IHRDC Drill Bit Course

Bit Types and IADC Classifications
Drill bits come in a broad range of types that fall into two basic categories: roller cone bits and fixed cutter bits.
Roller Cone Bits

Roller cone bits are made up of cutting elements arranged on cones. These cones—sometimes two, but usually
three—are placed on bearings that allow them to turn about their own axis as the drill string rotates. (Figure
1:Example of a roller cone bit—Varel type L2, 4 34-inch diameter, steel tooth open bearing bit used in medium-to-
medium hard formations with high compressive strength. Courtesy of Varel International. All rights reserved.).
FIGURE 1
The two main types of roller cone bits are defined by their types of cutting elements. A milled steel tooth bit, like one
shown in Figure 1, consists of cutting elements that are fabricated as part of the cones. An insert or "button" bit
consists of separate cutting elements, pressed into specially machined holes in the cone (Figure 2: Example of a
roller cone bit insert bit —Varel A-Force, designed for air-drilling applications. Courtesy of Varel International. All
rights reserved.
FIGURE 2
Fixed Cutter Bits

Modern fixed cutter bits, in which stationary cutting elements are integral with the body of the bit and rotated directly
by the drill string, are descendants of the oldest rotary bit type, the drag or "fishtail" bit (Figure 3), which still may see
limited use in soft, unconsolidated formations.
FIGURE 3
Today, the most widely used fixed cutter bit types are polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits and natural
diamond bits (Figure 4 and Figure 5, respectively. Courtesy of Varel International. All rights reserved).
FIGURE 4
FIGURE 5
IADC Classification System

The International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC) has developed a standard system of classifying both
roller cone and fixed cutter bits, based on formation type and design variations. Consisting of simple numbered
codes, this system also provides a means of comparing different manufacturers' bit types. For a detailed description
of this system, refer to IADC/SPE paper 23937 ( McGehee et. al., 1992 ) — the IADC classification charts are also
available from many bit manufacturers' and distributors' web sites.
The IADC system is a valuable aid in bit selection and a useful tool for comparing the general features and formation
applicability of various bit types. But it is important to note that comparable bits are not necessarily
equivalent.Companies differ significantly in specific aspects of metallurgy and design, manufacturing techniques and
inspection standards (Craddock, 1973).
Roller Cone Bits

The classification system for roller cone bits uses a four-character code (XXXX) to describe bit characteristics and
areas of application.
 The first character in the classification code indicates the cutting structure series, while the second
character further specifies the cutting structure type within each series classification:
Series Formations Type
1 Steel tooth bit; Soft formations with low 1

compressive strength and high drillability
2
2 Steel tooth bit; Medium to medium-hard formations 1

with high compressive strength
3 Steel tooth bit; Hard semi- abrasive or abrasive 1

formations
4 Insert bit; Soft formations, low compressive 1

strength
5 Insert bit; Soft to medium-hard formations, low 1

compressive strength
2
6 Insert bit; Medium-hard formations, high 1

compressive strength
7 Insert bit; Hard semi- abrasive or abrasive 1

formations
8 Insert bit; Extremely hard and abrasive formations 1
4
 The third number indicates bearing type and whether or not the bit is gauge-protected:
1. Standard roller bearing
2. Roller bearing (air)
3. Roller bearing (gauge protected)
4. Sealed roller bearing
5. Sealed roller bearing (gauge protected)
6. Sealed friction bearing
7. Friction bearing (gauge protected)
 The fourth character designates additional special features and applications as follows:
A. Air application
B. Special bearing seal
C. Center jet
D. Deviation control
E. Extended jet
F. Extra gauge/body protection
G. Horizontal/steering application
H. Jet deflection
I. Lug pads
J. Motor application
K. Reinforced Welds
L. Standard Steel Tooth
M. Two cone
N. Enhanced cutting structure
O. Predominantly chisel inserts
P. Predominantly conical inserts
Q. Other Insert Shape
Example:
The Varel L2 bit shown in Figure 1 has an IADC classification of 211:
 21 indicates that the Varel L2 is a steel-tooth bit designed for medium to medium hard formations
with high compressive strength.;
 1 indicates that the cones on this bit have standard roller bearings.
 In this case, there is no fourth character to indicate special bit features.
Fixed Cutter Bits

The classification system for fixed cutter bits also uses a four-character code to describe bit characteristics and areas
of application.
 The first character of the IADC classification code for fixed cutter bits indicates the type of body
material and cutting elements:
First code
Body material, cutting elements
character
S Steel body, PDC cutters
M Matrix body, PDC cutters
D Matrix body, natural diamond cutters

First code
Body material, cutting elements
character
T Matrix body, thermally stable PDC cutters
O Other
 The second character, a digit from 1 to 9, identifies the bit shape, or profile. This indicates its durability
and the type of cutting action it provides:
Second
code Profile
character
1 Long taper, deep cone
2 Long taper, medium cone
3 Long taper, shallow or no cone

(parabolic)
4 Medium taper, deep cone
5 Medium taper, medium cone
6 Medium taper, shallow or no

cone (rounded)
7 Short taper, deep cone

(inverted)
8 Short taper, medium cone
9 Short taper, shallow or no cone

(flat)
 The third character identifies the bit's hydraulic design:
Third
code Hydraulic features
character
1 Bladed/changeable jets
2 Bladed/fixed ports
3 Bladed/open throat
4 Ribbed/changeable jets
5 Ribbed/fixed ports
6 Ribbed/open throat
7 Open face/changeable jets
8 Open face/fixed ports
9 Open face/open throat
10 Alternative codes:
a. radial flow
b. cross-flow
c. other
 The fourth character identifies the size (large, medium, small) and density (light, medium, heavy) of the
bit's cutting elements.
Bit Hydraulics
Roller cone and PDC bits are designed to accommodate nozzles of varying diameters (Figure 6 : 17 12-inch TCI bit
showing nozzle directly below cones. Courtesy of Varel International. All rights reserved.). These nozzles serve as
the conduits through which drilling fluid passes at high velocity to clean the bit's cutting elements and remove drilled
formation particles from the bottom of the hole. Nozzles are made of hard metal to resist erosion.
FIGURE 6
Bit nozzle diameters typically are expressed in 32nds of an inch. For example, if the bit nozzles are described as “12-
13-13,” this denotes that the bit contains one nozzle having a diameter of 1232 in. and two nozzles having a diameter
of1332 in. (note that for diameters of 2032 inch and above, only "even" numbered sizes are available,
e.g., 2232, 2432 and so on). When calculating the flow through nozzles, a nozzle discharge coefficient of 0.95 is
normally recommended.
Flat-Bottom Bits
Flat-bottom bits (Figure 7: Impax ® percussion bit. Courtesy of Smith Technologies) are sometimes used in air or gas
drilling with air hammers. These tool combinations are employed in extremely hard formations to allow for fast drilling
with low weight on bit. They are also used for drilling surface rocks in the mountains before enough drill collars are
added to obtain weight on bit. Sometimes they are used to drill straight holes in crooked-hole areas with low weight
on bit.
FIGURE 7
Another application of the tools is to drill horizontal holes where limited weight on bit is available. The connection of a
flat-bottom bit to an air hammer is shown in (Figure 8: Impax 8 ® percussion hammer. Courtesy of Smith
Technologies).
Rock Failure Mechanisms
Bits are designed to induce rock failure. Because rock failure can occur in different ways, depending on the formation
and on downhole conditions, there are a large number of design variations among roller cone and fixed cutter bits. To
evaluate these design variations and select a bit, we first need a basic understanding of how rocks fail and how
formation conditions affect drilling performance.
The Stress-Strain Relationship

Stress is the force applied to a unit area of material. An analysis of the stresses acting on a particular object can
become quite involved. For this discussion, however, we can define three basic components of stress:
 compressive stress (a pushing or squeezing force)
 tensile stress (a pulling or elongating force)
 shear stress (a slicing or cleaving force).
Strain is the deformation that a material experiences in response to an applied stress. This deformation may take
one of two forms, depending on the nature of the material and the magnitude of the applied stress:
 Elastic: If the applied stress is below the elastic limit of the material, the material returns to its original
shape and size once the stress is removed.)
 Plastic: If the applied stress exceeds the material's elastic limit, the material experiences permanent
deformation; further stress increases result in additional deformation.).
Above a certain stress limit, a material will rupture, or break. If it ruptures before significant plastic deformation
occurs, it is described as brittle. If it ruptures only after experiencing significant plastic deformation, it is
consideredductile. Under different conditions, the same material may exhibit either brittle or ductile behavior.
Stress Response in Sedimentary Rocks

At atmospheric pressure, sedimentary rocks are normally brittle. They become ductile under high confining stress if
there is no communication between the internal rock pore pressure and the surrounding pressure medium.
Figure 1 and Figure 2, comparing the stress/strain plots of Mancos shale and rock salt, respectively, illustrate this
brittle/plastic transition and show some marked differences in stress response between the two materials. In each
case, stress is plotted on the y-axis in psi, and strain is plotted on the x-axis as a percentage of the original sample
length.
FIGURE 1
FIGURE 2
For the Mancos shale:

 At zero (i.e., atmospheric) confining pressure, the shale experienced brittle failure at 7,000 psi after being
compressed approximately 1%;
 At 1,000 psi confining pressure, the shale experienced brittle failure at 9,000 psi axial stress after being
compressed 2.5%;
 At 2,000 psi confining pressure, the shale became completely ductile (plastic) and much stronger.
It yielded (permanently deformed) at 12,000 psi axial stress after being compressed 6%. It then required
the same axial compressive stress to continuously compress the shale sample about 20%, which was the
limit of the test apparatus;
 Between 4,000 psi and 6,000 psi confining pressure, the shale became significantly stronger, requiring
much higher levels of axial stress to initiate yield. At 6,000 psi, it required 20,500 psi of axial stress for the
rock to yield.
Rock salt exhibits the same transition from brittle to plastic failure, but at much lower levels of confining stress — it
becomes completely ductile and will flow at confining pressures of 800 psi and greater.
Figure 3 (zero confining stress) and Figure 4 (3000 psi confining stress) illustrate the stress/strain behavior of a
cylindrical sample of porous limestone.
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 4
 As shown, the sample was placed in a testing chamber and subjected to hydraulic compression.
 At zero confining pressure (i.e., atmospheric conditions), the rock experienced brittle fracture at 12,000
psi compressive stress, with less than 1% strain.
Another limestone sample, identical to the first, was placed in the chamber and subjected to 3000 psi confining
pressure. The compressive stress was raised to 24,000 psi with no rock fractures; the sample experienced about a
12% length deformation, changing to a permanent "barrel" shape.
Experiments like these give some insight into the condition of rock in situ, or downhole, and how it affects drilling.
Wellbore Pressure Effects

The experiments summarized above show that confining pressure has a significant effect on rock behavior. To
translate this observation into practical terms, we need to apply these laboratory conditions to the wellbore.
The confining pressure at the bottom of a wellbore is equal to the difference between the pressure exerted by the
column of drilling fluid in the hole and the pore pressure, or internal pressure, of the rock. This quantity is commonly
expressed as differential pressure, or ΔP.
The value of ΔP defines the hole condition as underbalanced, balanced or overbalanced (Figure 5). Each of these
hole conditions, together with temperature and rate of deformation, affects rock failure mechanisms, which in turn
affect penetration rate.
FIGURE 5
Penetration rate is also affected by a pressure-related phenomenon known as chip hold-down. Chip hold-down
occurs when a mud filter cake or fine solids block fractures produced by the bit. This prevents the liquid phase of the
mud from invading the fractures, and results in a positive pressure differential across the top surface of the chip. The
hold-down force is equal to the area of the chip times the differential pressure (Figure 6 ).
FIGURE 6
Underbalanced Condition
If the pressure exerted by the fluid column is less than the pore pressure of the formation, the differential pressure is
less than zero, and the well is being drilled in an underbalanced condition. This condition most often occurs when
drilling with air, fresh water or muds weighing less than 8.6 lbgal.
In underbalanced drilling, the rock exhibits brittle behavior — it has a relatively low failure strength and fractures very
easily. Because the rock surface is in tension, it virtually explodes under the compressive loads of the bit. There is no
downward pressure to promote chip hold-down, and so there is very little re grinding of already-drilled cuttings. This
helps attain very high rates of penetration.
Although its benefits are evident, underbalanced drilling is feasible only in areas where formation fluids can be easily
controlled and there is no danger of a blowout.
Balanced Condition
When the pressure of the fluid column is equal to the pore pressure, the hole is in a balanced condition. This
condition generally occurs when drilling with brine water or mud weighing 8.6 lbgal.
Under balanced conditions, the rock is still in the brittlestate and fractures relatively easily. The bottom of the hole is
in pressure equilibrium, so there is minimal stress concentration present to either enhance or slow penetration rates.
Penetration rates are generally slower than those experienced in an underbalanced drilling, because there is some
chip hold-down resulting from cohesive forces between the rock cuttings, along with interference due to fluid
viscosity.
Balanced drilling, like underbalanced drilling, presents blowout risks, and is an option only when there is no likelihood
of unexpected increases in formation pressure.
Overbalanced Condition
In overbalanced drilling, the pressure of the mud column exceeds the formation pore pressure. In areas with normal
pressure gradients, this condition occurs when the mud weight exceeds 8.6 ppg. For safety reasons, overbalanced
drilling is normal practice in most areas.
As the differential pressure increases in an overbalanced hole, the rock below the bit becomes increasingly strong
and ductile. The hole bottom is in a state of compression, thus retarding fracture propagation caused by the bit.
These factors, along with a high degree of chip hold-down, tend to slow penetration rates. If the differential pressure
is too high, the mud can fracture the formation, resulting in lost circulation and possibly a blowout.
Differential pressures ranging from 2,000 to 6,000 psi are not uncommon in south Louisiana, south Texas, the North
Sea, the Middle East and other deep basins. The induced rock strength and large chip hold-down forces created by
these high differential pressures can make roller cone bits drill very slowly in rocks that would normally be soft and
easily drilled. A plot of penetration rate versus differential pressure (Figure 7) shows the dramatic effect that
increasing overbalance has on drilling rates.
FIGURE 7
Rock sample: Mancos shale
Mud: Water-base, 10 lbgal
Circulation rate: 320 GPM
Bits used: 778′′ Smith F2
Bit nozzles: Three (3), 1232′′ diameter
Weight on bit: 35,000 lb
Rotary rpm: 80
The only condition that changed during this experiment was the differential pressure, which was 700 psi for the first
set of bit runs, 1,200 psi for the second set of bit runs and 2,500 psi for the third set of bit runs. Table 1 and Figure
8summarize the test results.
Table 1. Effect of Differential Pressure on Bit
Performance
Test ΔP,
ROP,fthr Bottom-hole Pattern (Figure 8)
No. psi
1 700 62 Good rock breakage and full bottomhole

coverage with good interconnection of
tooth craters: nominal hole diameter = 778′′
2 1200 7 Poor rock breakage, badly tracking
pattern; no tooth-crater interaction; hole
somewhat oval-shaped: major diameter =
814′′
3 2500 0 - 0.5 Extremely poor rock breakage with
gyrating/tracking pattern. Oval-shaped;
major diameter = 858′′
FIGURE 8
Note that with all other conditions held constant, the increase in differential pressure resulted in dramatically reduced
penetration rates and increased chip hold-down.
Normal drilling practice calls for maintaining mud weight 0.2 to 0.4 lbgal higher than the equivalent mud weight of the
formation. While this practice provides a safety factor for well control, it can also result in high differential pressures
(Figure 9) which, in turn, can severely limit drilling rates.
FIGURE 9
Roller Cone Bit Geometry
The shape and profile of a bit depends partly on hole-size constraints and partly on the type of cutting action desired.
The one unalterable constraint on overall bit design is the diameter of the hole to be drilled. Bit components must be
of the proper sizes and proportions to fit within this limited space. Hole size determines which design variations are
possible, and sometimes makes it necessary to enhance one design element at the expense of another. The larger
the hole size, the more flexible designers can be in developing a well-balanced, optimum-performing bit.
Cone Profile Angle

Because it is not possible to fit three true rolling cones into the confined diameter of the borehole, designers must
align them at an angle. Cone profile angle is a design concession to hole-size restrictions. There are normally three
types of cone profile angles on tri-cone bits:
 Inner cone profile angle, in which the front part of the cone is trying to roll around an axis which is
normally past the center of the bit;
 Intermediate cone profile angle, in which the intermediate section of the cone rotates around an axis
that is generally in the area just outside the bit diameter;
 Outer cone angle, or gauge, in which the apex of the outer cone is trying to revolve around a point
considerably outside the bit's outside diameter.
The result of these cone angles is that the gauge (outer) rows produce a trailing/skidding action, while the inner rows
are in approximately a true roll and the intermediate cone angle is a major area of bit wear.
Journal Angle and Offset

The geometric design features that determine cutting action are the journal angle (where the journal is the bearing
portion of the bit leg, as shown in Figure 1), and the offset.
FIGURE 1
Journal Angle
The journal angle, by definition, is the angle formed by the intersection of a line perpendicular to the axis (or center
line) of the journal and the center line of the bit.
Soft formation bits (Figure 2) have smaller journal angles than hard formation bits (Figure 3). For example, a soft or
medium formation bit may have a journal angle of 32.5°, while a medium hard or hard formation bit may have a
journal angle of 36°. Some specialty bits have a 39° journal angle.
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3
Journal angle determines the following design parameters:

 Out-thrust load: By design, all three-cone bits load in an outboard or out-thrust manner.
 Journal diameter: The journal diameter must be large enough to provide adequate strength so that the
journal will not fail under high bit loads or rough drilling conditions such as bit bouncing. Note that the
journal and leg of the bit are moment arm-type structures, which can deflect under load and load cycles.
These cycles can produce fatigue and breakage, resulting in the loss of the journal/cone assembly in the
hole.
 Inner cone angles:As shown in Figure 2 and Figure 3, soft formation bit types with low journal angles
(32.5°) have greater cone profile angles and a higher crowned bottom hole profile than hard formation,
higher journal angle (36°) bits. Higher journal angle bits have a flat bottom-hole profile.
 Roller bearing diameters and lengths: Journal angle affects the size and length of various roller
bearing type bit designs.
 Shape of gauge teeth and degree of gauge tooth cutting action: The journal angle, together with the
amount of offset in angle bit design, affects the gauge tooth shape and the degree of cutting action it
provides.
Offset
Offset is the horizontal distance between the center line of the bit and a vertical plane through the center-line of the
journal.
Figure 4 shows this offset as a positive displacement in the direction of rotation (some bit companies measure offset
in inches, while others measure it in degrees. Typical bit offsets range from 0º to 5º).
FIGURE 4
In general, the greater the offset distance on a bit, the higher the degree of gouging/scraping cutting action it has.
Soft formation bits generally have offsets that are considerably larger than those of hard formation bits (Figure 5).
FIGURE 5
All bits are designed with some amount of positive offset. If a bit were to have a negative offset, it would produce a
skidding and trailing action in the cutting structure, resulting in reduced penetration rates, abnormal wear of the
cutting structure and premature failure.
The following bit parameters depend on offset:
 In-thrust load: The greater a bit's offset, the more the gauge contact between the cone and the borehole
wall is reduced and, therefore, the greater the in-thrust loading (remember that by design geometry, all
three-cone bits load in an out-thrust manner).
 Shape of the gauge teeth: The greater a bit's offset, the more aggressive (i.e., gouging/scraping) is its
cutting action. To facilitate this cutting action in soft formation bits, the cutting structures are made as long
and thin as possible. Hard formation bits with less offset use shorter, broader teeth or inserts to increase
resistance to breakage and wear;
 Degree of reaming action and gauge tooth wear: The greater the offset, the less the amount of contact
between the gauge face of the cone and the borehole wall-bits with zero offset would have maximum hole
contact.
This is important to understand because as offset increases, the tooth round decreases and tooth space increases. It
is therefore necessary, when gauging a soft formation bit, to position a gauge tooth at the gauge point. Otherwise, a
gauge ring can be passed over the cutting structure, creating the illusion that a new bit is out of gauge.
The amount of contact that the cutter has with the borehole wall will, of course, influence the degree of wear and the
life of the gauge tooth.
Cutting Elements
The two basic categories of rolling cutter bits are defined by their cutting elements. A bit may either have milled steel
teeth or tungsten carbide inserts.
Milled Steel Tooth Cutters

Milled steel tooth cutters are an integral part of the bit cone. Their design parameters include shape, spacing and
positioning on the cone, and hardfacing patterns.
Shape, Spacing and Positioning

Soft formation bits have long, relatively thin teeth that are spaced widely apart on the cone (Figure 1).
FIGURE 1
This configuration promotes a gouging/scraping action that results in high penetration rates with minimal weight on
bit. Unfortunately, these long teeth are especially susceptible to breakage in harder rock. Hard formation bits
therefore have shorter, smaller, more closely spaced teeth designed to drill at higher bit weights (Figure 2).
FIGURE 2
Figure 3 illustrates the following design parameters relating to shape and positioning of the teeth:
FIGURE 3
 Teeth are positioned on the cone in rows, with the inner rows on each cone meshing with one another.
 This tooth arrangement provides the optimum design space for a given hole size, promotes self-cleaning
of the teeth as the bit turns, and provides maximum hole coverage;
 Indentations or interruptions, also called skip spacing, may be placed on the heel (outer) row of teeth.
These indentations, which are smaller than the teeth themselves, help prevent cuttings from wedging
between teeth. They also help in reducing the tracking at the formation face.
Hard-facing
Hard-facing—the selective application of ground particles of tungsten carbide in a welded matrix— has become an
important component in tooth design. Application of hard-facing material can reduce tooth wear, thereby increasing
both the average penetration rate and overall footage for the bit run. Manufactures can selectively apply hard-facing
to inner and gauge teeth in a variety of patterns that not only protect the teeth, but promote self sharpening
wear. Figure 4 shows some typical hard-facing patterns.
FIGURE 4
Tungsten Carbide Inserts

Tungsten-carbide insert (TCIs) are not part of the cone material. Rather, they are separate elements, pressed into
specially machined holes in the cone. TCIs can be placed either as gauge inserts (along the outside of the cone) or
inner row inserts.
Insert Shape
Shape is an important criterion in insert design. The same general rule of thumb applies for inserts as for milled teeth:
long-extension, chisel-shaped inserts for soft formations, and short-extension, rounded "button" inserts for hard
formations. Beyond this basic guideline, inserts can have a variety of shapes, several of which are described below.
Gauge Chisel: This type of insert (Figure 5) has a flat surface on gauge, giving it considerable contact area with the
borehole compared to other gauge shapes.
It normally has a short extension, and is susceptible to heat generation and cracking. The standard chisel on gauge
design can be of various lengths, and has a radial surface in contact with the hole wall.
FIGURE 5
Inclined Gauge Chisel: This is a special-angle insert designed to actually drill in gauge rather than using a
conventional wiping/reaming action (Figure 6).
FIGURE 6
Conical: This insert type is symmetrical (parabolic) and shaped much like a bullet. It varies in length and extension
(Figure 7).
FIGURE 7
Semi-round top: Hemispherical in shape, this insert type is also used for diamond-enhanced insert designs (Figure
8).
FIGURE 8
Wedge crest chisel: This is similar to the gauge chisel except that the crest, rather than being straight like a tooth, is
flared out. The insert has a flat surface contacting the hole wall
Chisel crest inserts: These are shaped much like the teeth on milled tooth bits. The more aggressive, speed-
responsive, soft formation insert bits utilize extended chisel crest designs with long protrusion or extension from the
cone shell. These inserts normally have sharp crests and low included angles.
Medium and short chisel shapes have relatively large crest radii and included angles, resulting in greater cross-
sectional areas than are found on long shapes. This makes them stronger and more capable of drilling higher-
strength formations without chipping and breaking.
Materials
The various grades of tungsten carbide may be categorized in terms of their abrasion and impact resistance:
 Abrasion Resistance: The “G-Ratio” measures cutter wear in turning down a standard granite cylinder.
The ratio is calculated by dividing the volume of granite removed by the volume of diamond removed
during the test.
 Impact Resistance: The cutter impact test provides a comparative standard of impact toughness. The
energy required to reach pre- defined damage conditions serves as the measurement of relative impact
toughness.
Bearings
Bearings are what separate roller cone bits from fixed cutter bits. They enable the cones to turn on their axes so that
the teeth or inserts can perform their cutting action. Bearing selection can have a significant influence on bit life.
Bearing Types
Roller cone bits are equipped with either roller bearings (open or sealed) or journal bearings. Within these
categories are three basic, commonly-used bearing structures: roller-ball-friction, roller-ball-roller and friction-
ball-friction.
Roller-Ball-Friction Assembly
A standard roller-ball-friction assembly consists of roller bearings in the main bearing, ball bearings (cone retention
system) and a friction bearing in the nose (front). This design is used in all open (non-seal) bearing bits and also in
some sealed roller bearing bits (Figure 1. Courtesy of Ural BMT (http://uralbmt.com)).
FIGURE 1
Roller-Ball-Roller Assembly
A roller-ball-roller assembly consists of roller bearings in the main bearing, ball bearings in the middle and roller
bearings in the nose area (replacing the friction bearing). This bearing design is used in 12" and larger bits, and
would be found in both open bearing (non-seal) bits and sealed roller bearing bits (Figure 2: Roller bearing, TCI bit.
Courtesy of Varel International. All rights reserved)
FIGURE 2
Friction-Ball-Friction Assembly
A friction-ball-friction assembly, consists of a friction bearing in the main bearing area, ball bearings in the middle and
a friction bearing in the nose. This design is used in all journal bearing bits (Figure 3: Journal bearing, steel-tooth bit.
Courtesy of Varel International. All rights reserved).
FIGURE 3
Friction-ball-friction type bits have four basic designs:

 Friction pad, utilizing a welded-in bearing material in the main bearing portion of the cone;
 Segmented sleeve, which uses a two-piece bearing sleeve that fits between the cased surface in the
main bearing portion of the cone and the welded material on the load side of the leg journal. This sleeve
serves as a slip bearing that acts as a speed reducer, and eliminates the need for welding inside the cone
bore;
 Solid journal, which utilizes a welded pad on the load side of the leg journal, but has a solid 360°
precision ground-bearing surface on the leg journal. This gives maximum cone leg contact and provides
balance and stability;
 Spinodal one-piece split sleeve, which consists of a solid 3600 precision ground bearing with a cased
bearing surface in the main bearing of the cone, a welded pad on the load side of the leg journal and a
floating single split sleeve bearing which acts as a slip bearing or speed reducer.
Bearing Selection
The modes of failure for roller bearing and journal bearing bits differ significantly. To select a bit type for a specific
application, we need to understand these differences.
The mode of failure for roller bearing bits is spalling. The rolling bearings deflect a case-hardened roller bearing race
on the leg journal. At some combination of load and number of cycles, the roller race reaches its endurance limit and
fatigue failure of the case occurs, causing the race to break up or "spall." As space is created through this spalling
action, the roller bearings stack up on each other, creating a very high lockup torque. Banging of the rotary table,
together with "jumping" and torquing-up of the drill string, are surface indicators of this lockup torque. These
indications usually occur before the cone is lost from the bit, thus providing an early warning of bearing failure.
Journal bearing bits have friction bearing surfaces or sleeve bearing designs that can carry higher loads, but that also
require a sealed lubricant environment. Bearing failure occurs when fluid leaks into the seals as a result of wear. The
small torque increases that indicate failure may be very hard to detect; even when detected, they are frequently
attributed to the formation rather than to seal/bearing failure. The time interval during which complete failure occurs is
very short in comparison to roller bearing bits, thereby increasing the potential for cone loss.
Because roller bearing failure is much easier to recognize than journal bearing failure, a sealed roller bearing bit may
be preferable to a journal bearing bit when drilling at high rotary speeds (i.e., 250-300 rpm), or when using a
downhole mud motor or turbine. Such a practice may lessen the likelihood of losing a cone in the hole.
In general, due to point loading in the roller bearings, roller bearing bits cannot take as much weight as journal
bearing bits.
PDC Bits
Shear bits are traditionally made either of steel, or from a tungsten carbide matrix powder.
Steel body bits can be made from bar stock or cast alloy castings. They are capable of withstanding severe impact
and torsional loads without suffering blade breakage. Steel is therefore the preferred material for high stand-off,
fishtail-bladed bits, and for use in larger-diameter holes. To enhance the steel's erosion resistance, a variety of
tungsten carbide coatings are available.
Tungsten carbide matrix powder is the most erosion-resistant body material now in use — unfortunately, it can also
be very brittle. Matrix body bits are therefore most often used in smaller diameter holes and in those applications
where high-solids mud or very high flow rates are required.
Matrix body bits are fabricated using powder metallurgy techniques. The graphite molding process allows for very fast
response time in bringing new matrix bit designs to the field.
Diamond Cutting Elements

The natural diamonds used in fixed cutter oilfield drill bits typically range from one stone per carat to 15 stones per
carat. The larger diamonds are used to drill softer formations, and are surface set into the matrix bit body material—
that is, two-thirds of the diamond is buried into the matrix, while one-third is exposed on the surface of the bit. Small
diamonds (8 to 10 stones per carat or smaller) can be completely buried into ridges of tungsten carbide matrix
powder to protect the diamond from fracture when drilling extremely hard or abrasive formations—bits set in this
manner are referred to as ridge set.
Synthetic diamonds can be thermally stable, capable of withstanding the same temperature as natural diamonds, or
non-thermally stable polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) material.
PDC cutters are available in a variety of sizes and shapes. As with natural diamonds, the larger-diameter PDC cutters
are used for drilling softer formations. Soft formation fishtail bits often use 19 mm (34′′) diameter cutters to shear
large chips of shale. Large cutter bits tend to generate more torque than bits with smaller diameter cutters, and so are
most susceptible to impact damage. When hard stringers are anticipated, it is common practice to use smaller, 13
mm (12′′) PDC cutters. In some hard formations, 9 mm (38′′) cutters have been used with good results.
Initially, PDC cutters were always round and flat. Subsequent advances in transition layer technology have enabled
the development of shaped cutters that are much more impact-resistant than flat cutters, and provide additional
benefits as well. Dome shaped cutters, for example, provide side-to-side curvature for better cleaning, and top-to-
bottom curvature for more stable cutting action.
The impact and abrasion resistant characteristics of PDC are largely dependent upon the diamond grain size. A
larger diamond grain size makes the diamond compact more impact resistant but lowers abrasion resistance. A
smaller diamond grain size increases abrasion resistance but reduces impact resistance. In other words, the harder
the cutter's grade, the more brittle it becomes. Because of these trade-offs, PDC grades used by different companies
have included products with a compromise between wear resistance and impact resistance somewhere in the middle
range of the trade off curve. However, the industry is developing an optimized structure with both better abrasion
resistance and impact resistance.
Cutter Layout
All diamonds, whether natural or synthetic, are distributed across the bit face so that for each revolution of the bit,
there is an equal volume of rock removed per cutter. With the help of computer-aided design programs,
manufacturers can refine basic cutter layouts to eliminate potential weak areas along the cutting structure and obtain
optimum bottomhole profiles.
PDC cutters are set into the bit with specified attack angles into the rock. These attack angles are referred to as the
cutter orientation, or rake angles. A cutter that is perpendicular to the rock face has a zero rake angle, while a cutter
that leans forward into the formation like a plow tilling soil has a positive rake angle and a cutter that leans slightly
back from the formation exhibits back rake (Figure 1). Back rake defines the cutter's aggressiveness, or degree of
gouging/scraping action.
FIGURE 1
Extensive laboratory and field tests have proven that the cutter orientation must correspond to the formation
hardness. Harder formations require greater back rake angles to give durability to the cutting structure and reduce
"chatter" or vibration. Softer formations can be drilled more aggressively with less back rake.
Designers often vary back rake angles across the face of the bit to more evenly distribute the workload of the drilling
action through the cutter. For example, rake angles might be close to zero in the bit center and greatest in the gauge
section to maximize bit life and produce even wear.
Side rake angle refers to the side-to-side orientation of the cutter (Figure 2).
FIGURE 2
Having some degree of side rake aids in mechanical cleaning of the bit face by orienting the cutter face slightly
towards the outside of the bit. This directs cuttings to the annulus instead of to the front of the cutter, so that re-
grinding of cuttings does not occur. Side rake also helps to stabilize the bit.
Dome-shaped cutters have variable back rake and side rake angles. The back rake angle is smallest where the
cross-sectional area of the cutter is smallest. Conversely, the back rake is smallest and most aggressive where the
cross-sectional area is greatest. In a homogeneous formation, this characteristic allows the dome cutter to drill
throughout its life at a consistent penetration rate. Variable rake angle is also an advantage in drilling interbedded
formations. In softer drilling, where the depth of cut is greater, the dome cutter is at the more aggressive portion of its
curvature, giving a greater attack angle and thus a higher penetration rate. In harder formations, where the depth of
cut is less, the dome cutter attacks the formation with a higher degree of back rake, resulting in lower penetration
rates but greater durability.
Fixed Cutter Bit Profile and Hydraulics

Profile
The shape of the head on a fixed cutter bit is called its profile. Bits designed for very soft formations have long,
parabolic, sharp-nosed profiles, while harder-formation bits have compressed, wide-nosed profiles. Figure 1illustrates
bit profile and labels the parts of a diamond bit head (synonyms for the most commonly used terms are shown in
parentheses).
FIGURE 1
The location of the bit nose in terms of its distance from center line and the sharpness of the nose radius curvature
indicate the prevalent type of cutting action and the durability of the bit design. The closer the nose is to the center
line of the bit, the more aggressive the bit's cutting action; the more generous the bit's nose radius, the greater its
durability.
Bit profile is designated by the second character of the 4-digit IADC classification code, as shown in Figure 2, Figure
3, and Figure 4.
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 3
FIGURE 4
Hydraulic Systems
Many natural diamond bits are designed without nozzles; the hydraulic calculations that apply to these bits are quite
different from those used for bits with nozzles. When a diamond bit is used in the right type of formation and with
optimized driling parameters, only the diamonds contact the formation, leaving a narrow space between the body of
the bit and the formation. Drilling fluid flows from the central opening of the bit, along grooves or watercourses
molded into the body of the bit, and then across these narrow spaces, cooling the diamonds and carrying the small
rock fragments (Sampaio, 2007).
The fluid flow in natural diamond bits exits the bit through a crow foot, originally named for the three-toe shape of the
exit ports on a natural diamond bit. A more recent six-fingered design, or split crow foot, is also available to provide
improved fluid distribution and cooling of the bit (Figure 5)
FIGURE 5
The crow foot opens to waterways arranged in either feeder-collector or radial feeder-collector flow patterns
(Figure 6 and Figure 7).
FIGURE 6
FIGURE 7
Feeder-collector patterns, also known as cross-flow patterns, are composed of alternating feeder waterways, which
are radial flow lines, and collectors, which are zero pressure zones. The V-shaped collectors do not connect to the
crowfoot, and therefore receive no incoming fluid through the bit inside diameter. Rather, they take fluid from the
feeder waterways. This cross-flow process drags the drilling fluid across the diamond pads to cool the diamonds.
Feeder-collector patterns are especially applicable in situations where heat dissipation is expected to be a problem.
Turbine drilling and drilling in hard, abrasive formations requires the use of such patterns.
In a radial flow pattern, the waterways begin at the crowfoot exit and proceed directly toward the outside diameter of
the bit. These waterways can be straight or curved. A reverse spiral, curving forward in the direction of the bit's
rotation, forces fluid over the diamond pads to cool the diamonds. Natural diamond bits with radial flow patterns
provide faster cleaning at high penetration rates.
Jet nozzles are used in nearly all PDC bits. They can be placed and oriented to efficiently direct drilling fluid for the
removal of large volumes of cuttings. In soft-to-medium formations drilled with PDC bits, most of this hydraulic energy
is used to clean cuttings from the bottom of the hole.
The hydraulics calculations used for determining nozzle sizes in PDC bits are identical to the calculations used for
roller cone bits.
As a general rule, PDC bits are designed to use the largest possible nozzle diameter that is consistent with other bit
size constraints to keep fluid velocities in high flow rate environments below the nozzle erosion threshold.
Nozzle orientation, or impingement angle, is designed to prevent excessive splashback, which could erode the bit
blades. To prevent turbulent eddies, the inside bore of the bit is made as smooth as possible.
PDC bits exhibit no significant pump-off force; fluid courses along the bit continually expand to allow for fast cuttings
removal.
Tungsten Carbide nozzles are produced for downhole drilling and pressure control. Tungsten carbide lasts longer
than conventional material, and improves the ability of the nozzle to handle the stress of high speed in PDC bits.
These nozzles are used to improve ROP and reduce bit balling by increasing the hydraulic horsepower per square-
inch (HSI) at the bit. Tungsten carbide nozzles also minimize the system pressure losses that result from the nozzle
port eroding out on the PDC bits (Limbert et. al., 2009).
Summary of Design Features
We may group the design features of fixed cutter drill bits to apply to different types of formations, as shown in Table
1below. Note that natural diamond bits that use large stones tend to use radial flow hydraulics, while smaller-stone
natural diamond bits used in harder formations require the feeder-collector arrangement.
Table 1: Summary of Design Features, Fixed Cutter Bits
Formation Hardness Diamond Type Profile Hydraulic

System
38′′ PDC Long Parabola Nozzles

Soft
Short Parabola Nozzles

12′′ PDC
B-Crown
Medium Short Parabola Nozzles

38′′ PDC
Concave
1 stone per carat Long Parabola Radial
3-4 stones per carat Short Parabola Radial
Feeder-collector
Hard 8-15 stones per carat B-Crown Feeder-collector

Bit Hydraulics
Hydraulic conditions at the bit are as important as its mechanical design features in determining overall drilling
performance. The objective of a drilling hydraulics program is to maximize bit life and penetration rate by efficiently
removing cuttings as they are drilled, and by cleaning, cooling and lubricating the bit and drill string. To accomplish
this, the hydraulics system must deliver the optimal amount of energy to the bit.
Parameters that influence drilling hydraulics include formation characteristics, mud properties, circulating rate and
pressure, hole size and system pressure losses. In general, the easiest, most practical method of optimizing
hydraulics energy is to utilize the system pressure losses by varying the size of the bit nozzles.
General Concepts
The amount of energy that is transferred from the surface to the bit is usually expressed in terms of hydraulic
horsepower, impact force or fluid velocity. Bit hydraulics programs are designed to maximize one of these
quantities under a given set of operating conditions.
Bit hydraulic horsepower (HHP), impact force (IF) and fluid velocity (V) are related to the pressure drop across the
bit and the flow rate of the drilling fluid. We may express these quantities as follows:
HHP=ΔPbit⋅q1714(1)
HHP per square inch=HSI=HHPAflow(2)
IF=0.0173⋅q⋅(ΔPbit⋅MW)12(3)
Fluid Velocity=0.32086⋅qAflow [ftsec](4)
where:
HHP, IF and V are expressed in units of horsepower, pounds and feet per second, respectively
ΔPbit= pressure drop across bit, psi
q= flow rate, gallonsminute
MW= mud weight, pounds per gallon
1714 and 0.32086= conversion constants
Aflow= total flow area across the bit, square inches
The pressure drop across the bit face, ΔPbit, is given by the formula:
ΔPbit=MW⋅q210,858⋅A2flow(5)
Where the flow rate and mud properties are constant, Aflow is the one factor that will cause the HHP, fluid velocity
and pressure drop across the bit to vary. It follows, therefore, that we can control these quantities by changing the
flow area (i.e., nozzle sizes) at the face of the bit.
We may also express the pressure drop across the bit in terms of the surface pressure at the mud pumps and the
pressure losses in the circulating system:
ΔPbit=Psurf−Psys(6)
Where:
Psurf= surface pressure at mud pump discharge
Psys= pressure losses through circulating system, including surface equipment, drill string and drill string/hole
It can be shown mathematically that:
 Bit hydraulic horsepower reaches a maximum when the pressure drop across the bit is equal to
approximately 65% of the mud pump discharge pressure, or
ΔPbit=0.65⋅Psurf(7)
 Bit impact force reaches a maximum when the pressure drop across the bit is equal to approximately 48%
of the mud pump discharge pressure, or
ΔPbit=0.48⋅Psurf(8)
For derivations of these relationships, refer to the section titled, "Determination of Optimal Bit Energy", which is found
under the heading, "References & Additional Information".
For a given flow rate through a particular drill string, and with constant mud properties, Psys will be a constant. The
limiting factor on ΔPbit is the pressure that can be supplied by the mud pumps. That is, if pressure losses in the
circulating system should increase with increasing well depth, and the mud pump is already working at its maximum
operating pressure, there will be less pressure available at the bit.
Hydraulics Optimization
To determine the optimal nozzle flow area where circulating rates are limited by mud pump capacity, annular velocity
restrictions or other considerations, we can use the following procedure:
1. Determine the maximum available or allowable pump pressure.
2. Calculate the pressure system losses for established circulation rates — there are a number of service
company hydraulics programs and graphic methods available for doing this.
3. Determine the maximum available bit pressure drop using the formula
ΔPbit=Psurf−Pcirc
4. Size the bit nozzles using equation 5
ΔPbit=W⋅q210,858⋅A2flow
Note: When a bit uses two or three jet nozzles, we must divide Aflow by the number of nozzles to
obtain Anozzle, which is the area for each nozzle. The nozzle diameter D is then calculated by the
relationship
dnozzle=(4π⋅Anozzle)12(9)
In English units, dnozzle is commonly expressed in 32nds of an inch. The nozzle diameters are selected to
match as closely as possible the calculated value of Anozzle. For example, where three nozzles are used
and Aflow is determined to be 0.35 in2, then:
Anozzle=0.353=0.117 in2
dnozzle=(4π⋅0.117)12=0.386 in
0.386⋅32=12.35
⇒ use two 1232nd-inch nozzles and one 1232nd-inch nozzle
Keep in mind that hole conditions change throughout the drilling of a well, and that the engineer must
continually re-evaluate the hydraulics program to ensure that it applies to the current situation.
Fixed Cutter Bit Hydraulics

There is an optimum balance between hydraulic parameters in PDC bit applications. In very soft formations with high
rates of penetration, for example, the most critical factors are cleaning the bit and the hole; this requires high
circulating volumes. In contrast, the more important consideration in harder formations with lower penetration rates is
to keep the cutters cool. An important hydraulics consideration when drilling with PDC cutters is to provide sufficient
fluid volume and velocity to maintain the mean temperature of the wearflat (the cutting edge of the diamond layer)
below 700° C [1300° F].
Pump-Off Force
The pressure drop across a bit acts over the area between the cutting face of the bit and the formation, and tends to
lift the bit up from the bottom of the hole. This force may sometimes be large enough to require bit weight
compensation. For example, the pump-off force for a 634′′ natural diamond bit having a pressure drop of 600 psi
would be about 3250 lbs.
An approximate expression for hydraulic pump-off force Fpumpoff) in pounds, with ΔPbit given in psi and bit diameter
(dbit) in inches is:
Fpumpoff=0.942⋅ΔPbit⋅(dbit−1)(1)
Mud Type
In water-base mud, when drilling non-hydrateable shale and permeable sandstone, drilling rate increases with
increasing bit hydraulic horsepower (HHP).
When drilling highly hydrateable shale with a water-base mud, the highest practical bit HHP should be used.
However, increased bit HHP alone does not appear capable of keeping a PDC bit clean when drilling gumbo-type
shale.
When drilling with oil-base mud in non-hydrateable shale, drilling rate shows very little response to increasing
bit HHP. However, when drilling hydrateable shales and permeable sandstones with oil-base mud, drilling rate
increases with increasing HHP.
General Guidelines
Tables 1 through 4, below, show general hydraulics guidelines for PDC and natural diamond bits. When drilling with
water-base or oil-base muds in the formations described above, the HSI values in the upper half of the range should
be used.
Table 1: Hydraulics guidelines, fishtail PDC bits.

(Courtesy Smith International)
Bit Diameter, Flow Rate, HHPin2

GPMin2
inches
778 300 - 150 2.0 - 5.0
838 - 834 400 - 650 2.0 - 6.0
912 - 978 550 - 850 2.0 - 6.5
1058 600 - 900 2.0 - 7.0
1014 650 - 1000 2.0 - 7.0
1434 700 - 1100 2.0 - 7.0
16-1712 800 - 1300 2.0 - 7.0
Table 2: Hydraulics guidelines, full face PDC bits.


GPMin2
inches
Table 1: Hydraulics guidelines, fishtail PDC bits.

GPMin2
inches
412 - 434 80 - 150 1.0 - 3.0
512 - 534 150 - 250 1.0 - 3.0
6 - 634 175 - 275 1.0 - 3.0
778 250 - 100 1.0 - 1.5
1212 600 - 1000 1.0 - 6.0
838 - 834 300 - 550 1.0 - 5.0
912 - 978 400 - 700 1.0 - 5.0
1058 500-800 1.0 - 5.5
1214 600 - 1000 1.0 - 6.0
Table 3: Hydraulics guidelines, full face matrix PDC bits.

Flow
Bit Diameter, HHPin2
Rate,
inches GPMin2
Flow
Rate,
inches GPMin2
412 - 434 80 - 150 1.0 - 5.0
150 -
512 - 578 1.0 - 5.0
250
175 -
6 - 634 1.0 - 5.0
275
250 -
778 1.0 - 6.0
100
300 -
838 - 834 1.0 - 7.0
559
Table 4. Hydraulics guidelines, natural diamond bits.

Flow
Rate,
inches GPMin2
80 -
412 - 434 1.0 - 1.5
150
100
512 - 578 - 1.0 - 2.0
175
Flow
Rate,
inches GPMin2
130
6 - 634 - 1.0 - 2.5
250
180
778 - 1.5 - 2.5
300
250
838 - 834 - 1.5 - 3.0
500
350
912 - 978 - 2.0 - 4.0
500
450
1058 - 2.0 - 4.0
650
500
1214 - 2.0 - 5.0
700
Hydraulics Optimization Criteria

Regarding which optimization criterion is the best for optimizing bit hydraulics, a common practices is to use
maximum bit hydraulic horsepower or maximum bit hydraulic impact force criteria at shallow- to mid-depth and shift to
the maximum nozzle velocity at deeper depth. Neither the maximum bit hydraulic horsepower nor the maximum bit
hydraulic impact force criteria have been proven superior in all cases, because there is not a great deal of difference
in the application of the two procedures. Typically, if jet impact force is a maximum, the hydraulic horsepower will be
within 90% of the maximum and vice versa. Another argument is that in many cases bits provide higher-than-required
hydraulics so that the effect of design using different criteria is masked.
Whichever criterion is used, it is important to note that from a practical standpoint, it is not always desirable to
maintain the optimum pressure ratio. At shallow drilling depths, the flow rate usually is held constant at the maximum
flow rate that can be achieved with the selected pump liner size (this flow rate can be identified from manufacturers'
specifications). This maximum flow rate should be used until a critical depth is reached. At that point, the maximum
bit hydraulic power or maximum jet impact force is applied. After the critical depth is reached, the flow rate is
decreased with subsequent increase in depth to maintain the optimum pressure ratio. However, the flow rate should
never be reduced below the minimum flow rate required to lift cuttings. The minimum flow rate should be maintained
and larger nozzles should be used in the subsequent depth to maintain pump pressure less than the maximum
allowable pump pressure. The bit nozzles should be sized within these operating constraints.
Formation Properties and Bit Selection

Knowledge of formation properties is the first step in deciding which bit to use in a given interval. Formation
properties that figure prominently in bit selection include compressive strength, elasticity, abrasiveness,
stickiness, overburden pressure, pore pressure and porosity/permeability.
 Compressive strength refers to the intrinsic strength of the rock, which is based on its composition,
method of deposition and compaction. For a bit to "make hole," the driller must apply enough drill string
weight to overcome this compressive strength, and the bit must be able to perform under this applied
weight.
 Elasticity affects the way in which a rock fails A rock that fails in a plastic mode will deform rather than
fracture, this occurs most often under high confining pressures. Under such conditions, a bit utilizing a
gouging/scraping action would be preferable to a bit designed to chip and crush the rock.
 Abrasive formations require bits with extra gauge protection. Undergauge holes result in extra reaming
and wasted rig time, and increase the chances of the drill string sticking.
 Sticky formations (i.e., "gumbo") can result in bit-balling and reduced penetration rate.
 Overburden pressure is the pressure exerted on a formation by overlying formations. Under normal
conditions, overburden increases with depth, compacting formations and making them harder.
 Pore pressure is a measure of the pressure exerted by the formation fluid on the rock matrix. Pore
pressure affects mud weight requirements, which in turn can affect penetration rates.
 Porosity is a measure of the void space contained within a unit volume of rock. One cc of sandstone with
a porosity of 20%, for example, contains 0.20 cc of void space. Permeability is a measure of a rock's
fluid flow properties. In general, penetration rates would be expected to be higher in a highly porous,
permeable formation than in a low-porosity, "tight" formation.
There are a number of resources available for determining formation locations, depths and rock properties. Most of
them consist of information from offset wells, which may include some or all of the following:
 Bit records
 Daily drilling reports and mud reports
 Directional surveys
 MWD data
 Mud logs
 Open hole logs (obtained from wireline or logging-while-drilling), including header information
 Cutting and core analyses
 Stratigraphic cross sections
The availability of these resources will of course depend on the level of drilling activity that has taken place in an
area.
Well depth, hole size and casing program, directional considerations, drilling fluid characteristics and drill string
configuration are interrelated "downhole" factors that are a part of the overall well program. Well depth is a key
aspect, helping define both these other factors and the formation properties already described; it also relates to the
capacities and capabilities of the drilling rig.
Bit Specifications and Rig Capabilities
Bit Specifications
Although both roller cone and fixed cutter bits are designed for a wide variety of formation types, certain bit types are
best suited to certain ranges of formations, as shown in Table 1 for the case of PDC bits.
Table 1: PDC bit applications
PDC bits are generally not applicable

PDC bits are generally applicable to
to
Very weak, unconsolidated, hydrateable Hard cemented sandstones

sediments (angular, porosity less than 15 % )
(sand,shale,clay )
Low strength, poorly compacted, nonabrasive Hard carbonates

precipitates, (low porosity limestone evaporites or
(salt, anhydrite, marls, chalk ) dolomite )
Moderately strong, somewhat abrasive ductile Pyrite, chert, granite, and basalt
sediments
(claystone, shales, porous carbonates )
The IADC classification system provides a good starting point for comparing bit types and determining which bits
might be appropriate for a given situation.
Bit records from offset wells, when available, can be quite useful in designing a bit program. For specific bit sizes and
types, they can provide information regarding depth intervals, footage, rotating time, penetration rates, bit weight,
rotational speed, jet nozzle sizes and condition of the bit at the end of the run. Assuming that depth and lithology can
be correlated between the offset well and the proposed well, this information can be valuable in estimating bit
performance and making an informed selection.
Offset bit records do have limitations, the most obvious being that they may not contain information for all of the bits
that the well planner may be considering. In spite of what bit records might not reveal, however, they can provide a
basis for developing and modifying the bit program as drilling progresses, and may contain data that is unavailable
elsewhere.
Rig Capabilities
The drilling engineer must answer the following rig-related questions when deciding whether to run a particular bit
type:
 Can the rig provide the bit weight and rotating speed (determined from vendor specifications) required to
obtain the optimum penetration rate from this bit?
 Can the mud pumps provide the rates and pressures necessary to provide adequate hydraulics with this
bit?
Since the rig's capabilities are for all intents and purposes constant, a "no" answer to either of these questions
requires selecting a different bit and/or changing the hydraulics program.
The IADC and the SPE have developed a system that allows both fixed cutter and roller cone bits to be evaluated
using compatible grading parameters (McGehee et al., 1992; IADC/SPE 23938). Because of its versatility and
flexibility, this is the preferred method for dull bit grading.
The IADC system employs eight descriptive categories for grading dull bits. The first four categories describe the
condition of the cutting structure, the fifth describes the condition of bearings/seals, the sixth indicates gauge wear,
and the seventh and eighth are reserved for remarks. These categories are laid out as follows, in the form of "fill-in
boxes" on a bit grading sheet:
Box 1. Cutting Structure, Inner Rows

A linear scale from 0 to 8 is used to describe the condition of the cutting structure.
Steel tooth bits

The linear scale is a measure of lost tooth height resulting from abrasion and/or damage, where 0 corresponds to no
loss of tooth height, and 8 represents total loss of tooth height.
Insert bits
The linear scale is a measure of total cutting structure reduction resulting from lost, worn and/or broken inserts,
where 0 corresponds to no lost, worn and/or broken inserts, and 8 means that all inserts are lost, worn and/or broken.
Fixed cutter bits
The linear scale is a measure of lost, worn and/or broken cutting structure, where 0 corresponds to no lost, worn
and/or broken cutters, and 8 means that all of the cutting structure is lost, worn and/or broken.
Box 2. Cutting Structure, Outer Rows

A linear scale from 0 to 8 is used to describe the condition of the cutting structure.
Steel tooth bits
The linear scale is a measure of lost tooth height resulting from abrasion and/or damage, where 0 corresponds to no
loss of tooth height, and 8 represents total loss of tooth height.
Insert bits
The linear scale is a measure of total cutting structure reduction resulting from lost, worn and/or broken inserts,
where 0 corresponds to no lost, worn and/or broken inserts, and 8 means that all inserts are lost, worn and/or broken.
Fixed cutter bits
The linear scale is a measure of lost, worn and/or broken cutting structure, where 0 corresponds to no lost, worn
and/or broken cutters, and 8 means that all of the cutting structure is lost, worn and/or broken.
Box 3. Cutting Structure, Dull Characteristics

 BC - Broken Cone
 BT - Broken Teeth/Cutters
 BU - Balled Up
 CC - Cracked Cone
 CD - Cone Draged
 CI - Cone Interface
 CR - Cored
 CT - Chipped Teeth/Cutters
 ER - Erosion
 FC - Flat Crested Wear
 HC - Heat Checking
 JD - Junk Damage
 LC - Lost Cone
 LN - Lost Nozzle
 LT - Lost Teeth/Cutters
 OC - Off-Center Wear
 PB - Pinched Bit
 PN - Plugged Nozzle/Flow Passage
 RG - Rounded Gauge
 RO - Ring Out
 SD - Shirttail Damage
 SS - Self Sharpening Wear
 TR - Tracking
 WO - Washed Out- Bit
 WT - Worn Teeth/Cutters
 NO - No Major/Other Dull Characteristics
Box 4. Cutting Structure, Location

 C - Cone
 N - Nose (Row)
 T - Taper
 S - Shoulder
 G - Gauge Area
 A - All Areas/Rows
 M - Middle Row
Box 5. Bearing/Seals
 Nonsealed Bearings—Scale of 0 to 8, where 0 indicates no life used and 8 indicates all life used
 Sealed Bearings— E indicates seals effective; F indicates seals failed; N indicates not able to grade; X
indicates fixed cutter bit.
Box 6. Gauge 116′′

 I indicates in gauge;
 116 indicates 116-inch undergauge;
 216 indicates 18-inch undergauge
Box 7. Remarks, Other Dull Characteristics

 This box is for recording secondary wear characteristics, using the same designations as given for Box 3.
If a bit does not show any secondary wear, the engineer can simply write NO.
Box 8. Remarks, Reason Pulled

 BHA - Change Bottomhole Assembly
 DMF - Downhole Motor Failure
 DSF - Drill String Failure
 DST - Drill Stem Test
 DTF - Downhole Tool Failure
 LIH - Left in Hole
 LOG - Run Logs
 RIG - Rig Repair
 CM - Condition Mud
 CP - Core Point
 DP - Drill Plug
 FM - Formation Change
 HP - Hole Problems
 HR - Hours
 PP - Pump Pressure
 PR - Penetration Rate
 TD - Total Depth/Casing Depth
 TQ - Torque
 TW - Twist -Off
 WC - Weather Conditions
 WO - Washout, Drill String
Traditional Grading — Roller Cone Bits
The IADC/SPE system is the preferred method for evaluating dull bits, and has generallly superseded earlier grading
criteria. These "traditional" criteria may still be seen on old bit records, however, and so it is useful to have some
familiarity with them.
Roller cone bits have traditionally been evaluated according to their degree of tooth (or insert), bearing and gauge
wear. Tooth and bearing wear are graded on a scale of 1 to 8, while gauge wear is measured as loss of diameter.
Tooth or Insert Wear

The designation for tooth wear is a T followed by a number from 1 to 8. For milled tooth bits, tooth wear is designated
in terms of the tooth fraction that has been worn away, expressed as eighths of the original tooth height.
For example, if approximately 58 of the bit's original tooth height has been worn away, the bit is graded a T-5; if the
teeth are completely worn down, the bit is a T-8. Of course, such evaluations are overall estimates, since some teeth
may be more worn than others. A bit with no tooth wear at all would be designated as "New," while a bit containing
broken teeth would carry the added designation BT.
The tooth wear designation is identical for insert bits, although the meaning is different. Tungsten carbide inserts are
usually lost from the bit rather than shortened. The tooth wear fraction is thus reported as the fraction of the total
number of inserts that have been lost. For example, an insert bit with a designation of T-5 is one that has 58 of its
inserts missing
Bearing Wear
The designation for bearing wear is B, also followed by a number from one to eight. Unfortunately, bearing wear is
much more difficult to evaluate in the field than tooth wear, since the internal bearing structure is not visible. The only
certainty is that completely failed bearings may be reported as B-8, while slightly loose cones may be designated
byB-7. For intermediate classifications, some guesswork is required.
Intermediate bearing wear may be expressed in terms of how many additional hours the bearings might have lasted if
the bit had not been pulled. For example, if a bit was pulled after 20 hours on bottom, and the drilling engineer
estimates that it could have run another 20 hours, he or she would grade it a B-4 (i.e., bearings , or half-worn).
Gauge wear
Using a ring gauge and a ruler, the engineer can determine how much gauge wear a bit has experienced. The loss of
diameter is reported to the nearest 18′′. For example, a bit that is 38′′ under gauge would be designated by the
classification G-O-3, with the G designating "gauge," the O designating "out" and the 3 designating 38′′. (G-I indicates
that the bit is in gauge.)
Tooth, bearing and gauge wear are usually expressed together (e.g., T-8 B-4 G-O-1); most older bit record forms
also contain space for additional remarks pertinent to the bit run.
Factors Affecting Bit Wear

A bit's appearance at the end of its run can reveal much about hole conditions, operating practices and the
effectiveness of the bit program, and can provide valuable clues to help improve drilling performance when similar
formations are encountered.
Roller Cone Bits

Even, uniform wear of bearings and teeth or inserts and minimal loss of gauge indicate that the right bit was selected
and good drilling practices (i.e., proper weight on bit, rotary speed, bottom-hole assembly configuration) were
followed. On the other hand, both milled tooth bits and insert bits can provide indications of drilling problems.Table
1. and Table 2. (Garner), below, list some of these indicators.
Table 1: Problems affecting milled tooth bit performance

(Courtesy of Smith International)
Bit Problem Possible Cause(s) Possible Corrective Action

Excessive tooth Improper break-in Drill a few feet before applying initial
breakageExcessive tooth drilling weight
breakage
Junk in hole Use more time washing on bottom

before drilling, and run a junk basket
Improper bit type Use bit with shorter teeth
Drilling practices Use less W.O.B. and/or RPM in

unconsolidated formations
Unbalanced tooth wear Improper bit type Select a bit with deleted gauge row teeth
if inner teeth are duller and bit shows no
gauge wear
Excessive shirttail wear Cuttings "milling" Review hydraulics program

around bit
Brinnel marks, indentations Impact load from Exercise caution when running in hole
under rollers/balls hitting ledge or and making connections
bridge, or tagging
hole bottom
Cones skidded, even though Bit balling up, or Review hydraulics program and
bearings in good condition cones locking circulating rate
while drilling out
casing shoe Select bit with longer, wider-spaced teeth
Use less bit weight
If from drilling float shoe, use slower

rotary rpm so that torque can be more
easily detected from rig floor
Bit pinched Bit was run in Ream to bottom

undergauge hole
Off-center wear Sloughing shale, Use softer-formation bit

high mud weight
Use faster rotary rpm
Use bottomhole reamer and stabilizers in

drill string
Heavy gauge wear, inner Improper bit type Use bit with less offset and/or more
bearing loose gauge protection
Excessive rotary Reduce rotary rpm

speed
Unstabilized drill Stabilize drill string

collars
Table 2: Problems affecting insert bit performance

Bit Problem Possible Possible Corrective Action
Cause(s)
Excessive insert breakage improper Drill a few feet before applying initial drilling
break-in weight
Improper If using chisel inserts, select a type with less insert

bit extension and/or different grade of carbide.
selection
Drilling Adjust W.O.B. and/or RPM.

practices
Damage from foreign Drilling on More washing and pumping to bottom

materials broken
inserts
from
previous
bits
Other junk Use junk basket on all insert bit runs if feasible
in hole
Gauge and outer rows Too much Use bit with less offset, which may also have less
broken offset gauge insert extension
High Use lower RPM

rotary
RPM
Formation wear on cone Inserts too Use bit with longer insert extension and more
shell around inserts short offset
Insufficient Review hydraulics program

cleaning
under bit,
or erosion
of center
jet
Excessive gauge wear Too much Use bit with less offset
offset
High RPM Use slow RPM in abrasive formations

in abrasive
formation
Off-center wear Sloughing Use softer-formation bit

shale, high
mud Use faster rotary rpm
weight
Use bottomhole reamer and stabilizers in drill
string
Fixed Cutter Bits

There are four types of failure that occur in diamond wafer cutter elements: LS bond, delamination,
spalling andchipping.
 LS bond (Figure 1) is a failure in bonding between the tungsten carbide stud and the tungsten carbide
substrate.
FIGURE 1
 Delamination (Figure 2) is a failure in bond strength between the tungsten carbide substrate and the
PCD layer.
FIGURE 2
 Spalling (Figure 3) involves flaking or partial removal of one or two of the layers that make up the
diamond wafer. The amount removed and depth of the flaking determine whether the cutter should be
replaced.
FIGURE 3
If the diamond wafer has spalling down to the first or second layer and involves more than 25% of the wafer, the
cutter should be replaced.
 Chipping (Figure 4) is a small depression, or missing fragment, in the PCD diamond layer. It does not
generally affect the cutter's performance.
FIGURE 4
Wear patterns that are commonly seen on fixed cutter bits include worn, lost, broken, eroded and heat-
checkedcutters (Figure 5).
FIGURE 5
 A worn cutter is one in which both the diamond wafer and stud have been worn down by the formation.
 Lost cutters can be interpreted several different ways, according to the IADC/SPE standardized grading
system. Usually, a lost cutter results when the entire stud and wafer are missing from the socket. This is
generally caused by a weak braze which holds the cutter in place. Another way to interpret a lost cutter is
LS bond failure, which is also promoted by a weak braze between the stud and the substrate.
 Broken cutters occur when the diamond wafer and a portion of the stud are missing. This is generally a
result of impact or stud failure.
 Erosion is caused by solids in the formation and drilling fluid. Unless erosion is severe, it generally does
not affect bit performance.
 Heat checking results from excessive heat on the cutters of a PDC bit. This heat can cause cracks to
develop in the diamond wafer and carbide stud, leading to cutter failure.
Table 3 lists some of the problems that can affect diamond bit performance.
Table 3: Problems affecting diamond bit performance

Difficulty going to Previous bit Ream with roller cone bit

bottom undergauge
New bottomhole When reaming to bottom, pick up and ream

assembly section again; if difficulty remains, check
stabilizers
Collapsed casing Roll casing with smaller bit
Out of drift Gauge bit with API gauge; replace bit if not in
tolerance
Bit oversized Use bi-carrier bit or reduce bit size
Stabilizer oversized Replace with correctly sized stabilizer
Low pressure Flow area too large Increase circulation rate, and change flow area
differential across on next bit run
nozzles or bit face

Flow rate too low Increase flow rate/strokes; change pump liners
Change in drilling Recalculate hydraulics program

parameters
Washout in drill Check bit pressure drop, drop softline, trip to

string check drill pipe and drill collars
High pressure Flow area too small Use bit with less offset, which may also have less
differential across gauge insert extension
nozzles or bit face
Excessive flow rate Use lower RPM
Diamonds too small If ROP is acceptable, change on next bit. If ROP is

for formation not acceptable, pull bit and use bit with correct
diamond size
Bit partially plugged Check off-bottom standpipe pressure; let bit drill
(formation off; circulate at full volume for 10 minutes while
impaction) rotating; check off-bottom pressure again
Formation change Pick up, circulate, resume drilling at higher RPM;

reset; run drill-off test
Ring out On and off-bottom pressure test; pull bit

Downhole motor Refer to manufacturer's specifications

stalled
Fluctuating Drilling through If ROP is acceptable, continue

Standpipe Pressure fractured formation
Formation breaking If ROP is acceptable, continue

up beneath bit
 Check equipment
 Try combination of lighter WOB and
higher RPM
Stabilizers hanging Check overpull; check stabilizers on next trip
up
Bit won't drill Not on bottom Re-check pipe tally
Stabilizers hanging Check torque, overpull

up or too large
Formation too Check pressure, increase flow rate;

plastic decrease/increase WOB, RPM
Establishing Can take up to an hour

bottomhole pattern
Core stump left Decrease WOB
Bit balled Back off and increase flow rate, then slug with
detergent, oil or synthetic fluid
Slow rate of WOB too low Increase WOB

penetration
RPM too low/too Increase/decrease RPM
high
Plastic formation Reset drill-off; reset WOB
Formation change Reset drill-off
Overbalance If ROP acceptable, continue bit run; if ROP

unacceptable, pull bit
Diamonds flattened Compare beginning and current pressure drops;

off may need new bit
Pressure drop too Increase flow rate; may need new bit
low
Wrong bit selection Pull bit
Excessive torque Too much weight Reduce WOB and RPM

on bit
Slow RPM Increase rotary speed
Stabilizers too large Use smaller stabilizers
Collars packing off Increase flow rate
Bit undergauge Pull bit

Bit bouncing Slip-stick action Change WOB/RPM combination
Broken formation Reduce RPM and WOB
Pump-off force Increase mud weight; decrease circulating

volume.
Bit Run Economics

As with other aspects of well design and construction, bit programs are ultimately based on economics. In the context
of a bit run, the most commonly used economic measure is cost per foot, expressed as follows:
C=R(T+t)+BF(1)
where:
C= drilling cost per foot
R= rig operating cost per hour *
*Note that R includes all costs associated with the actual drilling of the well, including rig rate, mud logging and
conditioning, equipment rentals, transportation, and all other supporting materials and services
T= drilling time, hours
t= trip time, hours
B= bit cost
F= footage drilled
Along with mechanical indicators like torque, the cost per foot relationship is a useful tool for monitoring bit
performance. During a bit run, C typically reaches a minimum, and then begins to increase as the bit wears and the
penetration rate decreases. By periodically calculating C throughout the bit run, we can determine when it would be
more economical to run a new bit.
Calculating cost-per-foot is a fundamental first step in optimizing bit economics. But for a more complete analysis, we
need to take the cost per foot relationship a step further so that we can select bits based on comparative
performance.
For example, a diamond bit may be able to dramatically outperform a roller cone bit in a given interval. But it may cost
up to four times as much as a tungsten carbide insert bit, and up to twenty times as much as a mill tooth bit. Does the
diamond bit's superior performance justify its extra cost? To answer this question, we need to perform a break-even
analysis. The break-even point is simply the combination of footage and drilling time needed for the cost per foot of
one bit to equal the cost per foot that we could obtain if we used a different bit (or bits) for the same interval.
To find the break-even point, we need a bit record from an offset well, (see example below).
Example:
The following partial bit record is available from a nearby well:
Table 1: Summary of Design Features, Fixed Cutter Bits
Depth ROP,
Bit Size Type Bit Cost Ftg. Hrs.
Out fthr
812 OSC-1G $1,000 8,650 ft 650 16 40.6

812 OSC-1G $1,000 9,175 ft 525 15 35.0
812 X3A $1,000 9,600 ft 425 15 28.3
812 J22 $4,350 10,150 ft 550 20 27.5
812 J22 $4,350 11,000 ft 850 30 28.3
Offset well performance(interval 8,000' to 11,000'):
 Total rotating time = 96 hours;
 Total trip time = 48.5 hours;
 Rig operating cost = $300hour;
 Total bit cost = $11,700;
 Total footage = 3,000 feet.
Therefore, the offset cost for the interval 8,000'-11,000' is
C=300⋅(96+48.5)+11,7003,000=18.35ft
When performing a break-even analysis, the bit performances in the offset well are known, but bit performance in the
new well must be estimated. Thus, we have to assume either the footage that the new bit will drill or the penetration
rate it will attain.
 If we assume that the bit will drill a certain footage, then we can calculate the break-even penetration
rate using the following formula derived from Equation 1.
ROP=RC1−Rt+B2F2(2)
where:
ROP= break even penetration rate, fthr
R= rig operating cost, $hr
C1= offset cost per foot, $
t= trip time for new bit
B2= new bit cost, $
F2= assumed new bit footage, ft
Thus, the break-even performance of a PDC bit costing $14,800, where
R = $300,
C1=18.35ft,
t =11 hours, and
F2= 3,000 ft is
 If we instead assume a penetration rate, we can calculate the break-even footage as follows:
F=Tt+B2C1−RROP2(2)
Continuing with the preceding example, if we assume a penetration rate of 30 The PDC bit needs to drill only 2168
feet to attain the break-even point if it can maintain an average penetration rate of 30 fthr, the break-even footage is
F=(300⋅11)+14,80018.35−30030=2168 ft
The PDC bit needs to drill only 2168 feet to attain the break-even point if it can maintain an average penetration rate
of 30 fthr.
Although this illustration involves a comparison between a PDC bit and roller cone bits, break-even analysis can be
applied to any bit type.
It is evident from this discussion that economic analysis of bit performance involves a certain amount of
guesswork,and that bit selection based on break-even analysis is only as valid as our estimates of footage or
penetration rate. These estimates thus need to be as accurate as possible, which is why the drilling engineer must
become as familiar as possible with bit types, formation characteristics, mud properties, hydraulics, rig operating
conditions and other factors that influence bit performance.
General Considerations
As with other drilling equipment, proper care and handling increases bit life and lessens the chance of failure. Some
basic guidelines that apply to all bit types are summarized below.
Preliminary Inspection
 Check the bit type to confirm proper size, type and option.
 Look inside the bit for any foreign objects that could plug a nozzle.
 Check the age of the bit — the amount of time for which it has been stored could affect its performance.
For example, some bits stored longer than four years could have problems with bearing lubrication and
could fail prematurely.
 Inspect the cutting structure and API pin connection for any signs of damage due to mishandling during
shipping or delivery.
 On rolling cuttter bits, check the tightness of the bearings and seals.
 Using a ring gauge, measure the bit OD to verify API gauge standards.
 Re-check well conditions to ensure that the nozzles (or total flow area) are appropriately sized.
 Inspect the previous bit for tooth wear, broken teeth, gauge wear and Junk damage. Broken teeth and
Junk damage are indications of possible Junk in the hole.
 Take all precautions to ensure that the hole is clean before running any bit.
Bit Make-Up
Make sure the bit is handled with care. Do not set it directly on the rig floor; instead, use a piece of wood or a rubber
mat.
Grease the API pin and fit the bit into a properly sized bit breaker. Lower the drill string onto the bit and engage the
threads. Locate the bit and breaker in the rotary table and make up to the recommended torque values.
Tripping
 Trip slowly through the blowout preventers, casing shoe and liner hanger, and be especially careful of
dog legs, tight spots or ledges — spudding and sudden impacts are common reasons for early bit failure.
 Consider using a vibration dampener to minimize shock when drilling hard, abrasive formations.
 Stabilize the bit using the appropriate bottomhole assembly.
 Approach the bottom of the hole cautiously. Kick in the pumps and wash the last three joints to bottom at
reduced rotary speed. Observe weight and rotary torque indicators. When bottom is reached, "break in"
the bit gradually using reduced bit weight and rpm. Once the bit establishes its bottomhole pattern, weight
and rpm can be gradually increased.
Drilling
 Do not exceed the manufacturer recommendations for weight and rotary speed; use the appropriate
W.O.B and rpm for the formation.
 Monitor penetration rates and periodically calculate the economics of the bit run to determine when it
should be pulled. At the same time, be aware of torque, reduced drilling rate and other indications of bit
wear.
Roller Cone Bits
There are several things to keep in mind when running roller cone bits, particularly those with inserts or journal
bearings (Jackson and Wood, 1973):
 Be especially wary of running excessive weight on insert bits; this can result in lost inserts and damage to
the bearings;
 In shales, increasing rotary speed generally has more effect on penetration rate than increasing weight on
bit;
 In limestones, increasing weight while decreasing rotary speed prevents insert breakage;
 In broken formations, it may be necessary to reduce rotary speed to prevent bit bouncing;
 Pull the bit when it begins to "torque up." Torque can indicate locked bearings or an undergauge hole.
Journal-bearing bits require special care, because they may exhibit very little torque before failing.

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Bit Types and IADC Classifications

Roller Cone Bits

Fixed Cutter Bits

IADC Classification System

Roller Cone Bits

Series Formations Type

1 Steel tooth bit; Soft formations with low 1

2 Steel tooth bit; Medium to medium-hard formations 1

3 Steel tooth bit; Hard semi- abrasive or abrasive 1

4 Insert bit; Soft formations, low compressive 1

5 Insert bit; Soft to medium-hard formations, low 1

6 Insert bit; Medium-hard formations, high 1

7 Insert bit; Hard semi- abrasive or abrasive 1

8 Insert bit; Extremely hard and abrasive formations 1

Fixed Cutter Bits

S Steel body, PDC cutters

M Matrix body, PDC cutters

D Matrix body, natural diamond cutters

T Matrix body, thermally stable PDC cutters

1 Long taper, deep cone

2 Long taper, medium cone

3 Long taper, shallow or no cone

4 Medium taper, deep cone

5 Medium taper, medium cone

6 Medium taper, shallow or no

7 Short taper, deep cone

8 Short taper, medium cone

9 Short taper, shallow or no cone

7 Open face/changeable jets

8 Open face/fixed ports

9 Open face/open throat

The Stress-Strain Relationship

Stress Response in Sedimentary Rocks

For the Mancos shale:

Wellbore Pressure Effects

Rock sample: Mancos shale

Mud: Water-base, 10 lbgal

Circulation rate: 320 GPM

Bits used: 778′′ Smith F2

Bit nozzles: Three (3), 1232′′ diameter

Weight on bit: 35,000 lb

1 700 62 Good rock breakage and full bottomhole

Cone Profile Angle

Journal Angle and Offset

Journal angle determines the following design parameters:

Milled Steel Tooth Cutters

Shape, Spacing and Positioning

Tungsten Carbide Inserts

Friction-ball-friction type bits have four basic designs:

Diamond Cutting Elements

Fixed Cutter Bit Profile and Hydraulics

Table 1: Summary of Design Features, Fixed Cutter Bits

Formation Hardness Diamond Type Profile Hydraulic

38′′ PDC Long Parabola Nozzles

Short Parabola Nozzles

Medium Short Parabola Nozzles

1 stone per carat Long Parabola Radial

3-4 stones per carat Short Parabola Radial

Hard 8-15 stones per carat B-Crown Feeder-collector

Fixed Cutter Bit Hydraulics

Table 1: Hydraulics guidelines, fishtail PDC bits.

Bit Diameter, Flow Rate, HHPin2

778 300 - 150 2.0 - 5.0

838 - 834 400 - 650 2.0 - 6.0