ 72-77

F
. 1 f

- \
= 1 F
A 79-as
1
A. Upper-level weather chart
H
gs“ I F ‘ s4-s9 F
3 119-123 ‘

K-3
/'0,

-Z?‘
»-@aw#»a< *1 r1
_.-;- 5!-':§_\;’L:'g=__<.-,_~ . _~_¢‘.-__; Upper-air winds. This map shows the

direction and speed for the upper-air wind for a particular

/ ' day. Note that the airflow is nearly parallel to the contours.
5- RePFe$9"tat|°l'l 07 UPP9l"|9Ve| Chart These isolines are height contours for the 500-millibar level.

EV ':% 1§_ ii . Comparison between upper-level winds and surface

winds showing the effects of friction on airflow. Friction slows
surface wind speed, which weakens the Coriolis effect, causing the
winds to cross the isobars and move toward the lower pressure.

Low F
Pressure —
gradient force

Wind

Coriolis effect
High _
Students Sometimes Ask ..
’A' “PP°""'°“°'
(no friction) “""°‘ Why doesn’t the Coriolis effect cause a baseball to be de-
flected when you are playing catch?
4
Low f'
Over very short distances the (330 feet) in 4 seconds down the
Pressure" '1 - -
Coriolis deflection is too small right field line will be deflected
_-‘.-.,__\_‘.

__ "-Ԥggradient.force Q l - __
H.‘ _:-¥-19=- - an H: * -
I ‘ ' -~ ._. ___,)_i. to be noticed. Nevertheless, in 1.5 centimeters (more than 1/2
' -3-. _'____;,-. -- D the middle latitudes the Coriolisinch) to the right by the Coriolis
F‘ gr _ ' effect is great enough to poten- effect. This could be just
,._ F. _ H _, .
,_;fi :;;§->_r1(§_1()r1_ ‘§w. ,-t. ' ' ' ' .
-2- = -1.1- . .. ¢°"_°|!§"‘?fieCt tially affect the outcome of a enough to turn a potential home
»-»c"~eeiH"l1**¥1Z**-it
i (LII -__‘_,;_\‘l"
»_-1|-_““’ “;-__"- g

'9
--|7.1¢"'1’_ .n-1-
- .

9 7-.- , ' I" '

'-_-. _-e—_—

¥ 4 ‘ ’ '4
’-_ __ ~_

9
‘ L
— ' vs "
¢ __-

baseball game. Aballhitahori- run into a foul ball!

5- 3l"'fa°e Wind zontal distance of 100 meters
(effect of friction)
 Highs and Lows 533

Highs and Lows Weather Generalizations

about Highs and Lows
Earth's Dynamic Atmosphere
9 Air Pressure and Winds
Z-1 F11’. H"! Rising air is associated with cloud formation and precipitation,
fin-:mm‘
whereas subsidence produces clear skies. In this section you will
Among the most common features on any weather map are learn how the movement of air can itself create pressure change
areas designated as pressure centers. Lows, or cyclones and hence generate winds. In addition, you will examine the rela-
(kyklon = moving in a circle) are centers of low pressure, and tionship between horizontal and vertical flow and its effect on
highs, or anticyclones, are high-pressure centers. As +":0;~::.:-
i-T the weather.
illustrates, the pressure decreases from the outer isobars toward Let us first consider the situation around a surface low-pres-
the center in a low. In a high, just the opposite is the case—the sure system where the air is spiraling inward. Here the net inward
values of the isobars increase from the outside toward the center. transport of air causes a shrinking of the area occupied by the air
By knowing just a few basic facts about centers of high and low mass, a process that is termed horizontal convergence. Whenever
pressure, you can greatly increase your understanding of current air converges horizontally, it must pile up, that is, increase in
and forthcoming weather. height to allow for the decreased area it now occupies. This gen-
erates a taller and therefore heavier air column. Yet a surface low
can exist only as long as the column of air above exerts less pres-
sure than that occurring in surrounding regions. We seem to have
Cyclonic and Anticyclonic Winds encountered a paradox—a low-pressure center causes a net accu-
From the preceding section, you learned that the two most sig- mulation of air, which increases its pressure. Consequently, a sur-
nificant factors that affect wind are the pressure- gradient force face cyclone should quickly eradicate itself in a manner not unlike
and the Coriolis effect. Winds move from higher pressure to what happens when a vacuum-packed can is opened.
lower pressure and are deflected to the right or left by Earth’s You can see that for a surface low to exist for very long, com-
rotation. When these controls of airflow are applied to pressure pensation must occur aloft. For example, surface convergence
centers in the Northern Hemisphere, the result is that winds could be maintained if divergence (spreading out) aloft occurred
blow inward and counterclockwise around a low at a rate equal to the inflow below. shows the rela-
Around a high, they blow outward and clockwise tionship between surface convergence (inflow) and divergence
(Figure 18.11). (outflow) aloft that is needed to maintain a low-pressure center.
In the Southern Hemisphere the Coriolis effect deflects the Divergence aloft may even exceed surface convergence,
winds to the left, and therefore winds around a low blow clockwise thereby resulting in intensified surface inflow and accelerated
(Figure l8.l2B), and winds around a high move counterclock- vertical motion. Thus, divergence aloft can intensify storm centers
wise. In either hemisphere, friction causes a net inflow (con- as well as maintain them. On the other hand, inadequate diver-
vergence) around a cyclone and a net outflow (divergence) gence aloft permits surface flow to “fill” and weaken the accom-
around an anticyclone. panying cyclone.

J1 1-} Cyclonic and anticyclonic winds in the Northern Hemisphere. Arrows show that winds blow into and
counterclockwise around a low. By contrast, around a high, winds blow outward and clockwise.

.-
101,2,'§f{’i.§':?*'
---,.-1
C 1012 1000 1004 A 1004 F1009 *1012', 101s
1 . .- 1
-.-'1 - - . ,
.._- .- 4 -
'1' I . ,'
,3 "'?.— 1..

1008 4;" _;.--j4=_4'/',i;_/-'.g- -

1000 ,i
u - ._ 8 .
'\-‘-"f ‘s':-1
I-r 2'33.’ ._/, /4 ,1 2

. .~§_',f .*
" I 1 ..'- '
; ‘ ' )3 ’ bl -. _ -1
..- ‘_ _ “I - 1 ' -‘ _ , 1|.
\ :1!
3' 1!; I. -{£1--" ‘:61

-., :_:_\
- .‘.._...v‘._._..__, $-._," '- \‘.:'\-\
1'1‘
.;.j-_-.'\‘:3
."s\___ "\
.1 -'-.'
m
-4 Ha ,;¢
\___\.
“'--- -_
._ ' ‘"-
:59.3. ‘'=-_',_'
'--"" qr--.. _ -'n|_ =.-."-,4
.".-
._
. ‘ 4‘'
‘“*.‘\-~,.,;' R- '. F .- .' 996
.-1:». ~ _.Ant|cycl0- '- 1
. M‘.-' _j,'_

V2“?
I ‘\.\-
:\_’-1
1 - fD,$-.,-~)?-,__._;,_M,.¢;
- . '* '- _ ' _.1 , ,- 1r-“ 992 _
.-4:4 -~._ ,_-;.>,-;i_,;f-t2:';,,J,fEy-.- » 4-,
‘ .
4 \\
, //4,-,-.i,.~.<;/'_<. . -
1
.-r;-f,f_;fi";£;(;_:,'.r
- -
- 1\_ ‘N-ml"

‘\L\
-2 \
I
a
",~
\.‘1}'\
1'r~'_;'; I’
*1 I *
/ L F?‘
F ¥
,, }.
1009 -K .
.-.
_\\._-\4""‘.~\-Q.
I
.
I

-.i'“'‘\--. -;I,I'I
Q3‘
7-'
'P — -!'-‘-F

1012
.
. Ex_
-Illr-‘I

-3.. .
1
‘I
;__IlI'.li._,>, I

t '
_I)

"
..,.! _ 2
7,‘ rrgin,lfff: .
. . .
‘-4 '
(Cyclone-
i '
'
'
- —.
'
I; - . ‘. 1
.- '
- .
'. . '. ‘-

- .f-4.“-i;1H*}"’(‘*'-f-, Cr W
1019 . --
“-I“
*"-.."\-L.
.-_.
R- \_'
‘v‘_>--_\ -t-\:, '__‘- ._._.'-.__\__ \
:. -.,_F-.?"- ~.. ‘
-M,-_.J,-_.
.\__\“_ '-L,'-~4 _".~
—--.-
u-
...‘.
L9,I._ _ ._; \_''\‘
‘'w|'-
-1..
.' .‘\::,‘
,..__ I_. '*~'L
-.1-“-1 "1
' '\_
"4“ .._-

1020 I
- . __-.r"-'~‘-"'- 2-.
\"-L‘
_-f;
_,______;
_
_‘~-__h\.-.4‘
' \.'--...-.\_
‘~:§;-
:1" _,"-1*-g
'i1_.'., 21
‘J.-'.’,,“ 1 -
\2*':§E1
_ ''" T-'
.,.5, ‘"\‘_ 4
-.|-.____~\~.‘__~'- ~. 2
\..__..,_-_._.,‘_.F:-_-'I""'*'—.‘
.'-
.'
,.-'
:,\' sfijg, .i rql‘-.:'\_.
' é 1 g‘ ..__\
. __,__.
_':_.u
.1 i-_.__ 5-W'‘H."1‘-~-..‘\_ ,_>. - , _‘,»_ I‘.
_ ‘--.“
'-4:-‘.---r" - uv-\___~.. h.,
-.. 11"-v’
‘,~"}_'5
“"Q“" .-'5
1‘ ' "h '_-1' -pi"...

.-.i_’-: I4‘ -
0'11-'*.;"_l'\;.'_., -‘.-‘-. H-'-1‘\ '(:'-‘.' .5“
 534 CHAPTER 18 Air Pressure and Wind
r_-a--
>1

I
r‘-

as " . I’H,-'.1.
I1I1|
I‘
1_- .-.-:'~;'

ii
. “-1-

_-:1‘-" -
}

4 4--=
M

1“

:3 ‘ ":33
'i'i'i'".*
"\x .NVI ,
Q

‘,4’:
1:.§?&
L!..._'
?-__._~
-4”’ I "|- - -'5 1 I ."
X .', _ . ‘._’,
4;.»
: .-;- , ' ‘ii
-Qfig-,_‘\v*\"».:‘
. ' ' -f . '. '
' -3?. I?rl ‘ ., §f{}'i‘f
' ‘r 3*‘- II ' _. ." __

P‘ Q
=3, . is
9 1
‘ ‘I 1|‘. " - . ‘Iv ‘ ,‘.,.l; I IQ‘ ‘hi "_ ,1-

it

\ 1». e
k‘-
zfi "
K <—/ _ "
.-._‘r' _ _

wr\__
_ y .

. _‘ve~-
41
--~I- ‘ ”"”“:- ‘K
H ~-:.-i .'it.T,.-_ - £1
"'. V.
emf

' - 1 . -',-11 . .
0 - "c .- “I
'\-- _
- — - -9» "'

\
__,fin , . ., .r%

. '1"
1- ~1-"-.~‘__;‘-q
‘K1411-”:.
"1,g
”<:'._,
‘*3-;,
3*.
'._j
" . ._.,'*_,.\-,
"‘*4,q
'~31,
'11,,‘
:\h
1 _-‘w
JP

- _1i, ‘¢" " QW_v

~..»,1_.~_'-

_.
¢
h fl:
~‘
-y“
'11 ‘'-|_.
'~”\.”~'\
sh
5.
,,_

1'1‘
‘‘‘Ll: W"1. E.gya
‘ n-.,,'
\ “Y
ԤL
p.)l‘4
l "”#.-‘J
I..
"ii'--.- i _ _.
7-.
”- FW"
|‘I *1‘!
'4r”
>..1=-:-
';1.-5‘. _.,1,"
:_;.9%
~';_1'.‘
'~-A.._0/
Al‘.
_ -..-_v._‘
ink‘
'2‘‘e
1*‘
I‘I.
-
E \was4-=-,,_
‘ _5 4-~..‘Q)‘;,'_i‘
'1‘.-qr‘_ ‘*'-v----- .,_1,_'
1\
Wk». ‘____‘4~_A ‘‘,1?
.M. _

2-‘" re”). m
""'“" -

i Cyclonic circulation in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The cloud patterns in these images allow us to
"see" the circulation pattern in the lower atmosphere. A. This satellite image shows a large low-pressure center in the Gulf of
Alaska on August 17, 2004. The cloud pattern clearly shows an inward and counterclockwise spiral. B. This image from March 26,
2004, shows a strong cyclonic storm in the South Atlantic near the coast of Brazil. The cloud pattern reveals an inward and
clockwise circulation. (NASA images)

Note that surface convergence about a cyclone causes a net below, eventually working its way to the surface, where inflow is
upward movement. The rate of this vertical movement is slow, encouraged.
generally less than 1 kilometer per day. Nevertheless, because ris- Like their cyclonic counterparts, anticyclones must be main-
ing air often results in cloud formation and precipitation, a low- tained from above. Outflow near the surface is accompanied by
pressure center is generally related to unstable conditions and convergence aloft and general subsidence of the air column
stormy weather (Figure 18.13). Because descending air is compressed and
As often as not, it is divergence aloft that creates a surface low. warmed, cloud formation and precipitation are unlikely in an
Spreading out aloft initiates upflow in the atmosphere directly anticyclone. Thus, “fair” weather can usually be expected with
the approach of a high-pressure cen-
ter (Figure 18.14B).
1‘-:@f;Ir1i Airflow associated with surface cyclones and anticyclones. A low, or cyclone, has For reasons that should now be
converging surface winds and rising air causing cloudy conditions. A high, or anticyclone, has obvious, it has been common prac-
diverging surface winds and descending air, which lead to clear skies and fair weather. tice to print on household barometers
the words “stormy” at the low-pres-
CO HVGFQBTICB 8lOfl Dir/erg 93139 algfi sure end and “fair” on the high-pres-
sure end. By noting whether the
pressure is rising, falling, or steady, we
have a good indication of what the
forthcoming weather will be. Such a
1-4 _ _.-; .-r. Q
determination, called the pressure,
‘ '-- 1 ,' 1
. - _( ._ _ _,_ _,_.
” - __.-.-1‘:-"5 _ -. _ . - -, . I ,-_' ' or barometric tendency, is a very
9-, 4 -Filslmg - ;
~ ‘ h,,f;;.** air g air - _--!’j;J} useful aid in short-range weather
>. 4 _ _.

-_ 7| .. ,_ 1‘ --.
-
- .-
‘ :1 , '
-,..
-2
5
1" ~ “'
g,_;
.-.4
‘
' --
-1':4-1..‘
.= '
,1
”*"a'.“1
\ prediction.
=- -' ,-._:,- -er e =
‘PW01"
-T F ~‘:=i.._
F».-.|'.\
L
= "A-'* 1-. ,. '
_ 1
'\ '
.,‘_ I
1:-'|'
1'
..,
''"1
-4_!.1-
_‘.I.‘+
5l_. ,-_‘__'.!"-
You should now be better able to
, _ \'-‘I __ .,:,. \"‘L-
1 4 Q,
.-..,|.
1,1
understand why television weather
Y 1 ._ ' - m , 5-if r
¢.- -
reporters emphasize the locations
and projected paths of cyclones and
_4
' ' ' ' ' ‘ ' ' "' ' '
..
—------ ---—-=-=»-.--=-P -s-_-_
. -_1'__
31-» ' '< ¢-
4
..-.3.-1-.--e-s-.'.-4--a-. j.
s. anticyclones. The “villain” on these
weather programs is always the low-
 — 7?"-" "-1 '.~'.'F1= 2.“. ii‘ 3"
: v -" _:=r_ ....:._ '..'.-—
1--.2;-2.-.. E -+.=_=
;'_.:,~. I-
"-
—-—=- "'.:=_-_-_-,.-—_:.:a_:- - _ J. _-
—‘-P“ _ .~ 1 :' ,_.~. -.; -—-
3? 3 r _ 1. . - . ._._ - -
:' -— .-.

I$_—\-in

A. B.

"4. These two photographs illustrate the basic weather generalizations associated with pressure centers. A. A rainy day in New
York City. Centers of low pressure are frequently associated with cloudy conditions and precipitation. (Photo by David Grossma/Alamy) B. By contrast,
clear skies and "fair" weather may be expected when an area is under the influence of high pressure. This scene is in New York City's Central
Park. (Photo by Kevin C. Downs/Photolibrary)

pressure center, which produces “bad” weather in any season.
Lows move in roughly a west-to-east direction across the United
States and require a few days to more than a week for the jour-
ney. Because their paths can be somewhat erratic, accurate pre-
diction of their migration is difficult, although essential, for
short-range forecasting.
Meteorologists must also determine if the flow aloft will inten-
sify an embryo storm or act to suppress its development. Because
of the close tie between conditions at the surface and those aloft,
a great deal of emphasis has been placed on the importance and
understanding of the total atmospheric circulation, particularly in
the mid-latitudes. We now examine the workings of Earth’s gen-
eral atmospheric circulation, and then again consider the struc-
ture of the cyclone in light of this knowledge.
CONCEPT CHECK 1 8 .4
Q Describe the weather that usually accompanies a drop in
ocean currents also contribute to this global heat transfer. The
general circulation is very complex. We can, however, develop a
general understanding by first considering the circulation that
would occur on a nonrotating Earth having a uniform surface. We
then modify this system to fit observed patterns.
Circulation on a Nonrotating Earth
On a hypothetical nonrotating planet with a smooth surface of
either all land or all water, two large thermally produced cells
would form 5). The heated equatorial air would rise
until it reached the tropopause, which, acting like a lid, would
E.i‘ii§T;t;i it.'§ii_% Global circulation on a nonrotating Earth. A simple
convection system is produced by unequal heating of the atmosphere.
‘?‘;>_
".“’>k,
"'“.~“.-__

barometric pressure and a rise in barometric pressure.

Q Sketch a simple diagram (including isobars and wind arrows)
showing the winds associated with surface cyclones and anti-
cyclones in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres.
W

General Circulation
of the Atmosphere Con__\\
Veal‘/Q./7
Ge'
As noted, the underlying cause of wind is unequal heating of
/F HQt
Earth’s surface (see Box 18.1). In tropical regions, more solar radi-
ation is received than is radiated back to space. In polar regions
the opposite is true: less solar energy is received than is lost.
Attempting to balance these differences, the atmosphere acts as
a giant heat-transfer system, moving warm air poleward and cool
air equatorward. On a smaller scale, but for the same reason,
 536 CHAPTER 18 Air Pressure and Wind

Box..18.1 | -
.-..._
.__,
_.,_. ._
-__-
,
- ..
_.
- I
I forms-—mechanical force or electricity-—that 2009.* This is equivalent to the total electri-
‘1_- ,_,¢_ ".3 ,.- r _ . '_.=,-., :,_.; I._..~.,_.-.-.1 __...\ 5;, ._P _'__ . ‘-= ,_ .. /’
_._- - |_ _ ‘ r _J 1 , I.L
_._..
-
-V _-:_
-
__
-_.
'-;’]§J'l"'!{{'f-. '-
_. — . _.
__ __1. 1 -
,'.-,_- . - t ..
--.-‘iv
-.~‘, ;-
:_ .,
ta ,I-_
,_
. ;..._\. ,. ----\
» 1;
'-‘Ll: -. - '
.
>
_. 1-=.
ll"-.i'~.)'
.
- -.-. -'
- -.‘I'.=
we can use to perform work (Figure 18.A). cal demand of Italy—2 percent of global elec- (
._ _ r J ____ - _ _,_ I ._ - \_ _ _ _,. _ . _, ,
._.1_
l
~.:- -._-. -_ _ __; ..- “
Q 1.! ,
.-_ _
If l
" '
‘
'-
Mechanical energy from wind is com- tricity production. Worldwide, wind energy
. _-|- .f..-. ..,.__
(fl,-._ ’..
L" ."‘~=.- . ‘____ -. -.-_.
monly used for pumping water in rural or re- installations have doubled every 3 years
' ..,.
1.,,- .'_|._._.-_- , _ . ._ _'.r‘.- '..
\. - .‘
.. _|I
-int?-l\-i'—
.| .- . .
.--»'_1
__
_:
. . .-in- .'
._,' _.
-I-AI\‘|
__:_. , _ ‘W.-. -. -.
I 1 1 »

7-.|If . -r. 1, .-
. .-'fl_" iv... ‘ '. ,"."._".-." .. .,..,_ -.__/“.
,.-.
\-._
|l.- '~_'-. .-
/=11.
-. Vt -4nZn'u|3n- .-:.-_
.-4
“""--..
'‘-.4‘:-hp.
.,
-_,_, _ -.-. . .,-- ,_. _ .
fl.—.-.:-x:
mote places. The "farm windmill," still a since 2000. The United States is the world‘s
".;_. . 'I."‘. 7/".- .- ,._. .-_“:. :-I-p_l_h
.
-:f'_", .'c.' ._.1
'_‘ _,.. j.;.'
._.
..
"'. Li_. '. " .
.——_‘.*..
. I '
-1_ ,..
, . _ ._
“"u'.'....."'
. 2-11'-t:~.-! -'=:—.-‘-- k'*"..
>4;.
'-"
. ,_ .-_-..“. _
. ;}-.-. z';- .._'-
-
-. r' .-4|
all_-'-.
.'
-. sf3f.' ‘I'- ;
' »
.w=' -.r_U
'5Y
'..
"‘:;. »-»-_-"Y
'
l-W\U'-I -_i'\.I'*_’ .,.-.___1.
*=-—'=*'.‘
.. '.-
“ ‘I-.
-—-..\.
-
'._,,.,:._
. -. -. .:_. _.“
: familiar sight in many rural areas, is an ex- leading producer (22.3%), followed by China
ample. Mechanical energy converted from (16.3%), Germany (16.2%), and Spain
wind can also be used for other purposes, (11.5%). Within the next decade, China is ex-
Wind Energy——An such as sawing logs, grinding grain, and pro- pected to produce the most wind-generated
Alternative with pelling sailboats. By contrast, wind-powered
electric turbines generate electricity for
electricity.
Wind speed is a crucial element in deter-
Potential homes, businesses, and for sale to utilities. mining whether a place is a suitable site for
Today, modem wind turbines are being installing a wind-energy facility. Generally a
Air has mass, and when it moves (i.e. when installed at break-neck speed. In fact, world-
the wind blows), it contains the energy of wide, in 2010 the installed wind power ca-
that motion—kinetic energy. A portion of pacity was expected to exceed 203,000 *One megawatt is enough electricity to supply 250-300
that energy can be converted into other megawatts, an increase of 28 percent over average American households.

FIGURE 18.A Farm windmills such as the one

. . ' 71%,?"-1i_.’;'-g i- Fl on the left are still familiar sights in some
ii 6 -.1-L??? it if
1
';
|
.1.
_-
.
7 -
'
-
-- ’ - I.)
-_-. .-_ ' -
_,- 1 "_|_-_ _" :!f(..-_—F:
areas. Mechanical energy from wind is
commonly used to pump water. (Photo by
t" _.
Mehmet Dilsiz/Shutterstock) The wind turbines
, _ ., _ .-..,
= - <5.-t.-sfi
_§'._3, ;_i-‘-‘:1; on the right are operating near Palm Springs,
_ -_u. |I 1.-j_v.,_,-,
" '-..'-~r<~:»§¢=_-:...-r.
_.-.__..,-

+
- .
(-
--~.-.'- .
-I-‘-4-.2‘ .~
California. Although California is the state
F ' .-.
" --'_,:*1
_ _.,,’_;€: r _
where significant wind-power development
,_.
got its start, by 2009 it had been surpassed by
TBXHS and IOWE1. (Photo by John Mead/Science Photo
L. |.n.
.
._L
--0 \~
--_:_|
Library/Photo Researchers, Inc.)
l‘"*=” _ -~ and
I_ 5 E _

-‘ E" r- i-_2'..’.
...g.,
._ '1': "' '-_

deflect the air poleward. Eventually, this upper-level airflow would

Students Sometimes Ask... reach the poles, sink, spread out in all directions at the surface,
and move back toward the equator. Once there, it would be
What is the highest wind speed ever recorded? reheated and start its journey over again. This hypothetical cir-
The highest wind speed Washington has an average culation system has upper-level air flowing poleward and surface
recorded at a surface station is wind speed of 56 kilometers (35 air flowing equatorward.
3'72 kilometers (231 miles) per miles) per hour. Faster wind Ifwe add the effect of rotation, this simple convection system
hour, measured April 12, 1934, speeds have undoubtedly oc- will break down into smaller cells. Fil{_§tlR'@E*? i.s.'ii-*5 illustrates the three
at Mount Washington, New curred on mountain peaks, but pairs of cells proposed to carry on the task of heat redistribution
Hampshire. Located at an eleva- no instruments were in place to on a rotating planet. The polar and tropical cells retain the char-
tion of 1,879 meters (6,262 feet), record them. acteristics of the thermally generated convection described ear-
the observatory atop Mount lier. The nature of the mid-latitude circulation is more complex
and is discussed in more detail in a later section.
 General Circulation of the Atmosphere 537

"._L ’
TABLE 18.A Leading States for Wind
Energy Potential
i ' \. X. ‘

| ‘X \ E , ),.”,-a_t.¢ V *7;
'1 . T Rank State Potential*
-A . . ._
__ _ _;'T" ' “N “E, <1 ‘ A . A H51
. ,._-‘f
, ' X L/ jg »- J 2-’ .
2
I‘ J
_.-.\
|
‘Q
K 4
1 North Dakota 1,210
. r; w.._
‘ ~JI __" - -.__-—-! ‘ _.f '.‘ H. 2 Texas 1,190
1| ‘-1 - ,_______ F -—*-_,__,.-’ 1.‘
\ _.. ,| fi I) _ ‘— (I I ,-
. 3 IILI fin‘ ,
_/
ii 3 Kansas 1,070
3'.
-re
\—/"\
‘ l )
-In» ,4

‘-
.1 .. /' |/
-1. _
k-*0
4 South Dakota 1,030
'.\\
» ?~-
'\_. _ -__v_, __.;
""1
' QB. 1 'P‘
F ;.,r_.\.(- __
1- , Qr _ .= r

t-- I --/".13; 5
[11

_-‘". —

‘ ‘*—~__ 1
—F
'_ - -,—-"‘ ~ .
Montana 1,026
= \ . "———-_ _ - _.( ,_- _ .- ~ -
FI - _ _ - _.-._ ( ‘ ____,_. _ _-1'” _.1 .,.

.1“
‘
.

/L.
-_f
4; 1
- . ," l- H’-,-—=" I .7

6 Nebraska 868
/F6 lg‘
0 7 - . § . ’— IT“; ‘ ' \“ ‘ 88
‘ 51' I I‘ ._ I i \ \ _ 7
Wyoming 747
PQHQQJ 5 ~~ l 1: I \. . __ ..
Ha... l 1 ' -I \ ‘ l. [ -. '\ '-
I' l * ' X Oklahoma 725
’ ‘ I \ p 6, I,i Hf,_’_
I q 1“ -— 8
’ '1.‘ ) 1. - ~—§ lg _:'. ‘N ‘ \ ‘ 9 Minnesota 657
_ 5‘ I

\
,5‘
_1 , \ ‘ ‘~31.9f"""~,\ E
fag-h.»| ~*
“*\"""'i‘““ ‘ "r-4-"‘*- "= V ,\ i fig 10 Iowa 551

‘ ,3» '\ __ '6 Wind energy potential " 11 attract 481

S Nmrwrico 435
‘- oo " wt"
x) . --
‘

£5‘ Moderate E
‘ “'45 13
-11 1 if
7 C id.a;“““ 73
' " ‘ ' 14 1~}ii¢mgZ1{” I 65

New York 62
1" .112. ' "l Wind energy potential for the United States. Large wind energy systems require 15
Illinois 61
average wind speeds of about 6 meters per second (13 miles per hour). In the key, “moderate” g q 16
refers to regions that experience wind speeds of 6.4-6.9 meters per second (m/s), "good" 17 California 59
means 7-7.4 m/s, and "excellent" means 7.5 m/s or higher. (After U.S. Department of Energy) r" * 58
18 Wisconsin
19 Maine 56
20 Missouri 52
minimum average wind speed of 21 kilome- states had commercial facilities that pro-
ters (13 miles) per hour is necessary for a duced electricity from wind power. The lead- ‘The total amount of electricity that could potentially be
large-scale wind-power plant to be prof- ing states in installed capacity were Texas, generated each year, measured in billions of kilowatt hours.
A typical American home would use several hundred
itable. A small difference in wind speed number one, followed by Iowa, California, kilowatt hours per month.
results in a large difference in energy pro- and Minnesota. Despite the fact that Cali- Source: U.S. Department of Energy
duction, and therefore a large difference in fornia gave birth to the modem U.S. wind
the cost of the electricity generated. For ex- industry, 16 states have greater wind poten-
ample, a turbine operating on a site with an tial. As shown in Table ’l8.A, the top five
average wind speed of 12-mph would gener- states for wind energy potential include The U.S. Department of Energy has an-
ate about 33 percent more electricity than North Dakota, Texas, Kansas, South Dakota, nounced a goal of obtaining 5 percent of U.S.
one operating at 11-mph. Also, there is little and Montana. Although only a small fraction electricity from wind by the year 2020-—a
energy to be harvested at low wind of U.S. electrical generation currently comes goal that seems consistent with the current
speeds—6-mph winds contain less than one from wind energy, it has been estimated growth rate of wind energy nationwide.
eighth the energy of 12-mph winds. that wind energy potential equals more Thus wind-generated electricity appears to
The United States has tremendous wind than twice the total electricity currently be shifting from being an “alternative” to a
energy resources (Figure 18.3). In 2010, 36 consumed. "mainstream" energy source.

Idealized Global Circulation At the surface, airflow is outward from the center of the sub-
tropical high. Some of the air travels equatorward and is deflected
Near the equator, the rising air is associated with the pressure by the Coriolis effect, producing the reliable trade winds. The
zone known as the equatorial low—a region marked by abun- remainder travels poleward and is also deflected, generating the
dant precipitation. As the upper-level flow from the equatorial prevailing westerlies of the mid-latitudes. As the westerlies move
low reaches 20-30 degrees latitude, north or south, it sinks back poleward, they encounter the cool polar easterlies in the region
toward the surface. This subsidence and associated adiabatic of the subpolar low. The interaction of these warm and cool
heating produce hot, arid conditions. The center of this zone of winds produces the stormy belt known as the polar front. The
subsiding dry air is the subtropical high, which encircles the source region for the variable polar easterlies is the polar high.
globe near 30 degrees latitude, north and south (Figure 18.16). Here, cold polar air is subsiding and spreading equatorward.
The great deserts of Australia, Arabia, and North Africa exist In summary, this simplified global circulation is dominated by
because of the stable dry conditions associated with the sub- four pressure zones. The subtropical and polar highs are areas of
tropical highs. dry subsiding air that flows outward at the surface, producing the
538 CHAPTER 18 Air Pressure and Wind

Subpolar Polar high circulation over the oceans is dominated by semi-

low
permanent cells of high pressure in the subtrop-
ics and cells of low pressure over the subpolar
asterlies
-
regions. The subtropical highs are responsible for
the trade winds and westerlies, as mentioned
earlier.
j Polar front A The large landmasses, on the other hand,
Hadley
particularly Asia, become cold in the winter and
cell 39° / i develop a seasonal high-pressure system from
. (Westerlies /' I which surface flow is directed off the land
(Figure l8.l7A). In the summer, the opposite
Subtro cal hl h occurs; the landmasses are heated and develop
I* ‘ / -' p' 9 qllliiidley cell
, ' NE trade ' low-pressure cells, which permit air to flow onto
the land (Figure l8.17B). These seasonal changes
in wind direction are known as the monsoons.
During warm months, areas such as India expe-
\ ‘I I; _ V _.§. K, , I
rience a flow of warm, water-laden air from the
: , w

\ 8 fiuatorial low -. Hadley cell

Indian Ocean, which produces the rainy summer
Hadley monsoon. The winter monsoon is dominated by
dry continental air. A similar situation exists, but
to a lesser extent, over North America.
In summary, the general circulation is pro-
\
duced by semipermanent cells of high and low
pressure over the oceans and is complicated by
seasonal pressure changes overland.
Idealized global circulation proposed for the three-cell
circulation model of a rotating Earth.
The Westerlies
prevailing winds. The low-pressure zones of the equatorial and Circulation in the mid-latitudes, the zone of the westerlies, is com-
subpolar regions are associated with inward and upward airflow
plex and does not fit the convection system proposed for the trop-
accompanied by clouds and precipitation. ics. Between about 30 and 60 degrees latitude, the general
west-to-east flow is interrupted by migrating cyclones and anti-
cyclones. In the Northern Hemisphere these cells move from west
Influence of Continents to east around the globe, creating an anticyclonic (clockwise) flow
Up to this point, we have described the surface pressure and asso- or a cyclonic (counterclockwise) flow in their area of influence. A
ciated winds as continuous belts around Earth. However, the only close correlation exists between the paths taken by these surface
truly continuous pressure belt is the subpolar low in the Southern pressure systems and the position of the upper-level airflow, indi-
Hemisphere. Here the ocean is uninterrupted by landmasses. At cating that the upper air strongly influences the movement of
other latitudes, particularly in the Northern Hemisphere where cyclonic and anticyclonic systems.
landmasses break up the ocean surface, large seasonal tempera- Among the most obvious features of the flow aloft are the sea-
ture differences disrupt the pattern. shows the result- sonal changes. The steep temperature gradient across the mid-
ing pressure and wind patterns for lanuary and Iuly. The dle latitudes in the winter months corresponds to a stronger flow
aloft. In addition, the polar jet stream fluctuates seasonally such
that its average position migrates southward with the approach
of winter and northward as summer nears. By midwlnter, the jet
Students Sometimes Ask. .. core may penetrate as far south as central Florida.
Because the paths of low-pressure centers are guided by the
Does monsoon mean “rainy season"? flow aloft, we can expect the southern tier of states to experience
No. Regions that experience winter monsoon. By contrast, in more of their stormy weather in the winter season. During the hot
monsoons typically have both a summer, warm, moisture-laden summer months, the storm track is across the northern states,
wet and a dry season. Monsoon air blows from the sea toward and some cyclones never leave Canada. The northerly storm track
refers to a wind system that ex- the land. Thus, the summer associated with summer applies also to Pacific storms, which
hibits a pronounced seasonal monsoon, which is usually asso- move toward Alaska during the warm months, thus producing an
reversal in direction. In general, ciated with abundant precipita- extended dry season for much of the West Coast. The number of
winter is associated with winds tion, is the source of the cyclones generated is seasonal as well, with the largest number
that blow predominantly off the misconception. occurring in the cooler months when the temperature gradients
continents and produce a dry are greatest. This fact is in agreement with the role of cyclonic
storms in the distribution of heat across the mid-latitudes.
 Local Winds 539 _

1011 g
Aleutlan {ll Y7 1005 1 ,°q,0 """‘t0
]_Q
< .05
I‘; .1008 - H
2 _._
Q H
0
I 9| n lg l 100 10) -.1 _\\.\‘

' - '~ '01 1014 /-Y - - -T932

014101? ) . ? 0 K
K1020 - F \\;_1 20 H Vi ,_ _ l _.7_0g6§_\ 1029 . I _] _ Zr

3°C ' lie H . 3L -_\

<-——— Hi9 " 1011 I I -I i' I . /7 ‘N,
. C , { p ~< p > , 10141__. .\
1014- — 1014* - -f? ' ‘ “ /

if .5 5 “Mm Dz ' 1014 1008, 4 C‘ _

. - fl'\L _1 , |_ I
1008 101? i -. I ,l
m__//XI‘?
I .. <9 ( 1020 ‘ ‘O1 014 /

30.-. I ‘ i 7 *_“_\7 p l Q1020 3 ;_%____/up

/i, '0 g X‘ 4053- \__ - 1011- >3 _

1 01 1 23 3 g $5: ‘l
\*
m

-4.’ 1002’///ss0>(£‘
7 6‘ R

1°02 ‘_ / ,/
995 Y ’ ~ sss
\ - fbni

A. January

1011/’; '7 \
./ /1T011 .
-Q-\

ii ll
'1 \_\\
_ , - ,. ifloqd
A 1005 - '- ‘.
1’ 7°20 5 l " I 1 1 f 100 x
wg:5".DPelrt , we 6 =5’. -
9 I weH1022 r
Beua . I46 999 r .1

i
E011
1017 ‘, ‘\ 0

1 - T07?L I ’_ H if

X_
O - 1:
1")"
- _.
1_'- 7 ' . I:
-.
lull.‘
" ._|‘1 D J

k/__ _ 1020 J
1017 5" ff ‘“ 101 i -I "" J"-

102 ‘Q ‘ 1020 1020

|-| J ’ H 1°23 1026; 6 /"
,1 , . 1023 H y
so" \ r.,'-. -\
__ A \x s+.»//

/Z
1- K
1017" I,’ 0-. \i 1014 _ 1
if X‘ _ 101 7/*"
1/
//Y l//
§- - “*3
I -100s -0 6 ,- '4>3 — 1 \l._ -/
Z" I 4 £1002 X 5 \i f‘

Ql
66'
_- §\"~1002—-/'//Y\

B. July
1 '- ..Average surface pressure in millibars for A. January and B. July, with associated winds.

Local Winds
CONCEPT cnrzcx 1 8. 5 Having examined Earth’s large-scale circulation, let us turn briefly
0 In which belt of prevailing winds is most of the United States to winds that influence much smaller areas. Remember that all
situated? winds are produced for the same reason: pressure differences that
Q The trade winds diverge from which pressure belt?
arise because of temperature differences that are caused by
Q Which prevailing wind belts converge in the stormy region
unequal heating of Earth’s surface. Local winds are simply small-
known as the polar front?
Q Which pressure belt is associated with the equator?
scale winds produced by a locally generated pressure gradient.
Q Describe the monsoon circulation of India. Those described here are caused either by topographic effects or
variations in surface composition in the immediate area.
540 CHAPTER 18 Air Pressure and Wind

Land and Sea Breezes result is that the coldest pockets of air are usually found in the
lowest spots. Like many other winds, mountain and valley breezes
In coastal areas during the warm summer months, the land sur-
have seasonal preferences. Although valley breezes are most com-
face is heated more intensely during the daylight hours than is mon during the warm season when solar heating is most intense,
the adjacent body of water (see the section “Land and Water” in mountain breezes tend to be more dominant in the cold season.
Chapter 16). As a result, the air above the land surface heats,
expands, and rises, creating an area of lower pressure. A sea
breeze then develops, because cooler air over the water (higher Chinook and Santa Ana Winds
pressure) moves toward the warmer land (lower pressure) Warm, dry winds are common on the eastern slopes of the Rock-
(F.lgr.u;‘e fttilsrr). The sea breeze begins to develop shortly before ies, where they are called chinooks. Such winds are created when
noon and generally reaches its greatest intensity during the mid-
air descends the leeward (sheltered) side of a mountain and
to late afternoon. These relatively cool winds can be a significant
warms by compression. Because condensation may have oc-
moderating influence on afternoon temperatures in coastal areas.
curred as the air ascended the windward side, releasing latent
At night, the reverse may take place. The land cools more heat, the air descending the leeward slope will be warmer and
rapidly than the sea, and the land breeze develops (Figure 18.18B).
drier than it was at a similar elevation on the windward side.
Small-scale sea breezes can also develop along the shores oflarge Although the temperature of these winds is generally less than
lakes. People who live in a city near the Great Lakes, such as
10° C (50° F), which is not particularly warm, they occur mostly in
Chicago, recognize this lake effect, especially in the summer. They
the winter and spring when the affected areas may be experienc-
are reminded daily by weather reports of the cool temperatures ing below-freezing temperatures. Thus, by comparison, these dry,
near the lake as compared to warmer outlying areas. warm winds often bring a drastic change. When the ground has
a snow cover, these winds are known to melt it in short order.
A chinooklike wind that occurs in southern California is the
Mountain and Valley Breezes Santa Ana. These hot, desiccating winds greatly increase the
A daily wind similar to land and sea breezes occurs in many threat of fire in this already dry area (Figure rs.;§:0).
mountainous regions. During daylight hours, the air along the
slopes of the mountains is heated more intensely than the air at
the same elevation over the valley floor. Because this warmer air Country Breeze
is less dense, it glides up along the slope and generates a valley One type of local wind, called a country breeze, is associated
breeze (Figure 1is.19A). The occurrence of these daytime upslope with large urban areas. As the name implies, this circulation pat-
breezes can often be identified by the cumulus clouds that tern is characterized by a light wind blowing into the city from the
develop on adjacent mountain peaks. surrounding countryside. The country breeze is best developed on
After sunset, the pattern may reverse. Rapid radiation cool- relatively clear, calm nights. Under these conditions, cities,
ing along the mountain slopes produces a layer of cooler air next because they contain massive buildings and surfaces composed
to the ground. Because cool air is denser than warm air, it drains of rocklike materials, tend to retain the heat accumulated during
downslope into the valley. Such a movement of air is called a the day more than the less built-up outlying areas. The result is
mountain breeze (Figure 18.19B). The same type of cool air that the warm, less dense air over the city rises, which in turn ini-
drainage can occur in places that have very modest slopes. The tiates the country-to-city flow.

Fliiétiitfi it 8-3.1% Illustration of a sea breeze and a land breeze. A. During the daylight hours the air above the land heats and
expands, creating an area of lower pressure. Cooler and denser air over the water moves onto the land, generating a sea
breeze. B. At night the land cools more rapidly than the sea, generating an offshore flow called a land breeze.

1 -3,
1 l #5 l
~;— 988 mb
l— 992 mb J[4-'-<1--4-%§"'<--, H .
— 996 mb
-1000 mb l
-1004 mb l
_100s mb -~\\ P1
" " ,'- -_ =N-=i-.‘ ,

-:“..-.-i -t‘‘:1 “‘ ..-" ._ -- a>¢-—,’_ .

—’Ll -.l"a. F’
.;-r--_-r;--
-
-
.4.““~
- =-fir 7 777777 7 " ' ' " " '
' .
Warm land i Warm water Cool land |
1’-rn~.;1lJ0
'
;.,':E-"I..-5z=;..5§=l=.5=:“:E-1-_?;_-i§__.-F1 "‘ _ . , I

A. Sea breeze B. Land breeze

 Measuring Wind 541

concspr our-:01: 1 8.6

Q What is a local wind?
,) _-r-51:5
Q Describe the formation of a sea
breeze.
Q Does a land breeze blow toward
or away from the shore?
Q During what time of day would
you expect to experience a well-
developed valley breeze—mid-
night, late morning, or late
afternoon‘?

A. Valley breeze
Measuring Wind
Two basic wind measurements—
direction and speed-—are important
to the weather observer. One simple
device for determining both mea-
surements is the simple wind sock that
is a common sight at small airports
and landing strips (Figure i8.21A). The
cone-shaped bag is open at both ends
and is free to change position with
shifts in wind direction. The degree to
which the sock is inflated is an indica-
B. Mountain breeze
tion ofwind speed.
FIGURE 18.19 Valley and mountain breezes. A. Heating during the daylight hours warms the air Winds are always labeled by the
along the mountain slopes. This warm air rises, generating a valley breeze. In the photo, the direction from which they blow. A
occurrence of a daytime valley breeze is identified by cloud development on mountain peaks, north wind blows from the north
sometimes leading to an afternoon rain shower. (Photo by James E. Patterson/James Patterson Collection)
B. After sunset, cooling of the air near the mountain can result in cool air drainage into the valley,
toward the south, an east windfiom
producing the mountain breeze. the east toward the west. The instru-
ment most commonly used to deter-
mine wind direction is the wind vane
One investigation in Toronto showed that heat accumulated (Figure 18.21B, upper right). This instrument, a common sight on
within this city created a rural-city pressure difference that was many buildings, always points into the Wind. Often the wind
sufficient to cause an inward and counterclockwise circulation
centered on the downtown area. One of the unfortunate conse- FIGURE 18.20 This satellite image shows strong Santa Ana winds
quences of the country breeze is that pollutants emitted near the fanning the flames of several large wildfires in southern California on
urban perimeter tend to drift in and concentrate near the city's October 27, 2003. These fires scorched more than 740,000 acres and
center. destroyed more than 3,000 homes. (NASA)

Students Sometimes Ask...

A friend who lives in Colorado talks about “snow
eaters." What are they?
“ Snow eaters " is a local term for day. A chinook that moved
chinooks, the warm, dry winds through Granville, North
that descend the eastern slopes Dakota, on February 21, 1918,
of the Rockies. These winds caused the temperature to rise
have been known to melt more from —3 3 ° F to 50°F, an in-
than a foot of snow in a single crease of 83°F!
 ['I'1f*;-1:.-7'-f;-.'-r-*—f"?'—:=f7-*"f"-'----.-- -- — - -~--—;=—-r--i-———_—————rf—.-;————.--—-;~5-——r-—,-7-_-y__¢:-.r.-12;“-,5-=-_-¢=-=.|
w-~ 'I—--
|_ ».-_--- 2 \_ ".-_ -_._ _ - _ : T: "''_- ,,_- ;-_.
- _ _- - _--:'-
_ _ _ _ , ' 1 __ -‘J _ -_._ ,- __ --'2" __ 1.~:'!=_.g';‘»’j-L
-__=-_._ _ _ ._ _. _=- _-,- - 11"‘-Q
; |__
I‘:_.hf.'.-é;’{,_;%:,_,__, ._; ‘__________. ‘.'_... _ _._ _-. -. __ -. ---1_’—__:=.,:,_:n__7':";_‘_"-§_-~.:s_—_\._
-- -:_ ”"‘-.1 " " it' ' "‘—-' -- " ‘ ""'=-" -‘ “-- ' ‘_" I - "' -"""‘ '53" 'Z_|'='-Ty" ' "‘ ""1
_,. -_1 '-1:--* l
1 J.‘- ;,_. -- -: . -- _ - ~ -- ' "P" -,_"-'s.-;.-_'- ;_ -'~.--;._-.- 1 : -. .-
I:III; \
'F-"”=l"T I‘?
FT-_,;-..$.‘-F." -.I1- I. 1 '-‘' ' " - 1".-r . ‘ " R1 II’. r ‘i “'”'- ='--"I"-‘ 3-‘F "
-.(";' ‘ -‘I0' .'...:,
_ I '-
J1--I 5:’ -_ 1 _ -7 : .2.—=- I _ I '1."
I ~'\ __. _ _- ' .,--_- _ ; -_.__.-=4; _=='1I-—-
_ 1 ‘ --‘--'“‘"—‘1
'.-.'_‘: - I
.;_ - _ ._,,.._..._._=.
—‘."';I"'_"‘.'_-- _-- _ ' . "'- .. -__.___.
;. _ -. . __ 1 _. . .._ - _ -_.-_. . ;_e,;_-2-
-"*1" _ - ._ _
_‘-7; .I§_
111$ ‘_'_ J.=.7.—. -"--\--‘-*-4=\:'\4—?—+-
:._- __;._.'._£_ ,,__
_-__-_ .-.'_;:_._*_'. .. - . ~ __.
-.-_ _-=___- _ '~ ---_. : ;—-_.'-
__. - = :;
-1- _._ .-_. _. I-: _ .> .' ~ . .4.
._-.-'._:,_'.'_.-.‘
____._;t . ___-. .
"_,-_' ‘_ _~- . .; T.-_-_ -- _. ‘.._ C- - _—=- - ;.__;_ '_;_' €“' . I .'_ - . _ . . _ I
-Itdqg-5v.7___E§§-_;_~_:'_‘.'¢__"-_-__i E: _f__.,_I ;;:__._ :;_:_ __..-__ '. _.-’.___ -:.,_,.f__1 ___ .1 _ — _ 57.’ :_-_ __ - _ I - _ _ I
--.--'-"I-='"-I'=~' -‘ — -- .~=.---.~--.=--,=-
- . --.--.._ - -:- I . -<.
-_I -v '-I"I-=~<I"I
' '--.-.,'-
.-1'-5 ~—'.4? I: '.'-'¢'- ' -;_ ' ' =-’-'-
'-":-' ‘I?-'="
'-' "" ' .‘-;-=
"‘ - r-ze-----=-re
' -' :".'_1_-'T- :'.: . “' ' '
'- ' =3‘ ‘F2. ‘. ' l ' ' I t-'.‘-
"-";._." " -_-- :- '-_ - - .;- - -'I=t-.- <3
‘ ' E -'"- ’I' ' ';.;-- ‘w "ltd" --'-I‘ - 1'.‘ - . '._5'3 *' ' 1'1,_- lxl .- ';.-1,.-7----.=";='l_-3'.="_51!'=§'I‘.I 1._-¢ "
" "- " 7. -l';- J ‘: 15 " " -1 .“-;_- '.r “; --; . "-I - '.'l*-:'-1:-.1.-<.-.=-1'23"?-' ‘
'. ‘I .-;—- I . 1-. -' 1I-- . I 1:; _. 1 '.-1--P?‘-'--u I-ab - ._-' -1-’.
. '~ - . _ \._ _". . _ .. .--1 4" "
__. _. . . I -- ‘I .. as !
-- _ ;' ' -- -rt‘: ‘I-v --" r-1-.-..,,.e~,_ -~ .-. ~.,, _ 7_. ' I E: . ? 5, .._
L- A . r .
- In '" ‘ - ~ . - - .
I
1.
".'_!
_ .-I
=-"-F-‘*5:->~;_="*~¢,;=l
;!.I-3=.u.=- _ =‘--"- *1-'-—

A. B.

FIGURE 18.21 A. A wind sock is a common device used for determining wind direction and estimating wind speed. They are common sights at
small airports and landing strips. (Photo by Lourens Smak/Alamy Images) B. Wind vane (right) and cup anemometer (left). The wind vane shows wind
direction and the anemometer measures wind speed. (Photo by Belfort Instrument Company)

direction is shown on a dial that is connected to the wind vane. changes in temperature and moisture conditions, the ability to
The dial indicates wind direction, either by points ofthe compass predict the winds can be very useful. In the Midwest, for example,
(N, NE, E, SE, etc.) or by a scale of 0° to 360°. On the latter scale, a north wind may bring cool, dry air from Canada, whereas a
0° or 360° are both north, 90° is east, 180° is south, and 270° is west. south wind may bring warm, humid air from the Gulf of Mexico.
When the wind consistently blows more often from one direc- Recall that about 70 percent ofEarth’s surface is covered by the
tion than from any other, it is called a prevailing wind. You may ocean, where conventional methods of gathering wind data are
be familiar with the prevailing westerlies that dominate the cir- seldom possible. Ocean buoys and ships at sea provide very lim-
culation in the mid-latitudes. In the United States, for example, ited coverage. However, since the 1990s, weather forecasts have
these winds consistently move the “weather” from west to east improved significantly due to the availability of satellite-derived
across the continent. Embedded within this gen-
eral eastward flow are cells ofhigh and low pres-
sure with the characteristic clockwise and FIGURE 18.22 Wind roses showing the percentage of time airflow is coming from
counterclockwise flow. As a result, the winds various directions. A. Wind frequency for the winter in the eastern United States. B. Wind
associated with the westerlies, as measured at the frequency for the winter in northern Australia. Note the reliability of the southeast
trades in Australia as compared to the westerlies in the eastern United States. (Data from
surface, often vary considerably from day to day G. T. Trewartha)
and from place to place. By contrast, the direc-
tion of airflow associated with the belt of trade I;'>-.-; ' *‘-1"’-"7-""—“:’
¢_.:_:_-.;_-
- ' ‘. - 1', IL-I
1 ‘\___1‘-‘-t¢»__£,'€--_:_j- ~
.'_-r
.- .i;J_ y
- I. -
‘:1
I '-
-. ,,_
“‘ I
_ \_
‘?
I aw
I

winds is much more consistent, as can be seen

-Is .7?. ‘ - :
-:?‘:'el --
_ 1;, _-. :>
' i ' § *t ‘ I : ' ; 7 ‘ * =\ } ~:‘ < "1‘ E"I~
-. ';:».»t--
2, E v:'_ ___ -,-_
-.- ; It
_
M * -. I; \' t *--' ‘E3..‘- »
=~_ .,.,‘--__ __ I
7. "-‘B";.‘l 7 ‘_ , Q -1.';i~- :-.'_‘: - '1 : -‘E ail ‘-9 i 'NI¢..v¥*‘ 3 a-z - ...,'5',_ ;’ = ' I‘ l
1*-"=.'~'=‘=;- ~," i -\'- ‘- I':£*-: -"F. i. . :52‘ sl " l
I,L'.;FZ“-
.-- '-?'. fr \‘: -_ . I \_- F.- l - _ 1;" ."|' II
in Figure 18.22. 1,
l
I
I _..;.
Is '5 ¢;-‘._. ,=..1'-: 11-» . --- .~
. - '-‘ -.'I--
_'|__ .1t_;._.:‘.-_f_-';.1-?" .
I _-;~.;'- .- -:4--
_-I.'.'..
..I: '
5; 3.: L», _N~} fl I
_ .- ‘_ ‘,f\: _1‘ I- _ __=.-‘ E; , ..} ?
I
pl: "<15" ".1*@_:.1 7 -.I 12¢ ii‘. - ,_- ‘-I §', Zi?*_' I
Wind speed is commonly measured using a I. ;-I :1? -_ _
' .-:_-., ‘. .0
-zpfr ,-'-
.1 ° I
,
,_, . '1’._ . 1‘-I
_ ' r "‘;-‘.'._.-
"_l
L lg’?-»’f
1 §.r_ ._
__ -. _ A
- . .'-5.“-". “;T
._"'W-.-- Q‘
J .r|E._ ,I
__ IF}
;-1.1;‘9.
_ 7
I : ""'r1_-_="rs.,
_._.., 5Y-__
"VT
Y".-' ‘
I
- P
I
lI

cup anemometer (anemo = wind, metron = mea-

suring instrument) (Figure 18.21B, upper left). I
‘ \__ -_
‘"5, 1'1
_‘:H'£i¢_;€§$

-= *.
I
‘_f,__:_ 1 __
.7. '-='_.".'.='*
:__-T_.':§_l__’ Li. -_J_i._|j
:1”;
‘ . ;- __3%
¢ '-'I‘.'-lv
.-Jr,-1

..
_.—=- :
,_
2 ii K

-
1*: __
-ii E 5.

=
"-Q
I... . jk1:

_ _ '" 5?»
.“
_

mp,
e.,
,_
itI,
I. > I
or __ '1.“
I

I
,
I ._T

.
‘_
_
I __,| :_

-.—"
.I;_.
__. 7. __._.-as}; M. ,_' .

» I_ 5
_'
'3 -H

. .- -Ll?
.~
'*"

-~'F'.. _=:
__~: ‘I'-.I:_J 1
J_i__
is __

'. ~
.
'
‘
_ f.'\_¥
’

.L'\"_L
__l:.-A3!‘

.'_ ,.a:_.kri;.
_
I
-' _-_--
l,

I‘I
I
I

I
The wind speed is read from a dial much like the 1"IL"'Eu,!.' -.v
n.»-, - ' ,_"|
I._,1|_;:i;.3€_: ‘. 2--:-' g
. Q 3/
-T". "5 =
.-
"I
-
1;
‘ii
=
l _
‘Y ==.'.‘.':°-ii=.’-';'- . |.i='
L__»
- _. '
”-. -.:=;'s'-
._
I-Ii-2.l'i-"Y
r__ é-:5.-I
l
I1
L = . 1 = ._ 9 _-E ’ 4,‘ ‘ ‘ '1. 1 1 1 \ 5
speedometer of an automobile. Places where rs
1:?=r$.“'
_| ._:,_._;1--
-i"~
_
\l.lW’
I"
‘.
“‘\
"\
|~
“Q‘xi?!

__. "l"~5| |JI'-;'|>\:Ir

I’-“ '-r -,. __*;_,,
; .4
. H‘ '
1")" II..l;-
.2 :_I"
._.. “- . ; q-G?-T ll’ _:—I Jr.
_-3!-.,,_
"ire--12$:
$"{"";"‘;_-T-
!_;I_|' - - __ '
i '- I
~.- - L ' -' I‘ _
'
winds are steady and speeds are relatively high .._ '5-, ' ,'

l-*'5i..“j7:€_‘
J _‘_ T ;"_I.t“.
. . .. In’,
_/-

U
- - - -’
._-:I:.=i- . I ,1:--ri
;<.*“».i
__. -
-'.-,',_. '_:-_
as I, I ~ - " " :’.*_r.-"§I'..-1-_‘,"§

J1 . ’ |_. ‘L’
. ,(_ y __ ;_.,»-
r_ _'_ ..
'r::"¢:—..‘.- : -I
_ .
‘-

,
I
are potential sites for tapping wind energy. '.3.§’;"I-‘§.%."§=-§’="
I-'- - *-
L
-_-
t¢..1--»..I__,_-_.;-rm--,
I. .9
." ‘wt--_,
‘IF
III;._:--:.1;-u.,.--'*.=E_£5l:-';.-3.,-II
I
\'.'71 ‘I"--
_I'r_ "1' '_.‘_
- _ ,1I » ____ ,r
- Ii
Y
- P i - ,1
‘J - f
_,P‘
- .
'-"-¢-
_
1 -_.- 4. '.;-.'
O
.'
I-1.‘ "LT-‘.'-"1.">
'- _ = *.I»I‘=_».fig"
;.r
? . ff-'I.-
. -1.. _~._»_L.‘-‘:7.
_.--.-. . . ..
I 1 ,
flf“
I 4 _ 5
‘D

\
5

~'-I‘.
I-;I. ~.:¢
.5;-’_';_~5t=I~3!I'-l . I
‘I K . L !_ J ‘I 1 u i _(_ _ _ H1‘ NJ’.
'- '1 .‘,'.‘-‘
By knowing the locations of cyclones and .
I
1..
=,
Q -I
3:’_
- -_ _

'. h
." .5-_:_
I
l-
.
-
_ _
-
. ‘
--(‘F-?,-_.
,_ --.
- ‘_._3-.1.
4- _ I.
==-
,
51-
\-.:
\.
- ;.-I,‘ _- '_; _.f"_._ ‘ '
;=.- _,'.. i;1}-x_€:I:~‘L.-.-=--;-
.'~-3-_¢-.
r_1;tr if-~ .iiE\‘._;:;,|__-F
-.
_ ,v~___-..- |___ .'_-2_r__.,..
'\- - 1'
*:_j 5;‘; :_

‘ II
‘H1 .
= '-L
I,__-. , lI
~l -W“-' I___3,,._ ';',.a_;;_5; -fit. I
_r ’ I | ' -.1--
anticyclones in relation to where you are, you can I‘
E;
ii, _ .. {l'
-', -_ . :5r';.':;
-1
‘v_' "'-
1'70‘; r-I
‘I.
_' |F5-T£;_
:
E1‘ _‘ pig.‘
“R,
-_ - ‘I." ,r'.. l‘ ' _
'7“
-s‘.:*‘:5i
»_ ' "-
_w’1 _ *L_,‘_
M--1 K
1;, _
. ,_,'-.-Q -"7
Tl’
:_ .- H. \'- . '
t
‘*5 '
~ L._'I‘_;..=T'§_;§_I§';.;‘l.‘ 0 5 ‘ I- 1
'§.'__.-O-5.?-Q-i 1 ',';. ,
predict the changes in wind direction that will be 15:-:.—'-I<_;~g=II-I
1~' :1-s ,5'-*.-1.-3* .._-¥._:.~'.:=I ts" I I-—I—*—*—I—-I II *~s-
‘ *4’ SE
experienced as a pressure center moves past.
Because changes in wind direction often bring
Isa
1-4
l
l y

I
A. Westerlies (winter)
I

.
Scale Percent
._ __ . I
l_I g I
B. Southeast Trades (winter)
-
‘I-a-I.-'»;< _
~

542
 El Nifio and La Niiia 543

wind data. One way that wind speed and direction can be estab-
lished is by using satellite images to track cloud movements.
El Niiio and La Niiia
As can be seen in so the cold Peruvian current flows
equatorward along the coast of Ecuador and Peru. This flow
encourages upwelling of cold nutrient-filled waters that serve as
the primary food source for millions offish, particularly anchovies.
CONCEPT cnrzcx 18.7 Near the end of each year, however, a warm current that flows
0 Vllhat are the two basic wind measurements? “That instru-
southward along the coasts of Ecuador and Peru replaces the cold
ments are used to make these measurements?
Q From what direction does a northeast wind blow? Toward Peruvian current. During the 19th century the local residents
what direction does a south wind blow? named this warm countercurrent El Nifio (“the child“) after the
Christ child because it usually appeared during the Christmas

'=-Ii -I I-.“-“T: The relationship between the Southern Oscillation and El Nino is illustrated on these simplified maps.
A. Normally, the trade winds and strong equatorial currents flow toward the west. At the same time, the strong Peruvian
current causes upwelling of cold water along the west coast of South America. B. When the Southern Oscillation occurs, the
pressure over the eastern and western Pacific flip-flops. This causes the trade winds to diminish, leading to an eastward
movement of warm water along the equator. As a result, the surface waters of the central and eastern Pacific warm, with
far-reaching consequences to weather patterns.
:1’
-. i I - \ rt
l/,-.-'* t I
I, _*.-._, . I
. . \'__I . —
_ \ Polarjet Noflh' l
ll Asia-_. A l 1 - . *-;».;..-.-.1'
..?_._,,§.,__.._.,_..,Arner|ca ~ -
. 9 ‘ »35 : ;i‘_ - ,_i__;,-_»_-_-:'
~"'." _l' r, .I, I .._ '_'-ks-1:. If; . __ i _'.:=_ _
‘.-- \_’l 2 _' , I’ \"_I"‘-. " _;;. 'r<
_ 1--n J ( i i1 ‘ii,I “J _ _‘iT"~;:;_ '_;E_i’.. .' 15. __-_I'-'-",_. ‘
' ~ 5 I » ,1 ' .\'-‘f-I ""*'w-§-2'-!' - ' .~.=' ”:- ,.
! I \} .‘,;,§':l ~\_ ‘L{_/'1‘,-e_';i' _- 7 r_ '
"- \.'-,,"" -_ 'l ‘J I;
J I Ir ls. ‘L8 _' ‘,1_ ‘ -_.'- ‘I 1
f _r E J
i "L ' :-\ I. % 2-...
.-,.., I,
-I _ ‘P.-
g Subtropical jet ,
P’ ', _ 1‘ / , . . 1 \ ,_
. ‘If r ‘_f -1. I .‘ __ _> 7 I ______ _—-'7
' f .'-:|_'._.
r._. I-!_.II|‘»
1;, . ‘ Y -47'
S: \-..s-,,-
1.“ ,.
;-. I II" . 9 ;.Ԥl . . . . .
.. I, r "'
I -~ I Strong trade w1nds__._;,;i-' “*1 ,.
' Warm "O if "2'.
‘ 11- water ‘ ‘ I ll._ -5“-1*-IP'\ :‘

, ,_,,,,,
i __ — I . .>»=->.uJh 4‘ -
’fW
__

_1
_:..h :1=.x---
-- Isl’
~ '$
abate
,._.¢ ‘;_'~
tat?
- 4:?‘-»
»'~*“I,. '
fig .-.*,<E¢had@rl
_
I
I
_;/lI\

'

-
pressures * "II
_
'7 l ' '
-,_._)\"
l intr.
_.,
“i:-:i
e‘ /.-./
_J
7\_:7;;
- -, 1-.
_, _.
'5)‘-7.7-5""
'>: _.>>-~
_._f
' — _‘ii ii" .
--__:f
wate-
r
‘=5.
8l'Ll
F - -.
=4“ i -4-
xi pg-.-_\
_ gr
It ‘ L _‘

t I ‘ South I ’
America I
Australia Strong / —jFE
Peruvian I .
current ""-'=~I"?_ti
; ;§
it
\.
-_,r__,:-+'}?.=:',_*"-=.-~ 5
1I.,

_; E

A. Normal conditions
- .|' _' f .
I _,,' - - , ~,
_ . .
.- I‘
'- ',' I 1
I ‘.I .-
*»_- -' " 37,.
I 3 r -' ‘ I ;- -t
I;'rk‘_;5'
,- ~.- -
3.7 F:.;l_
*_=:;-
__

-; '.II|‘
i. F ()4.‘- - cg’-.
o_ _; y

l i AsiaI : . Wetter ._ Wlélilnei "'."'a“ ._

I I , Polar Jet I avera9e~_,.I.;’.,;._~= ?'_ average winter
."',
‘ ,

\
1
r1
1

__ '
wee ,3 Am_e_r|ca I‘
Cooler and
I
wetter-than
Subtropical jet "~¥?I?,jj-i;>§-Ieaveragewinter‘
I I 2 _-
. 7%-.. -,. ,, ._}
_" -‘rip
P
I,_-.12,-_ Puff
- -
I I.‘
' o '1.-.§"|> ._ I‘; J
. 1.:
if".
l‘;
I. \
oi -._ _
-\- 1,,-_f’_;;_I.
.- , .

, ‘ Weak trade winds Pressure ' . ‘,‘,__,“§;'§.>*' '

._ ::~ -,§.|.._.I_
'
I Pressure deCreaSe§ Ecuador I.
increases Wetter than:
.- f '.—: ; ;= =— §_s--;:-if ‘V151: ‘ -. ‘I-_v' -

Strong counte.rcurreriti
I ~ =- Warm
water -T’
-I average II
Dryer " i
I
, PGYU ,
than South C;
average America
Australia ;I '\-
‘I
\,w-.._
Weak /I “l if--..‘
I- ‘."‘N:
-I., -

ll: Peruvian 0' ”

.. _ IF-I_=.-Ir;__"'
,_- .'_-I§_
1,,-- "-I -
'..'
I
current
'1'. l
4)‘

B. El Nifio
 544 CHAPTER 18 Air Pressure and Wind

I
1 _ -‘I; ' ' ' ' ' "'_'_" "'3;
5 _"' J,’
{Y
????
‘
7 .'__"'._'1'_"'\f-[__;
-, _j' ' 'I7_>V{
\ -Q _. _' _
was the most significant issue facing the good seal, inject the gas, and monitor the
\ .e_,
I 1;‘ 1 U tr,’
ti-F3 tr,‘-_
. ‘-' ..\_ '-'13:..,,
=lI;_.' g'7‘:. "3: ,\{ i__.
' 5' A, T. " " ‘, ‘.
3-
\__
_,
-_
--_=
_
-"
:2 ‘I 1 1:3.
r"
';___
Ii-'21"-“
:__.- _ -.1.
_ _, .
:2--',p-_-
__
‘vi
.=5
_*_';_
"ii
="- Y-ii
L.-:.- _."
__
_'\
__'"i___r‘,_
%*' ‘
I; 1.“-1
_E‘[
‘L-I
1.
_
wt
______
= '“~-
-T
world." Benson organized research pro- area for leaks.
,L—-_>~ '71- —_ f -;t ." ~?*'___ i'_ ";f_f_ _:j': _ -Ir: I-.1. grams that developed regional models of cli- “I get to do important work solving criti-
.1 " I §' _._
mate change to help residents plan for cal problems, get to be outdoors, do experi-
droughts and temperature shifts, and stud- ments at scale, and have fun while I do it.
ied the carbon cycle of the oceans, among Interacting with the huge number of people
other projects. impacted by these issues makes the Earth
Sally Benson: In 2007, Benson was appointed director
of the Global Climate and Energy Project at
sciences very rewarding."
—Kathleen Wong
Climate and Energy Stanford University, which seeks to develop
energy sources that release fewer green-
Scientist house gases. “Energy efficiency in lighting,
heating, and cooling systems, and autos,
Sally Benson has spent her career research- makes all the sense in the world. But at the
ing solutions to the most pressing environ- end of the day, we need to do a lot more
mental problems of our time. In the than that. If our current understanding is
mid-1970s, as a young scientist with correct, we need to out overall emissions by
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, she 80 percent of today’s levels," Benson
tackled the first oil shortage by investigat- states.
ing ways to harness the power of geother- Benson sees many promising ways to
mal energy. achieve that goal. One is renewable energy.

“I get to do important work . . . and have fun

while I do it."
Ten years later, she was elbow-deep in “ Today's biofuels don’t provide much advan-
the mud of Kesterson Reservoir in Califor- tage in terms of carbon dioxide emissions.
nia's Central Valley. Irrigation runoff had But alternatives such as cellulosic ethanol
caused selenium from local soil to accumu- (producing ethanol with plant fibers), where
late in the water, causing local birds to hatch there are low emissions in the process of
chicks with horrifying deformities. Benson's growing and making them, are incredibly
studies made her realize microbes could be important, " Benson opines.
environmentally friendly tools to clean up Another is to continue using some fossil
other sites with toxic metal contamination. fuels to run power plants and ships, but to
“ The experience was so positive capture the greenhouse gases they emit. Professor Sally Benson is Executive Director
because I was doing this cutting-edge sci- “ More than half of the electricity worldwide of Stanford University's Global Climate and
ence at the same time regulators had to is produced by burning coal, a plentiful Energy Project, a $225 million effort to
make a decision about how to clean up the resource in many places. We need to find a develop energy resources that are not harm-
site. I got an idea of the impact that science way to make it carbon neutral, " Benson ful to the environment, especially energy
can make, and how research could get says. One way to remove such emissions sources that release fewer greenhouse gases
results," Benson says. from the atmosphere altogether would be to Dr. Benson has a multidisciplinary back-
By the mid-1990’s, Benson was directing inject them in aquifers deep within Earth. ground with degrees in geology, materials
all Earth science research at the laboratory. Benson herself has studied how to use tech- science, and minerals engineering, and with
“I talked with many people, read a lot, and nology developed by the oil and gas indus- applied research in hydrology and reservoir
came to the conclusion that climate change try to select sites where the rock offers a engineering. (Courtesy Dr. Sally Benson)

season. Normally, these warm countercurrents last for at most a pastures and cotton fields have yields far above the average. These
few weeks when they again give way to the cold Peruvian flow. climatic fluctuations have been known for years, but they were
However, at irregular intervals of 3 to 7 years, these countercur- originally considered local phenomena. Today, we know that El
rents become unusually strong and replace normally cold off- Nifio is part of the global circulation and affects the weather at
shore waters with warm equatorial waters (Figure 18.23B). Today, great distances from Peru and Ecuador.
scientists use the term El Nifio for these episodes of ocean warm- Two of the strongest El Nifio events on record occurred
ing that affect the eastern tropical Pacific. between 1982-83 and 1997-98 and were responsible for weather
The onset of El Niiio is marked by abnormal weather patterns extremes of a variety of types in many parts of the world. The
that drastically affect the economies of Ecuador and Peru. As 1997-98 El Nifio brought ferocious storms that struck the Cali-
shown in Figure 18.238, these unusually strong undercurrents fornia coast, causing unprecedented beach erosion, landslides,
amass large quantities ofwarm water that block the upwelling of and floods. In the southern United States, heavy rains also
colder, nutrient-filled water. As a result, the anchovies starve, dev- brought floods to Texas and the Gulf states. The same energized
astating the fishing industry. At the same time, some inland areas jet stream that produced storms in the South, upon reaching the
that are normally arid receive an abnormal amount of rain. Here, Atlantic, sheared off the northern portions of hurricanes, destroy-
 g El Nino and La Nina 545

ing the storms. It was one of the quietest Atlantic hurricane sea- in the Indonesian region, causing the pressure gradient along the
sons in years. equator to weaken or even to reverse. As a consequence, the once-
Major El Nino events, such as the one in 1997-98, are inti- steady trade winds diminish and may even change direction. This
mately related to the large-scale atmospheric circulation. Each reversal creates a major change in the equatorial current system,
time an El Nino occurs, the barometric pressure drops over large with warm water flowing eastward (Figure 18.2/11B). \/Vlllfl time, water
portions of the southeastern Pacific, whereas in the western temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific increase and sea
Pacific, near Indonesia and northern Australia, the pressure rises level in the region rises. This eastward shift of the warmest surface
(-*' A 1 1 1). Then, as a major El Nino event comes to an end, the water marks the onset of El Nino and sets up changes in atmo-
pressure difference between these two regions swings back in the spheric circulation that affect areas far outside the tropical Pacific.
opposite direction. This seesaw pattern of atmospheric pressure When an El Nino began in the summer of 1997, forecasters
between the eastern and western Pacific is called the Southern predicted that the pool of warm water over the Pacific would dis-
Oscillation. It is an inseparable part of the El Nino warmings that place the paths of both the subtropical and mid-latitude jet
occur in the central and eastern Pacific every 3 to 7 years. There- streams, which steer weather systems across North America (see
fore, this phenomenon is often termed El Nino/Southern Oscil- Figure I 8.23). As predicted, the subtropical jet brought rain to the
lation, or ENSO for short. Gulf Coast, where Tampa, Florida, received more than three times
Winds in the lower atmosphere are the link between the pres- its normal winter precipitation. Furthermore, the mid-latitude jet
sure change associated with the Southern Oscillation and the pumped warm air far north into the continent. As a result, winter
extensive ocean warming associated with El Nino. During a typ- temperatures west of the Ro ckies were significantly above normal.
ical year, the trade winds converge near the equator and flow west- The effects of El Nino are somewhat variable depending in part
ward toward Indonesia (Figure 18.24A). This steady westward on the temperatures and size of the warm pools. Nevertheless,
flow creates a warm surface current that moves from east to west some locales appear to be affected more consistently. In particu-
along the equator. The result is a “piling up" of a thick layer of lar, during most El Ninos, warmer-than-normal winters occur in
warm surface water that produces higher sea levels (by 30 cen- the northern United States and Canada. In addition, normally arid
timeters) in the western Pacific. Meanwhile, the eastern Pacific is portions of Peru and Ecuador, as well as the eastern United States,
characterized by a strong Peruvian current, upwelling of cold experience wet conditions. By contrast, drought conditions are
water, and lower sea levels. generally observed in Indonesia, Australia, and the Philippines.
Then when the Southern Oscillation occurs, the normal situa- One major benefit of the circulation associated with El Nino is a
tion just described changes dramatically. Barometric pressure rises suppression of the number of Atlantic hurricanes.
The opposite of El Nino is an atmospheric
phenomenon known as La Nina. Once thought
=ii‘ - 1 Simplified illustration of the see-saw pattern of atmospheric pressure to be the normal conditions that occur between
between the eastern and western pacific, called the Southern Oscillation. A. During two El Nino events, meteorologists now con-
average years, high pressure over the eastern pacific causes surface winds and warm sider La Nina an important atmospheric phe-
equatorial waters to flow westward. The result is a pileup of warm water in the western nomenon in its own right. Researchers have
Pacific, which promotes the lowering of pressure. B. An el Nino event begins as surface
pressure increases in the western Pacific and decreases in the eastern Pacific. This air
come to recognize that when surface tempera-
pressure reversal weakens, or may even reverse the trade winds, and results in an tures in the eastern Pacific are colder than aver-
eastward movement of the warm waters that had accumulated in the western Pacific. age, a La Nina event is triggered that has a
distinctive set of weather patterns. A typical La
Nina winter blows colder than normal air over
the Pacific Northwest and the northern Great
V.

8 \,
I

Wet céjditions _ _ 1,,

.-.-1
-. . Plains while warming much of the rest of the
" \; : -.. J :' .' "
iii _ Dry cojtiditions * United States. Furthermore, greater precipita-
. --ya,--.._.,,,_,,t__f§q{.1atorra| current ‘iii’
tion is expected in the Northwest. During the
3 (Low .»§:i’/Soul“
La Nina winter of I998-99, a world-record
1’. -;>‘.71" 4 57 ‘I ‘i O 4-’ {Z --. '17-:

l - Strong trades pressure l 1 snowfall for one season occurred in Washing-

. cool wate - . §:'_?{'i‘ ton State. Another La Nina impact is greater
Austraha ( -5 r?,§.r'”.
.1‘
hurricane activity. A recent study concluded
A. Normal years that the cost of hurricane damages in the United
States is 20 times greater in La Nina years as
X»
-
,
1
\
.T'
compared to El Nino years.
I z" 1' -3’

Dry clzipditions Wet @515-%,d't‘°n5'.

" - '* '

C éuouth CONCEPT cnscx 1 8.8
Low ‘'f-. Ame rrca . ... . ...
H('é:3g0?$Z§;'ie Warm Countemurrent pressure 3'-,}_ 0 How 1s La Nina different from ElN1no?
- (warm water) ;-r,;" Q Describe the relationship between the
Australia _ _ ,,,j-13-if Southern Oscillation and a major El Nino
event.
B. El Nino years
 546 CHAPTER 18 Air Pressure and Wind

Global Distribution warm air, we would expect a latitudinal variation in precipita-

tion, with low latitudes receiving the greatest amounts of precip-
of Precipitation itation and high latitudes receiving the smallest amounts.
Figure 18.25 indeed reveals heavy rainfall in equatorial regions
A casual glance at shows a relatively complex pattern and meager precipitation in high-latitude areas. Recall that the
for the distribution of precipitation. Although the map appears dry region in the warm subtropics is explained by the presence of
to be complicated, the general features of the map can be the subtropical high.
explained by applying our knowledge of global winds and pres- In addition to latitudinal variations in precipitation, the dis-
sure systems. tribution of land and water complicates the precipitation pattern.
In general, regions influenced by high pressure, with its asso- Large landmasses in the middle latitudes commonly experience
ciated subsidence and diverging winds, experience relatively dry decreased precipitation toward their interiors. For example, cen-
conditions. On the other hand, regions under the influence oflow tral North America and central Eurasia receive considerably less
pressure and its converging winds and ascending air receive precipitation than do coastal regions at the same latitude. Fur-
ample precipitation. This pattern is illustrated by noting that the thermore, the effects of mountain barriers alter the idealized pre-
tropical region dominated by the equatorial low is the rainiest cipitation patterns we would expect solely from global wind and
region on Earth (£1 It includes the rain forests of the pressure systems. Windward mountain slopes receive abundant
Amazon basin in South America and the Congo basin in Africa. rainfall resulting from orographic lifting, whereas leeward slopes
Here the warm, humid trade winds converge to yield abundant and adjacent lowlands are usually deficient in moisture.
rainfall throughout the year. By way of contrast, areas dominated
by the subtropical high-pressure cells clearly receive much smaller
amounts of precipitation. These are regions of extensive deserts.
In the Northern Hemisphere the largest is the Sahara. Examples
in the Southern Hemisphere include the Kalahari in southern
CONCEPT cnacx 1 8.9
Africa and the dry lands of Australia. Q With which global pressure belt are the rain forests of
Africa’s Congo Basin associated? Which pressure system is
If Earth’s pressure and wind belts were the only factors con-
linked to the Sahara Desert?
trolling precipitation distribution, the pattern shown in Q Other than Earth’s pressure and wind belts, list two other fac-
Figure 18.25 would be simpler. The inherent nature of the air is tors that exert a significant influence on the global distribu-
also an important factor in determining precipitation potential. tion of precipitation.
Because cold air has a low capacity for moisture compared with

tr '- ‘ in Average annual precipitation. (Note: 400 mm is equal to 15.6 inches.)

"'”"‘ - '?:_¢:. :._ _ _ i Q2

Q
4;, -5 I‘--Ti. _._1.,_? K:__
T‘: 9"
27'?" f
-t§‘:“-"-'
‘lat L-
“""~ Ke:-.-.-,3 _
--, 1 L_ .'\¢J-r:::____,
IA“d,,:-L "‘ *1;-;..': "1 Y-A,. _ (5_ ‘_ :1 _ (_',~i'* '1‘,‘ _=:_ _ v_.
._..._
._. _ _ -_
. 5- -rr or ‘J\ _-rs t . P ‘m-Yr» —~m_
*-.-- ~---
r‘-er,
/‘I '*\_ _ ,,-. 1 _ _;—-. -_ >1 ‘~, "‘_______>_-__ "xi €‘ £)—

f:.~u
I 4- . ' 4 * ‘—-._—.__,->53 <;j"r, 1.,- , 3 1 ¢._ - I _ _ £"',"‘ —i_ _ A:-‘\_1_\_ . ._f__ *-.--J<i__—-

>1 "= "'- ‘ -: :' . ‘r~f‘—*‘~‘ '1 Q. -‘tr3 “~-

. 1- ' E--._ it _, ' /'7/r, Aychc
~ Clrcle j -4-‘(,1
‘ ,-
“'._:‘ — < .< " fr '1;-2 T31,
__-- ._._ .. 7 ~ ;. .3;‘-3,4. \;
~. ‘ -
__ 1’
— . -_. _.-.-,-'5 _.> '-.§._>-
._ .
l
lfiol’ '2.’-..,
_
_-*3’
.1 -,)—'
1

_
,8, _:_.--
.§~
->
ll \_
T‘ \_“ ' -

*_
";'_i\_
» \
“K4
_
boo ,1. s-._
'
_, ' £1
~ I s
',,”-'1
__ '
"\"'
., .-‘— _._
—-- ~;>- I I". "CT%O‘
' -._ I
_

‘g-1; " " I "'\.__ n i_‘ 5 1' ;"1)__:;_,-J ' ' L \_ \-

I
-v
T 5"
I. A pi‘ ‘I
_
-.;'~._
,1 ,
I‘? 17; '.,
1
_ _ an ---ggi
I‘ _ g j
A AH
g
~. - .3‘,
._
'" '3;
___7

- J ' X
"_ _é3Ai__:_ . I
__
1 ‘Dr.
_.»-:3‘,
F
2- _J, ~"'\_. _ "- :__». \\ *
;' , ,__ -/3 -
1’ 441'
-1 ( ,-_,_
"~ I ,, . Fe‘? F
.,_’_( ._- _ - _l . r.-_.- _ _
, .- r
r}~.v'._:d_';

ATLANTIC___.- ,_ . -,-=._ L
-...“' '
. , ='
r, r - >1 '\ H‘

/. \l

Irea-' -1'. , Y’ -ii _,. 1;- 40'E . 40'- .- ' ‘tr

_ . . .1. r,-1.’ . 3*- 5...--.-_.
- -.' . _r ~—-_:\ - 40"-
"; |' " ’ _,- :-'7 '.’3?. "‘ .\___ ‘J_ \,_f'-_\ \\p \_

/r2.
lk \' O C N K’ -1.5:" *~- ‘:3 r_\\_;__r Hi‘

-1-,“ .; (1 ‘-M
A T L A N TIC . ¢—._>‘ . r ., v. -

|
. 1 1. *-'
\ I
ngflr, \\ l _ ’- _,
I V '_-If ‘ .._-\>\‘\t‘
<.~
‘Q
-

_ ifia
Tropic of Cancer
l
;
’ s¢_ OCEAN
,,-113:: I
f4J \ ,
| I‘ r,
l F‘ __.
I \~.,_ ‘s/1.,/(5
-7 _ Tropic of Cancer
-_%.-' '\ : . _'
201 i-‘I

-5
\~‘

'-_.¢_q-
Ii‘

J.
1| 1__:;__) 1: -_-

.-_, 5
200 l

,- L
E

77/
,/
1
J-' "t 20"
-._,'~.

,;-_
\'\_r
it‘is -,
Klgjfl, J, g T

'~c~tl’. .\ at
PA C I FIC

35,1’O-C EAN
_._,,-
\....
PA C I Fl C
/
mi”
INDIA N
.0" Equator 1. _.-" Equator \\ fit 1 _ < 0:.
3 OCEAN OCEA N 'Ҥ~
7 g ‘§§_,,,,._:_..J.t.’_,-, .. . __ _
¢';.¢'- w_f

/ _. 1 ,
r_ 1' -_ 9
Centimeters Inches .
.'
fr
'=._,-., '
V ..
' \-'_
20" '
.
-'
"
,
‘
I I: ‘
,
.~.
__ _.
'
.
.
, :~

200 and over 80 and over Tropic of Capricorn ff; _ '

105-199 --1-;
"'~l‘.'+§
~- --
-it_ 60-79 l
\_“' __Q "
r
'\_
*6
1
100-149 40-59 . .r-*"“*- -
Y
-_ _— —.. K
’l
.'
\ \
K /_;; _
/
a

so-as 20-as ~ ‘-.____»i‘: I _.“ /

so-* F" 40" 40 40° ._,.-1

25-49 10-19 ‘H-nun- "- ._ .r __\ ___
f J l SL1:
* Under 25 Under 10
... 120*“ was 160'" . -"
'6
1,0|00 2,0|00 3,0l00 Miles
—c>
120* / \ sot so-J ear" 0" 20° 40" arr - Gil l l
C- 1,000 2,000 3,000 Kilometers
 Global Distribution of Precipitation 547

i-?’ir;§UR}E; '18.;-in The Intertropical Convergence Zone

-4.

(ITCZ) is associated with the pressure zone known

as the equatorial low. In this satellite image,
produced with data from the Tropical Rainfall
Measuring Mission (TRMM), the ITCZ is seen as a
band of heavy rainfall shown in reds and yellows,
which extends east-west just north of the equator.
(Courtesy of NOAA)

GIVE IT SOME
ll Mercury is 13.5 times denser (heavier) than water. lfyou built a barometer B E I i If J 8.". 7 7‘

iaf/---s
"'*-:u?,*"§-1

using water rather than mercury, how tall (in inches) would it have to be to l
. -
I ,';:~—--~ _ r.,s r'_,_-Z’.'.‘_;,r‘ .
‘
t '\.
§
if ,._.
\
-" 1
rf

'
J P, g %
- >
.-
record standard sea-level pressure? 5:
1’ I
\.- !
1-,‘ w
5 1E ' 1! '
~5. "- ‘v.-_)_,):_1:e1-i ‘at J
.- l. 1
5

V :l,_\~.- j‘ ;._rFr"-__‘__r__ - -__: ’ ‘_‘\_ I_Z l

_ Q) \ r__

2 The accompanying map shows the distribution of air pressure at 4:00 P.M.
CDT on May 24,2010. Within which one of these states should wind speeds
rr
M

1 -
,
.r
. -
.
if -:.___‘__
I
.
I

; =
.
I
; '*-_'___:
-- » '= 7 =-
=
'\
>"P_
_

T '*
J
1.
jg.»

*
1_ .
4'
2
.- -.

-r ‘~ 7 tr ‘“>~-J
_. ' 1 § I , 1 l r l 1 i , : ''\. -
be greatest—New York, Texas, Illinois, Kansas, Idaho, or California? What ~l i .=._ _,.' - fP g?- - _ l-“Y
z, \__ l inst
‘$-153
2 \-.. s ,~= Q7 _.
.024 1
guided your selection? ‘ \\
Hr“
fl“ .___ ":
‘i~ -
1:
i 1-‘
_Q',
z ~--- ’ 1
E1’) .-I

l i ' Y .l ‘f:,..-—- 7:’

! r~ - :-|_ -—--an _ *-
3 If you wanted to erect wind turbines to generate electricity, would you search ‘)

' .;____
1;;

-‘--err"?
Ir ,_ ,.

.* I020
P E 5 H __ / r

for a location that typically experiences a strong pressure gradient or a weak l L ' :1 ___ ._‘,h+
K ‘>1
j
l
‘
"" nw
,/
,1
' '
’
pressure gradient? Explain. -_ _.\, \’ r
,
+---1..
\
-H. 2...,-,7>..g,.,.
" '- ., ,.- .-¢- .\_
m
as
l i l -1-. --v. I, ',1' “,
1 . 1 ~' I, -
4UIf Earth did not rotate on its axis and was completely covered with water, in
l % |"‘. ‘K I 1;}-, LE’
what direction would a sailboat move if it started its journey in the mid- i ml‘
t ~ ,1
L /we 1~.._,1 m
‘-_ -I - .

latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere? How did you figure this out?
5 Refer to the accompanying satellite image of a hurricane. Is the storm located
in the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern Hemisphere? How were you able
to determine your answer?
6 If divergence in the jet stream above a surface low-pressure center exceeds
convergence at the surface, will surface winds likely get stronger or weaker?
Explain.
7 You and a friend are watching TV on a rainy day when the weather reporter
states that, “The barometric pressure is 28.8 inches and rising." Hearing this,
you say, “It looks like fair weather is on its way.” Your friend responds with the
following questions. “I thought air pressure had something to do with the
weight of air. How does inches relate to weight? And, why do you think the
weather is going to improve?” How would you respond to your friend"s
queries?
8 If you live in the Northern Hemisphere and are directly west of the center of a
cyclone, what is the probable wind direction? What if you were west of an anti-
cyclone?
(Photo from NASA)
9 It is late afternoon on a warm summer day and you are enjoying some time at
the beach. Until the last hour or two, winds were calm. Then a breeze began to develop. Is it more
likely a cool breeze from the water or a warm breeze from the adjacent land area? Explain.
g 548 CHAPTER 18 Air Pressure and Wind

10. When designing an airport it is important to have the planes take off into N5
the wind. Refer to the accompanying wind rose and discuss the orientation
of the runway and the direction planes would travel when they took off.
Bonus: Where on Earth would you find a wind rose like this? N
1 1. The accompanying maps of Africa show the distribution of precipitation
for Iuly and Ianuary. Which map represents Iuly and which represents Ian-
NW
uary? How were you able to figure this out?
W** E
-V SW
'
_
__
I
; ' _-
_
1 S
..*__-___ . \;-_ ___r_ - |*
, SE
I
‘\ ‘fa-4
’/

4
'3' _\' - .,.~ |.

J.

|
.-".|
,. i.('
-V
' \
-. A
5-0»-a**********A ' 1 '33 __ ___._,__l_-
, -
,, y
E l _._. :'_: — I \ 1"
4I
,-r
u 1.- ,4

|
I_"
i. . 1‘
. Ii-. '\--1;‘
\-_,..
| -F. ' '
. IT“-1

l . 1 l l I l I l 4 l

| R.
1

_._.,_
|

A < 25 mm
1i_ 25-50 mm
50-I50 mm
1 l>l50mm

In Review Chapter 18 Air Pressure and Wind

0 Air has weight. At sea level it exerts a pressure of I kilogram than surface winds because friction is greatly reduced aloft.
per square centimeter (14.7 pounds per square inch). Air Friction slows surface winds, which in turn reduces the Cori-
pressure is the force exerted by the weight of air above. With olis effect. The result is air movement at an angle across the
increasing altitude there is less air above to exert a force, and isobars toward the area of lower pressure.
thus air pressure decreases with altitude, rapidly at first, then The two types of pressure centers are (1) cyclones, or lows
much more slowly. The unit used by meteorologists to mea- (centers of low pressure), and (2) anticyclones, or highs (high-
sure atmospheric pressure is the millibar. Standard sea-level pressure centers). In the Northern Hemisphere, winds
pressure is expressed as 1013.2 millibars. Isobars are lines on a around a low (cyclone) are counterclockwise and inward.
weather map that connect places of equal air pressure. Around a high (anticyclone), winds are clockwise and out-
O A mercury barometer measures air pressure using a column of ward. In the Southern Hemisphere, the Coriolis effect causes
mercury in a glass tube that is sealed at one end and inverted winds to move clockwise around a low and counterclockwise
in a dish of mercury. As air pressure increases, the mercury in around a high. Because air rises and cools adiabatically in
the tube rises; conversely, when air pressure decreases, so low-pressure centers, cloudy conditions and precipitation are
does the height of the column of mercury. A mercury barom- often associated with their passage. In high-pressure centers,
eter measures atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury, the descending air is compressed and warmed; therefore, cloud
height of the column of mercury in the barometer. Standard formation and precipitation are unlikely, and “fair” weather is
atmospheric pressure at sea level equals 29.92 inches of mer- usually expected.
cury. Aneroid (without liquid) barometers consist of partially Earth’s global pressure zones include the equatorial low,
evacuated metal chambers that compress as air pressure subtropical high, subpolar low, and polar high. The global sur-
increases and expand as pressure deal-eaSeS_ face winds associated with these pressure zones are the trade
0 Wind is the horizontal flow of air from areas of higher pres- winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies.
sure toward areas of lower pressure. Winds are controlled by Particularly in the Northern Hemisphere, large seasonal tem-
the following combination of forces: (1) the pressure-gradient perature differences over continents disrupt the idealized, or
force (amount of pressure change over a given distance); zonal, global patterns of pressure and wind. In winter, large,
(2) the Coriolis eflect (deflective effect of Earth’s rotation to cold landmasses develop a seasonal high-pressure system
the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the from which surface airflow is directed off the land. In sum-
Southern Hemisphere); and (3)fi'iction with Earth’s surface mer, landmasses are heated and low pressure develops over
(slows the movement of air and alters wind direction). them, which permits air to flow onto the land. The seasonal
0 Upp er-air winds, called geostrophic winds, blow parallel to changes in wind direction are known as monsoons.
the isobars and reflect a balance between the pressure-gradi- In the middle latitudes, between 30 and 60 degrees latitude,
ent force and the Coriolis effect. Upper- air winds are faster the general west-to-east flow of the westerlies is interrupted
 g Mastering Geology 549

by migrating cyclones and anticyclones. The paths taken by
these pressure systems are closely related to upper-level air-
flow and the polar jet stream. The average position of the
polar jet stream, and hence the paths followed by cyclones,
migrates equatorward with the approach of winter and pole-
ward as summer nears.
0 Local winds are small-scale winds produced by a locally gen-
erated pressure gradient. Local winds include sea and land
breezes (formed along a coast because of daily pressure differ-
ences caused by the differential heating of land and water);
valley and mountain. breezes (daily wind similar to sea and
land breezes except in a mountainous area where the air
along slopes heats differently from the air at the same eleva-
tion over the valley floor); and chinoolc and Santa Ana winds
(warm, dry winds created when air descends the leeward side
of a mountain and warms by compression).
. The two basic wind measurements are direction and speed.
Winds are always labeled by the direction from which they
blow. Wind direction is measured with a wind vane, and wind
speed is measured using a cup anemometer:
. El Nino is the name given to the periodic warming of the ocean
that occurs in the central and eastern Pacific. It is associated
with periods when a weakened pressure gradient causes the
trade winds to diminish. A major El Nifio event triggers extreme
weather in many parts of the world. Vvhen surface temperatures
in the eastern Pacific are colder than average, a La Nina event is
triggered. A typical La Nifia winter blows colder-than-normal
air over the Pacific Northwest and the northern Great Plains
while warming much of the rest of the United States.
, The global distribution of precipitation is strongly influenced
by the global pattern of air pressure and wind, latitude, and
distribution of land and water.

Key Terms
air pressure (p. 526) geostrophic wind (p. 530) pressure gradient (p. 529)
aneroid barometer (p. 528) high (p. 533) pressure tendency (p. 534)
anticyclone (p. 533) isobar (p. 529) prevailing wind (p. 542)
barograph (p. 528) jet stream (p. 531) Santa Ana (p. 540)
barometric tendency (p. 534) land breeze (p. 540) sea breeze (p. 540)
chinook (p. 540) La Nina (p. 545) Southern Oscillation (p. 545)
convergence (p. 533) low (p. 533) subpolar low (p. 537)
Coriolis effect (p. 530) mercury barometer (p. 527) subtropical high (p. 537)
country breeze (p. 540) monsoon (p. 538) trade winds (p. 537)
cup anemometer (p. 542) mountain breeze (p. 540) valley breeze (p. 540)
cyclone (p. 533) polar easterlies (p. 537) westerlies (p. 537)
divergence (p. 533) polar front (p. 537) wind (p. 529)
ElNif1o (p. 544) polar high (p. 537) wind vane (p. 541)
equatorial low (p. 537)

Examining the Earth System

l. Examine the image of Africa in Figure 1.9B (p. 13) and pick p. 428.) What is the ultimate source of energy that drives
out the region dominated by the equatorial low and the areas both of these circulations?
influenced by the subtropical highs in each hemisphere.
3. Winds and ocean currents change in the tropical Pacific dur-
What clue(s) did you use? Speculate on the differences in the
ing an El Nino event. How might this impact the biosphere
biosphere between the regions dominated by high pressure
and geosphere in Peru and Ecuador? How about in Indone-
and the zone influenced by low pressure.
sia? (One useful Web site that deals with El Nino is NOAA’s El
2. How are global winds related to surface ocean currents? Nino Theme Page at http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/e1nino/
(Try comparing Figure 18.17, p. 539, with Figure 15.2, nino-home.html).

Mastering Geology
._, ‘_ _ _0 _ _|1
g TM Geoscience Animation Library: More than 100 animations
G E0 LGY illuminating many difficult-to-understand Earth science
r 1‘. '
concepts
Looking for additional review and test prep materials? Visit the , In The News RSS Feeds: Current Earth science events and
Self Study area in www.masteringgeology.com to find practice news articles are pulled into the site with assessment
quizzes, study tools, and multimedia that will aid in your under- , Pearson eText
standing of this chapter’s content. In MasteringGeology“' you , Optional Self Study Quizzes
will find: , Web Links
O GEODe: Earth Science: An interactive visual wallcthrough of ' Glossary
key concepts ' Flashcards