Piping Designers

PIPING DESIGNER.
COM
TRAINING SEMINAR
Kavimagi Page 1 of 60
Section I - Piping Components
A. Valves - By Anton Dooley

This is a brief overview of different valves and their uses.
B. Pipe - By: James O. Pennock

This is a discussion about pipes, from their history and their uses to weights and grades.
C. Fittings - By: James O. Pennock

This is a discussion about fittings, the different types of fittings and their uses.
D: Flanges - By: James O. Pennock

This article covers ASME B 16.5 Standard Piping Flanges up to 24" NPS
Section II - Equipment Piping and Assembly Applications
To be added
Section III - Pipe Supports
A. Pipe Supports - Part 1, By: James O. Pennock

This is a discussion about the two basic categories of pipe supports (the primary pipe support
systems, and the secondary pipe support systems).
B. Pipe Supports - Part 2, By: James O. Pennock

This is a discussion about the data requirements and the process of selection and qualification
for the typical secondary pipe supports.
Section IV - Piping Stress for the Piping Designer
A. Stress Problems and Designer Stress Training - By: James O. Pennock

This discussion is an introduction to the problems found in piping caused by thermal
expansion and dead weight, their relationship to the overall piping arrangement and the type
of stress related training required for the piping designer.
B: The Problem with Piping "Lift-off" - By CAEPIPE

Contemporary commercial piping analysis programs deal differently with the problem of
apparent lift-off of an operating pipe at a rod hanger or a one-way vertical support, such as a
pipe on a support rack.
Section V - Field Trips
A. Field trip guidelines - By: James O. Pennock

This discussion is about what to expect when you are asked to go to the field?
Section I
A.VALVES
By: Anton Dooley
A valve is a mechanical device that regulates the flow of fluids (either gases, fluidised solids,
slurries or liquids) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various passageways.
Valves are used in a myriad of industrial, military, commercial, and residential applications.
There are many different types of valves:
Ball valve, which is good for on/off control;
Butterfly valve, particularly in large pipes;
Gate valve, mainly for on/off control;
Globe valve, which is good for regulating flow;
Check valve or Non-return valve, allows the fluid to pass in one direction only;
A pressure relief valve or safety valve operates automatically at a set differential pressure
to correct a potentially dangerous situation, typically over-pressure.
High purity valves, are flow control devices that meet the industry criteria for purity of
materials and design.
Ball Valve
A ball valve (often called a quarter turn valve) is a valve that opens by turning a handle
attached to a ball inside the valve. The ball has a hole, or port, through the middle so that
when the port is in line with both ends of the valve, flow will occur. When the valve is
closed, the hole is perpendicular to the ends of the valve, and flow is blocked. The handle
position lets you "see" the valve's position.
The body of ball valves may be made of metal, ceramic, and/or plastic. The ball may be
chrome plated to make it more durable.
There are three general types of ball valves: full port, standard port, and reduced port.
A full port ball valve has an oversized ball so that the hole in the ball is the same size as the
pipeline resulting in lower friction loss. Flow is unrestricted.
A standard port ball valve is usually less expensive, but has a smaller ball and a
correspondingly smaller port. Flow through this valve is one pipe size smaller than the
valve's pipe size resulting in slightly restricted flow.
In reduced port ball valves, flow through the valve is two pipe sizes smaller than the valve's
pipe size resulting in restricted flow.
Manually operated ball valves can often be closed quickly and thus there is a danger of water
hammer. Some ball valves are equipped with an actuator that may be pneumatically or motor
operated. These valves can be used either for on/off or flow control.
A pneumatic flow control valve is also equipped with a positioner which transforms the
control signal into actuator position and valve opening accordingly.
There are also three-way ball valves, with a T-shaped hole through the middle. With such a
valve the flow can be directed to either one or the other or both sides or be closed off
completely.
Butterfly Valves
A Butterfly valve is a type of flow control device, used to make a fluid start or stop flowing
through a section of pipe.
The valve is similar in operation to a ball valve.
A flat circular plate is positioned in the center of the pipe.
The plate has a rod through it connected to a handle on the outside of the valve.
Rotating the handle turns the plate either parallel or perpendicular to the flow of water,
shutting of the flow.
It is a very robust and reliable design.
However, unlike the ball valve, the plate does not rotate out of the flow of water, so that a
pressure drop is induced in the flow.
Gate Valve
A gate valve is a valve that opens by lifting a round or rectangular gate out of the path of the
fluid. Gate valves are sometimes used for regulating flow, but many are not suited for that
purpose, having been designed to be fully opened or closed.
When fully open, the typical gate valve has no obstruction in the flow path, resulting in very
low friction loss.
Most gate valves have a rising or a nonrising stem.
Rising stems give a visual indication of valve position. Nonrising stems are used where
vertical space is limited.
Bonnets* provide leakproof closure for the valve body.
Gate valves may have a screw-in, union, or bolted bonnet.
Screw-in bonnet is the simplest, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal.
Union bonnet is suitable for applications requiring frequent inspection and cleaning.
It also gives the body added strength. Bolted bonnet is used for larger valves and higher
pressure applications.
* Bonnets provide leakproof closure for a gate valve or globe valve body.
Globe Valves
Globe valves are named for their spherical body shape.
The two halves of the valve body are separated by a baffle with a disc in the center.
Globe valves operate by screw action of the handwheel.
They are used for applications requiring throttling and frequent operation.
Since the baffle restricts flow, they're not recommended where full, unobstructed flow is
required.
A bonnet provides leakproof closure for the valve body.
Globe valves may have a screw-in, union, or bolted bonnet.
Screw-in bonnet is the simplest bonnet, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal.
Union bonnet is suitable for applications requiring frequent inspection or cleaning. It also
gives the body added strength.
Bolted bonnet is used for larger or higher pressure applications.
Many globe valves have a class rating that corresponds to the pressure specifications of
ANSI 16.34.
Check Valve
A check valve is a mechanical device, a valve, that normally only allows fluid to flow
through it in one direction.
A double check valve is often used as a backflow prevention device to keep potentially
contaminated water from siphoning back into municipal water supply lines.
A clapper valve is a type of check valve used in or with firefighting, and has a hinged gate
(often with a spring urging it shut) that will only remain open in the outflowing direction.
Some types of irrigation sprinklers and drip irrigation emitters have small check valves built
into them to keep the lines from draining when the system is shut off.
Pressure Relief Valve
A pressure relief valve opens to release excess pressure when the pressure is too high to
protect the vessel or other equipment from overpressurization.
A relief valve is like a safety valve in that it is for liquids only. A safety valve is for gases
only.
High Purity Valve
Thought you knew all there was to know about this intriguing topic? Well, think again.
Answer the following 23 questions and consider yourself an expert. Of course, if you find it
hard to remember it all, you can always bookmark this page onto your favorites and refer
back to it whenever you get the urge.
What is a high purity (H-P) ball valve?
H-P ball valves are flow control devices that meet the industry criteria for purity of materials
and design.
Valves in high purity processes are used in two broad areas of application:
Valves that are in direct contact with the final (or intermediate) product, and
Valves that are not in contact with the final (or intermediate) product. These applications are
in support systems such as handling clean steam for cleaning and temperature control.
In the pharmaceutical industry, ball valves are never used in applications or processes where
they may be in direct contact with the final product.
What are the industry criteria for high purity valves?
The pharmaceutical industry derives the valve selection criteria from two sources:
ASME/BPE-1997 (Specifications for Bioprocessing Equipment), and FDA material and

design specifications.
What is ASME/BPE-1997?
ASME/BPE-1997 is the evolving specification document that addresses the design and use of
equipment for the pharmaceutical industry. The standard is intended for design, materials,
construction, inspection and testing of vessels, piping and related accessories, such as pumps,
valves and fittings, for use in the biopharmaceutical industry. Essentially, the document
states, "...all parts that contact either the products, raw materials or product intermediates
during manufacturing, process development or scaleup ... and are a critical part of product
manufacture, such as Water-For-Injection (WFI), clean steam, ultrafiltration, intermediate
product storage and centrifuges."
Today, the industry relies on ASME/BPE-1997 to determine ball valve designs for use in
applications where they are not in contact with the product. The key areas covered by the
specification are:
I. Materials
body materials
seat materials
welded component materials
stem seals
end connections
II. Surface Condition
mechanical polishing
electro polishing
surface finish
III. Drainability
valve design for minimum hold-up volume

installation angles
IV. Areas of Valve and Piping Systems
clean steam
Water For Injection (WFI)
ultrafiltration
gas delivery
Clean Dry Air (CDA)
H-P water
alcohol
V. Material Composition
316L
sulfur content
certification (MTRs, FDA, etc.)
VI. Inspection
VII. Cleanability
VII. Marking Information
What valve types does ASME/BPE address?
Valves typically used in bio-pharm process systems include ball, diaphragm and check
valves. This engineering document will be limited to discussions on ball valves.
What is "validation"?
Validation is a regulatory procedure that intends to assure repeatability of a processed

product or formulation. The procedure indicates that mechanical process components,
formulation times, temperatures, pressures and other conditions be measured and monitored.
Once a system and the product of that system have proven repeatable, all components and
conditions are deemed validated. No changes may be made to the final "package" (process
system and procedures) without re-validating.
There is also the related issue of material verification. Material Test Report (MTR) is a
statement from casting producers that documents the composition of the casting and verifies
that it has come from a specific run in the casting process. This degree of traceability is
desirable in all critical piping component installations in many industries. All valves supplied
for pharmaceutical applications must be accompanied by MTRs.
Seat material manufacturers provide a composition report to ensure that valve seats meet
FDA guidelines (FDA/USP Class VI). Acceptable seat materials include PTFE, RTFE, Kel-F
and TFM.
What industries/systems use high purity ball valves?
pharmaceutical
bio-pharm
food/beverage
semiconductor
cosmetics
gas delivery systems
water purification
brewing/distilling
sterilization systems
What is ultra-high-purity?
Ultra-High-Purity (UHP) is a term that intends to emphasize the need for extremely high
levels of purity. It is a term widely used in the semiconductor marketplace, where absolute
minimal amounts of particles in the flow stream are demanded. Valves, piping systems,
filters and many materials used in their construction often meet this UHP level when
prepared, packaged and handled under specific conditions.
What standards are used in the semiconductor industry for H-P ball valves?
The semiconductor industry derives valve design specifications from a compilation of

information managed by the SemaSpec group. The production of microchip wafers requires
extremely strict adherence to standards to eliminate or minimize contamination from
particles, outgassing and moisture.
SemaSpec's standards detail sources of particles generation, particle size, sources of gasses
(via soft valve components), helium leak testing and moisture from within and without the
valve boundary.
Why does the H-P market use ball valves in their systems?
Ball valves are proven in the most rigorous applications. Some key advantages of the design
include:
economical -- compared to most other valve designs;

high flow rate through an unobstructed flow path;
quick, quarter-turn operation;

easy to automate pneumatically or electrically;
inherently flexible to meet a wide range of pressures and temperatures;
simple maintainability and
self-flushing design.
What is mechanical polishing? Electro polishing?
Mill finishes, welds and surfaces that have been in service have differing surface
characteristics when viewed under magnification. Mechanical polishing reduces all surface
ridges, pits and discrepancies to a uniform roughness.
Mechanical polishing is accomplished using aluminum oxide abrasives on rotary equipment.

Mechanical polishing can be achieved by hand held tools for large surface areas, such as
reactors and vessels in place, or by automatic reciprocating machines for pipe or tubular
components. A series of grit polishes is applied in a successively finer sequence, until the
desired finish or surface roughness is achieved.
Electropolishing is the electrochemical removal of microscopic irregularities from metal

surfaces. It results in a general leveling or smoothing of the surface, that when viewed under
magnification, appears virtually featureless.
As a result of electropolishing, a metal surface exhibits the following properties:
Surface roughness is significantly reduced, thus reducing adhesion properties;

Surface area is reduced as much as 7:1;
Surface friction and drag are reduced and
Corrosion resistance is increased due to a chromium enrichment of the surface and the
removal of surface contaminants that may promote corrosion.
Stainless steel has a natural resistance to corrosion due to its high chromium content
(stainless steels are typically 16 percent chromium or higher). Electropolishing enhances this
natural resistance because the process dissolves more iron (Fe) than chromium (Cr). This
leaves higher levels of chromium on the stainless steel surface (passivation).
How is surface finish measured?
The result of any polishing procedure is to create a "smooth" surface defined as the
Roughness Average (Ra). According to ASME/BPE: "All polishes shall be referred to in Ra,
micro-inch (m-in) or micro-meter (mm)."
Surface smoothness is generally measured with a profilometer, an automatic instrument with

a stylus-type reciprocating arm. The stylus is traversed across a metal surface, measuring
peak height and valley depth. The average peak height and valley depth is then expressed as
a roughness average in terms of millionths of an inch -- or micro inch, frequently referred to
as Ra.
Micrometers is a common European standard, the metric equivalent to micro inches. One
micro-inch is equal to approximately 40 micrometers. For example, a finish specified as 0.4
micro meter Ra is equal to 16 micro-inch Ra.
What fluids are typically handled by high purity ball valves?
Due to the inherent flexibility of the ball valve design, it is readily available in a wide range
of seats, seals and body materials. As a result, ball valves are produced to handle fluids such
as:
steam -- process temperature control/cleaning

H-P Water-cleaning
H-P Gas-purging
Clean Dry Air (CDA) -- purging
alcohol -- deliver alcohol to final product (cosmetics)/cleaning
When are valves selected with ETO or Tri-Clamp end connections? What other ends
are used?
Whenever possible, the bio-pharm industry prefers to install "sealed systems." Extended
Tube O.D. (ETO) connections are welded inn line to eliminate contamination from outside
the valve/piping boundary and to add rigidity to the piping system. Tri-Clamp (Hygienic
Clamp Connections) ends add flexibility to the system and may be installed without welding.
With Tri-Clamp ends, piping systems may be disassembled and re-configured more readily.
H-P systems (such as in the food/beverage industry) may also use Cherry-Burrell fittings
branded under the names "I-Line", "S-Line" or "Q-Line".
What is ETO?
An Extended Tube O.D. (ETO) end is one that permits in-line welding of the valve into the
piping system. The dimension of the ETO end matches the tubing (piping) system diameter
and wall thickness. The extended tube length accommodates orbital welding heads and
provides sufficient length to prevent body seal damage due to the heat of welding.
How do ball valves compare to diaphragm valves in piping/system design?
Ball valves are widely used in process applications because of their inherent versatility.
Diaphragm valves offer a limited service range for temperature and pressure and do not meet
all of the standards for industrial valves. Ball valves are available for:
cryogenic service
high temperature/low temperature

high velocity/low velocity
high pressure/low pressure
wider range of seat materials
wider range of body materials
wider range of end connections
fire-safe designs
In addition, ball valve center sections are removable to allow access to the inner weld bead,
where cleaning and/or polishing may then be performed.
What is drainability?
Drainability is important for maintaining bioprocess systems in a clean and sterile condition.
Fluid remaining after draining becomes a colonization site for bacteria or other
microorganisms, creating an unacceptable bioburden to the system. Sites where fluid
accumulates also may become a corrosion-initiation site, adding additional contaminants to
the system. The design part of the ASME/BPE Standard calls for hold-up volume, or that
amount of liquid which remains in the system after draining is complete, to be minimized by
design.
What is "deadleg"?
A deadleg in a piping system is defined as a pocket, tee or extension from a primary piping
run that exceeds a defined number of pipe diameters (L) from the ID of the primary pipe (D).
A deadleg is undesirable because it provides an area of entrapment, which may not be
reached by cleaning or sterilizing procedures, and thus leads to contamination of the product.
For bioprocessing piping systems an L/D ratio of 2:1 is considered to be achievable for most
valve and piping configurations. See Also our page on deaglegs.
Where are fire-safe valves used?
Fire-safe valves are designed to prevent flammable fluids from spreading in the event of a
process line fire. The design uses metal back-up seats and an anti-static feature to prevent
ignition. The biopharmaceutical and cosmetics industries often prefer fire-safe valves in
alcohol delivery systems.
What are the acceptable seat materials for H-P ball valves?
FDA-USP23, Class VI approved seat materials for ball valves include; PTFE, RTFE, Kel-F,
PEEK and TFM.
What is TFM?
TFM is chemically modified PTFE that fills the gap between conventional PTFE and melt-
processable PFA. According to ASTM D 4894 and ISO Draft WDT 539-1.5, TFM is
classified as a PTFE. Compared to conventional PTFE, TFM has the following enhanced
properties:
much lower deformation under pressure (cold flow) at room and elevated temperatures;
lower permeability and
may be used at higher pressures.
What are cavity-filler seats and how are they used?
Cavity-filler seats are intended to prevent the build up of materials that may --when
entrapped between the ball and body cavity -- solidify or otherwise inhibit the smooth
operation of the valve closure member. H-P ball valves used in steam service should not use
this optional seat arrangement, as the steam will find its way under the seat surface and
become an area for bacterial growth. Due to this larger seating area, cavity-filler seats are
difficult to properly sanitize without disassembly.
What are the typical options available with H-P ball valves?
end connections
purge ports
sampling valve
tank bottom design
multi-porting
lateral valve configuration
fire-safe design
actuation
polishing
What are the common cleaning procedures used with H-P ball valves?
H-P ball valves may be cleaned and packaged according to BPE or Semiconductor
(SemaSpec) requirements.
Area & Equipment
Cleaning is performed in a room segregated from the normal valve production area to
eliminate contamination.
The room is outfitted with one alkaline cleaning tank, a DI rinse tank and a hot air drying
tank.
Work areas are freshly covered with particle-free plastic sheeting before each cleaning.
Bubble-tight valve testing equipment utilizes clean, dry, oil-free air.
Capping and bagging is performed on the particle-free surface. All bags are 4 mil and are
heat-sealed. Double bag option is available.
Cleaning Agent
The basic cleaning is performed using an ultrasonic cleaning system, with an approved
alkaline agent for cold cleaning and de-greasing in a residue-free formulation.
VOC emission level = 0.
Procedure
Each valve component is thoroughly washed in the cleaning agent tank, then rinsed in a de-
ionized water tank. The components are then dried in a hot air drying vessel.
Valve assembly is performed in a Class 100 room on a particle-free surface using latex
gloves. Clean, grease-free tools are used in the assembly of valves.
After assembly, the valves are nitrogen purged with 99.999-percent pure N2 filtered with
0.01 micron-rated filters.
The fully assembled valve is tested for leakage using clean, dry, oil-free air according to
industry standards. Each valve is capped, bagged (4 mil) and heat-sealed to ensure product
quality and purity until installed. Packaging (Semiconductor/Pharmaceutical)
Each finished (dry, completed, inspected and approved) end connector is covered with
"clean" Aclar or Nylon film, and then capped with non-shedding end caps -- which do not
come in contact with the inner surfaces.
Each finished valve is bagged in 4 mil thick, clean polyethylene with a full filtered nitrogen
(0.01 micron) purge, to prevent contamination. The bag is then sealed to provide a
waterproof environment.
Valves with sharp edges are additionally padded to prevent puncturing during shipment.
Packaging is done in the same clean room where the cleaning procedure was performed.
Components are not removed from the clean room until they are properly packaged and
sealed.
Valves are only removed from the clean room environment in sealed, non-shedding
containers or with appropriately capped ends.
Marking
All valves are permanently marked with the following information:
manufacturer's name or logo
heat number on each component part of the fitting if more than one heat is used
material type
specification number referencing the BPE standard
internal surface symbol for the appropriate bpe specification
color-coded handles (if applicable).
Quality Assurance
Certificate of Traceability
Pressure-containing components are marked with heat numbers and backed by appropriate
analysis certificates.
Mill Test Reports (MTR's) are recorded for each size and heat number. These documents
include:
alloy-ASTM designation
heat number
year and month of manufacture
chemical analysis
mechanical properties
heat treatment
B. PIPE
By: James O.Pennock
Definition:
Pipe is a hollow "tube" used for conveying products and pressure. The products include
fluids, gas, slurry, powders, pellets and more. The pressure is hydraulic power. We usually
designate the "tube" as pipe in the applicable line class but the definition includes any similar
component designed as tubing, which is used for the same application.
History:
One of the earliest methods of conveying fluids in the history of mankind was by pipe. The
earliest pipe on record was the use of bamboo for moving small quantities of water as a
continues flow. As man progressed, he began using hollow logs for his piping needs.
Probably the first recorded use of metal in piping systems was the use of lead or bronze
during the "Bronze" age.
During the excavation at Pompeii, complete water distribution systems fabricated from lead
have been uncovered. These systems, include probably the first use of metal plug valves, are
still workable.
Without piping our modern civilization and their attendant conveniences could not exist.
Today piping is used in almost every aspect of our lives. Our drinking water is produced in
plants full of piping and then comes to us through a vast network of pipes. The waste from
our homes and businesses flows away through another network of pipes and is then treated in
a plant full of piping. The fuel we use for travel or for heating was collected, processed and
distributed using pipe. No mater what you think about, power, food, paint, medicine, paper
products, plastics, chemicals, and many more are all made in plants full of piping. Our safety
is also dependent on the piping in the fire water systems in our neighborhoods and buildings.
Materials of construction:
The various kinds of material from which pipe is, or can be, made is proved to be endless;
among them are the more common carbon steel, along with chromes, stainless steel, iron,
brass, copper, lead, aluminum, glass, rubber and various types of plastic material. Over the
years some of these materials have been combined to form lined pipe systems. These include
carbon steel pipe lined with glass, carbon steel pipe that is lined with various plastics; carbon
steel pipe lined with concrete. Each one, plain or lined has certain advantages and
disadvantages. Many things enter into making a choice of materials. Among the most
important of these are commodity, pressure, temperature, size, ease of assembly availability
and economics.
Pipe sizes:
Many years ago pipe was sized by its true inside diameter. i.e., a 1" pipe was actually 1"
inside diameter. However, as time went on and the methods of manufacturing were improved
and made more standard, and because it became necessary to increase wall thickness to
accommodate higher pressures and temperatures, it became necessary to size pipe by
"nominal" size rather than actual size. Because it was deemed too expensive to have a set of
thread dies for each wall thickness in the smaller sizes, the outside diameter (O.D.) was held
constant. Thus wall thickness changes affect the internal diameter only and leave the O. D.
constant for standardized fitting engagements.
Nominal size refers to the name by which we call a particular size pipe. Nominal size and
actual outside diameter of a pipe differs for size 12" and under. For sizes 14" and larger the
actual outside diameter and the nominal size are identical. Pipe comes in a very wide range
of sizes. It is not uncommon to see piping as small as ½" or as large as 66". Pipe mills can
and will make almost any size for a price. This does not always prove to be the economical
choice because odd size fittings may not be available. It is best to stick to the closest and
most commercially available or common size to meet the need. The smaller common sizes in
pipe include ½", ¾", 1", 2", 3", 4", 6", 8" 10" and 12". The larger sizes, 14" and above
increase in 2" increments. The Nominal size pertains to calling the pipe size by name only.
The actual outside diameter or O.D. is different for the 12" and under sizes.
Example:
Nominal Size Actual O. D.
1" 1-5/16"
2" 2-3/8"
3" 3-1/2"
4" 4-1/2"
12" 12-3/4"
14" 14"
For all pipe sizes the inside diameter varies as the wall thickness increases thus the thicker
the wall, the smaller the inside diameter.
Weight:
Many years ago, the only "weights" of pipe available were classed as standard weight, extra
heavy and double extra heavy. Within the last seventy-five years or so it became increasingly
evident that this system was limited in scope and did not meet the needs of the growing state
of the industry. This was the direct result of the increasingly higher pressures and
temperatures of the commodities being handled. Consequently the use of schedule numbers
came into being. Today, both weight and schedule are the way of identifying the wall
thickness.
Length:
Based on common practice pipe usually can be furnished in "single random" lengths, "double
random" lengths, and under certain circumstances (pipeline work for example) in even longer
lengths. A single random will run from about 16' to 22' in length. A double random will run
from about 35' to 40' in length. Pipe can be ordered to a specified fixed length but this will
cost more.
Methods of manufacture:
Pipe is made two ways. It is made by taking a flat plate, called a skelp, and rolling it into a
tube shape and then welding the two edges together to form a tube. This pipe is commonly
called "welded pipe" or ERW pipe. The other way is to take a solid bar or billet and pierce a
hole through the length. This pipe is commonly called seamless pipe.
Determining wall thickness:
The wall thickness for pipe is generally covered in the piping material specifications by
calling out the Schedule Number for a large majority of sizes. However, as pressure and
temperature increase, and sometimes the corrosion allowance, it becomes necessary to
calculate the required wall thickness for a specific case. Please note that generally as the
specifications change into higher-pressure classes, wall thickness calculations must be made
for smaller size pipe. Wall thicknesses are by strict adherence to the rules set forth in the
code for Pressure Piping. For more detailed information on specific pipe sizes and it's various
wall thicknesses, schedules and pipe weights see the "tools," "piping", "pipe chart" on this
website
Grades:
In steel pipe, the word "grade" designates divisions within different types based on carbon
content or mechanical properties (tensile and yield strengths). The tensile strength is the
ultimate amount of stretching the steel can bear without breaking. The yield strength is the
maximum amount of stretching steel can bear before it becomes permanently deformed or
before it loses its ability to return to its original shape.
Grade A steel pipe has lower tensile and yield strengths than Grade B steel pipe. This is
because it has a lower carbon content. Grade A in more ductile and is better for cold bending
and close coiling applications.
Grade B steel pipe is better for applications where pressure, structural strength and collapse
are factors. It is also easier to machine because of its higher carbon content. It is generally
accepted that Grade B welds as well as Grade A.
Ends:
Steel pipe can generally be specified with a specific end preparation at the time of purchase.
Three end preps are standard. There is plain end (PE). This would be the choice for small
sizes where socket welded fittings will be used to join pipe to pipe or pipe to fittings. This is
also the default end prep if no end prep is specified. There is threaded end (TE). This would
be the choice for small sizes where the pipe to pipe or pipe to fitting assembly is to be
threaded. There is also bevel end (BE). This would be the choice for most all 3" and larger
steel pipe (or other metallic pipe) where "butt welding will be used to join pipe to pipe or
pipe to fittings.
Discussion:
The information given above is what you should know about pipe. There are also some
things that you should understand about pipe. There is a big difference between what you
know about a subject and what you understand about that subject.
With pipe, most novice designers think that all they have to do is "draw" or "place" the pipe
symbol (on that pipe support beam symbol) in whatever CAD system they are currently using
and they are done. They do not understand what that pipe symbol really means.
That pipe is (or represents) what will be almost a living thing and as such it will have a
growing problem. It will be installed at a certain ambient temperature and then on start-up it
will operate at a totally different temperature. That difference between the installation
temperature and the operating temperature will cause the pipe to expand or contract. No
matter what the designed tries to do he or she cannot stop this action. This expansion (or
contraction) will cause stress, strain and force in both the piping system and the pipe support
system.
This pipe will also have a weight problem. The pipe it self has a certain weight. The pipe
next to it may be the same size but it may not weight the same. This pipe may be both high
pressure and high temperature. This means that the wall schedule may be much thicker
therefore it will weigh more. Let's say we do have two lines side by side. They are both 14",
one (Line A) is a low temperature, low pressure cooling water line and the other (Line B) is a
high pressure, high temperature hydrocarbon process line. The span for both lines is 25'.
Example:
Item Line A Line B

Pipe weight/foot 54.6 189.1
Water weight/foot 59.7 42.6
Insulation weight/foot 0 15
Total weight of span 2857 lbs. 6170 lbs.
This does not include any forces that may be imposed by the total piping configuration on
this specific pipe support. However, it does indicate that there must be some close
coordination with the structural department so they do not assume that all 14" lines are equal.
As for the piping designer, does this line need extra space for movement? Do either or both
of these lines need a pipe guide at this specific pipe support? Does either of these lines need
anchors at this specific pipe support? If an anchor is required will the anchor forces on each
side of the support be the same or will the anchor farces be unbalanced? Both cases must be
brought to the attention of the structural group.
With the hot line there is normally an insulation shoe required which is added material and
which changes the dimensional reference point for the centerline of this line and can cause
design errors if not understood and allowed for.
C. FITTINGS (JUST THE BASICS)
By: James O.Pennock
Definition:
A fitting is a pipe item used for changing direction, branching or attaching in a piping
system. There are many different types of fittings and they are produced in all the same sizes
and weights (schedules) as the pipe. Fittings are commonly segregated into three groups;
Butt-weld, Socket-weld and Screwed. Only the most common will be discussed in this
article.
Like pipe, fittings are fabricated from several different types of material and usually match
the material of the pipe to which they are being attached. Some fittings are Cast Iron, some
are Malleable Iron, some are Forged Steel and others are even fabricated from rolled Steel
Plate. The most used materials are again common carbon steel, along with chromes, stainless
steel, iron, brass, copper, lead, aluminum, glass, rubber and various types of plastic and
plastic lined metal materials.
Fitting Types:
Normally, fittings fall into three basic types or categories. These are In-line, On-line and
Closures. The In-line fittings include elbows (Ells), Tees, Couplings and Reducers. The On-
line fittings include a wide variety of "O-Let" fittings used primarily for making branch
connections. The closure fittings are various types of caps and plugs used to close the end of
a pipe system. We also will discuss some cases where there are alternates to these normal
categories.
Butt-Welded Fittings
Elbows (Ells):
An Elbow is a piping fitting used for changing direction. There are five basic versions of
elbows. The first and by far the most common is the 90° long radius Ell. The second is the
45° long radius Ell. The third is the 90° short radius Ell. The fourth is the long radius
reducing Ell. The fifth version is the long radius 180° Return Bend. The basic Butt-Weld Ell
is manufactured in 90° or 45° configurations as a standard. However for special order and
extra cost, the large sizes can be made in other degrees of turn.
The standard Butt-Weld elbows (90°, 45° and 180° ) can be altered to meet any special angle
needs of a piping system. Elbows like pipe can be flame cut or machine cut to the required
angle. The rough end is then ground or machine beveled to the proper angle for welding.
There is normally no harm to the fitting when this is done.
The terms "Long Radius" and "Short Radius" are important to understand. "Long Radius"
means that the center to end dimension is one and a half times the nominal pipe size.
Example:
Nominal Line Size (and

Center-to-end of
Center-tend of short radius
long radius Ell
Ell)
4" 6"
10" 15"
14" 21"
20" 30"
24" 36"
"Short Radius" means that the center to end dimension is equal to the nominal pipe size. This
means that the center-to-end for a 4" short radius Ell is 4", for a 10" Ell the center-to-end is
10" and so on.
The long radius Ell is the default standard. All elbows shown in a system are assumed to be
long radius 90° Ells unless noted otherwise. This means that the designer must call out any
and all exceptions to this rule. If the Ell is a 90° long radius Ell then the elbow symbol is all
that is required. However, if the Ell is a 45° Ell then the designer must add the notation "45°
Ell" next to the elbow symbol. If the Ell is a 90° short radius Ell then the designer must place
the notation S. R. next to the elbow symbol. Also if the elbow has been trimmed to any odd
angle this too must be noted next to the fitting.
As stated above the 90° long radius Ell is the default standard and is the most used. The
designed should use the long radius Ell at all times unless conditions exist that force another
choice. The short radius 90° Ell should only be used when tight space does not allow the long
radius. The 45° Ell is normally used where a simple offset is required for some purpose. The
180° Ell is used mostly by equipment manufacturers to form heating or cooling coils. Return
Bends are not normally required by the piping designer unless there is a requirement to
fabricate a complex configuration.
The purpose of the 90° long radius Reducing Ell is to do the job of an elbow and a reducer.
(Reducers will be covered later.) As such this Ell is made with one end of one size and the
other end one or two line sizes smaller. The using of the reducing Ell is not cheaper; it only
takes less room. The "long radius" dimension for the 90° long radius reducing Ell is based on
the size of the large end.
Because the long radius and short radius designation of the 90° Ells are based on the nominal
pipe size the designer quickly learns the center-to-end dimensions. The center-to-end
dimensions for the 45° Ell are normally found only on a chart. However, there is a short-cut
way to "know" these dimensions. You see, these dimensions are also based on the nominal
pipe size. This short-cut method works for all 45° Ells from 4" to 24" line size. You can do
this in your head. You simply divide the line size in half three times. Take the answer from
the first time and the third time and total them up. That will be the dimension for the 45° Ell
fitting.
Example:
Column #5 -
Fitting
Column Column Column
Column #1 dimension
#2(½ Col. #3(½ Col. #4(½ Col.
(Line size)
#1) #2) #3)
(Total of Col.
#2 & Col. #4)
4" 2" 1" ½" 2 ½"
8" 4" 2" 1" 5"
10" 5" 2 ½" 1 ¼" 6 ¼"
14" 7" 3 ½" 1 ¾" 8 ¾"
20" 10" 5" 2-½" 12 ½
Tees:
The primary purpose of a Tee fitting is to make a branch from a pipe line (or run). The
branch may need to be the same size as the run or it may need to be one or more sizes smaller
than the run. Because of economics (the cost of special orders) the use of Tees is normally
limited to size-to-size or Straight Tee, (all three connections are the same size) or Reducing
Tees where the branch outlet is only one size smaller than run size. Methods for making
branches of other smaller sizes will be discussed later.
The dimensions of Tees are not as simple as they are for Ells. For Tees you must look them
up on a fitting chart. The dimension found there is however standardized between all
manufacturers. For Straight Tees the center-to-end dimension of both ends and for the branch
outlet is the same. For Reducing Tees the center-to-end of the branch outlet is different from
that of the run.
Reducers:
A Reducer is a fitting used to change the line size one or more sizes smaller (or larger). There
are two versions of Reducers. There is Concentric Reducers- where the centerline of the inlet
and the outlet are the same. There is Eccentric Reducers- where the centerline of the inlet is
different than the centerline of the outlet. With the Eccentric Reducer, one side is flat.
Depending on how it is installed you may have bottom flat (BF) or top flat TF). You may
also have a need to have (*) side flat (*= north, south, east or west). It is about a toss-up as to
which is used more. Concentric Reducers are used mostly in situations where the reducer is
in a vertical run of pipe. Eccentric Reducers are used in horizontal runs of pipe such as
pipeways or in pump suctions.
The dimensions for reducers must be looked up but are normally standardized among the
manufacturers for a given size. The length of a reducer is the same for a range of sizes
(Example: The end-to-end dimension for 10" x 4", 10" x 6" and 10" x 8" reducers is 7"). As
you can see the length of a Reducer is very short in relation to the diameter.
Caps:
The weld Cap is a fitting used to close the end of a pipe. The closed end of the Cap is semi-
elliptical in shape. The dimension of a weld cap is a look-up item. Weld caps are most often
found at the bottom of a piping configuration called a "Boot." A boot is a short length of pipe
with a pipe Cap that is attached to the bottom of steam line and provides for the collection of
condensate.
Alternates:
Here are a few alternates to the normal methods of doing business discussed above.
Miters:
We talked about elbows as a way to change direction. You can change direction without
using elbows. You might do this with a Miter Ell (or Mitre, both spellings are correct). A
Miter Ell is where no fitting is used. Miters are normally used in large size/low pressure
piping.
You fabricate the Miter or change in direction from pipe segments (or pieces) that are cut at
specific angles depending on the number of pieces and welds required. This is really
effective when really odd angles are required. Two of the pieces are the incoming pipe and
the out-going pipe. There may be no middle piece or there may be one (or more) other short
middle pieces depending on the angle of the turn. A simple turn of 45° might be made with a
two-piece/one weld miter. Other changes in direction might be three piece/two weld miters,
three piece/two weld miters and so on. The number of welds is always one less than the
number of pieces.
Depending on the size and schedule of the pipe a Miter might be cheaper than buying
fittings. In small diameter piping the miter is more expensive (labor costs) and there is more
pressure drop through a small miter than a small fitting. Miters are also not recommended for
high temperature lines because miters are more susceptible to overstressing.
Stub-in (Stub-on):
We talked about using Straight Tees and Reducing Tees as a way to make branches from a
line. For low pressure (or reasonably low pressure) there is another way to make branches
from a line. This method uses only pipe. It is normally used only for low pressure/low
temperature applications where the branch is reducing. The ASME B31.3 (and other piping
B31 Code sections) recognize two basic versions of the pipe to pipe branch.
One method is where the run pipe has a hole cut the outside diameter of the branch pipe. This
opening is then beveled for a "full penetration weld" The branch pipe is saddle cut (with no
bevel) to match the I. D. of the run pipe. They are then fitted together and welded.
The second method is where the diameter of the hole in the run pipe is the same I. D. as the I.
D. of the branch pipe. This hole does not get a bevel. The end of the branch pipe is saddle cut
to fit the run pipe and is then beveled for a full penetration weld.
With the first method, the branch pipe is inserted in the run pipe. With the second method,
the branch pipe is set on the run pipe. Both are still commonly referred to as "Stub-ins"
Both of these can come non-reinforced (as described above) or reinforced. The reinforced
version is normally only required for higher stress situations. The reinforcement is a "ring"
plate cut from some scrape run pipe or the same material as the run pipe. At the center is a
hole the same size as the branch pipe. If cut from flat plate it is then shaped to fit around the
run pipe. The width of the ring is normally one half the diameter of the branch pipe. The ring
is intended to replace the material that was removed when the hole was cut in the run pipe. A
small diameter hole (1/4" NPT) is normally drilled (and tapped) in the ring to act as a vent
during the welding process and to allow for Hydrotesting of the welds. The ring is then
welded to the branch pipe and the run pipe with full penetration welds. The small hole is
fitted with a plug after work is completed.
O-let fittings:
Another way to make branch connections on pipe and vessels is by using an "O-Let" fitting.
An "O-Let fitting is designed for use on 3" and larger welded pipe. The main feature of the
typical O-Let fitting is the built-up base design which eliminates the need of any other form
of branch reinforcement. The O-let fitting is manufactured in a number of styles.
These are:
Weld-O-Let - (common) - This fitting is best described as an odd shaped "donut." It's
purpose is to make self-reinforced branch outlets on a larger (one size or more) run of pipe.
The base of the common weld-o-let has a saddle shape to fit the run pipe. The outlet end of
the weld-o-let has a beveled-end allowing for butt welding a pipe or fitting. Weld-O-Lets
come in a wide range of sizes and materials. The size call-out is normally the run (header)
size by the branch size (Example: 24" x 4" WOL). It may be of some interest to know that
most O-Let fittings are made with the base that covers a range of header sizes. This means
that the 24" x 4" WOL will also fit on all pipe sizes from 24" pipe to 36" pipe.
Thread-O-Let - The Thread-O-Let is made much the same as the Weld-O-Let except that
the outlet is threaded to match the normal tapered pipe threads. The threaded outlet sizes are
normally limited to the smaller (2" and under) pipe sizes.
Sock-O-Let - The Sock-O-Let is also made much the same as the Weld-O-Let except that
the outlet has a socket to match the socket welded piping fittings and pipe. The socket outlet
sizes are normally limited to the smaller (2" and under) pipe sizes.
Latrolet - A Latrolet is a weld on branch fitting that is attached to the run pipe at a 45° angle.
The angle attachment is sometimes required on high pressure relief systems. A Latrolet may
be ordered with; a Butt-weld outlet end, a threaded outlet end or a socket weld end.
Elbowlet - The Elbowlet is made to be fitted on the back side of a long radius 90° elbow. An
Elbowlet may also be ordered with; a Butt-weld outlet end, a threaded outlet end or a socket
weld outlet end.
Nip-O-Let - A Nip-O-Let is a fitting that has the reinforced base for attaching to the run pipe
and then has a short pipe extension with a threaded or plain outlet end. The Nip-O-Let does
come in a range of sizes, however they are limited to the smaller sizes. This fitting is
normally used for vent, drain and pressure gage connections.
Flange-O-Let - This fitting is much like the Nip-O-Let but has a flanged outlet end. The
purpose is the same as for the Nip-O-Let.
Couplings: (as a branch outlet fitting)
The common pipe Coupling (to be discussed later) can also be used in the making of small
size branches from a larger header or run pipe. One end of the (Threaded or Socket Weld)
Coupling is shaped to match the O. D. of the larger pipe. This shaped end is then ground to
form a beveled end which allows for a full penetration weld.
Screwed and Socket-Welded Fittings
These fittings perform the same function as the Butt-Weld fittings. There function is the
same but the method of joining and the dimensioning is different. Normally these fittings are
used in sizes 1-1/2" (or 2") and smaller. Welded fittings are specified the same as the pipe, by
weight, schedule or wall thickness. Screwed and Socket-Weld fittings are specified per the
pressure class.
Thread engagements as well as the depths of the sockets for different pipe sizes are different
and must be looked-up on an approved dimension table.
Threaded fitting pressure classes:
· 125# Cast Iron

· 250# Cast Iron
· 150# Malleable Iron
· 300# Malleable Iron
· 2000# Forged Steel *
· 3000# Forged Steel *
· 6000# Forged Steel
* Most common
The Cast Iron and Malleable Iron fittings are basically used for air and water services at a
low temperature and pressure. Forged fittings are normally used for higher pressures and
temperatures as well as for the more complex commodities.
The majority of the screwed fittings will have female (internal) threads per NPT (National
Pipe Thread). The exception will be the swages and the plugs - they will have male (external)
threads.
Socket-Weld fittings are manufactured in two classes.

Socket-Weld fittings have a deep socket into which the pipe slips and aligns itself. The weld
is then made on the outer surface of the pipe and fitting. This eliminate the need for or use of
special clamps or tack welding for alignment prior to the final fit-up welding. At the bottom
of the socket a 1/16" gap is left to compensate for expansion when the weld is made. This
gap is called a root-gap. The swage does not have an internal socket; it will fit into the socket
of a fitting or be butt-welded to a pipe.
The dimensions for screwed and socket-weld fittings must be looked up on a standard fitting
dimension chart. There are no dimension short-cuts for these fittings.
Common Screwed an Socket-Weld fittings:
Elbows (Ells): Here again we have a fitting whose purpose is to change direction. There are
only two versions. There is the 90° Ell and the 45° Ell. With the Screwed and Socket-Weld
Ells there is no long radius or short radius. They are just as they are and they cannot be
"trimmed" to allow for odd angles..
Tees: The Screwed and Socket-Weld Tee fittings are used for making branches. They do
come in straight and some reducing sizes.
Swages: The Screwed and Socket-Weld Swage comes in both the concentric and the
eccentric shapes. Swages do have an important feature that every designer needs to know and
accept. Where a Butt-Weld reducer is short relative to the diameter, the swage is very long
relative the diameter. Screwed and Socket-Weld swages are made by the same people and in
some cases by the same machine. Some are then threaded and some are left with a plain end
or beveled for welding. The extra length on the Screwed Swage allows space for the pipe
wrench.
Caps and Plugs: Caps and Plugs are intended to provide for the closer of the end of a pipe or
fitting.
Nipples: A Nipple is a name given to a short length of pipe. It is not really a fitting in the
same context as an elbow or a Tee. Nipples are cut from pipe and can be purchased in 4", 6"
and 12" standard lengths. Pipe Nipples can also be made by the piping crew in the field.
Unions: The Union is basically used as a dismantling fitting, and in many cases it is
necessary for assembly. The field crew may install extra Unions at their own discretion to
expedite and facilitate the construction of socket-weld and screwed piping.
D. FLANGES, GASKETS & BOLTS (JUST THE BASICS)
By: James O.Pennock
Note: This article covers ASME B 16.5 Standard Piping Flanges up to 24" NPS. Flanges
larger than 24" fall under ASME B16.47 and while they have the same attributes they will be
covered at a later time.
Definition:
A flange is defined as a plate type device, normally round, that is attached to the end of a
pipe, fitting, valve or other object to facilitate the assembly and disassembly of a piping
system. For many years the only practical method of joining steel pipe had been by
connecting threaded pipe ends with couplings. Improvements in the welding of carbon steel
reduced labor costs and provided a completely sealed and much stronger joint. In most
present day piping systems, threaded joints are usually limited to pipe sizes 2" and smaller.
Larger pipe (3" and larger) is normally joined by butt-welding of continuous pipe and fittings
or by flanges at joints that may require dismantling. Flanges (3" and larger) are also the
default standard for connecting to most equipment connections and valves.
Flanges are manufactured in all the different materials to match the material of the pipe and
fittings to which they are being attached. While some flanges are made of Cast Iron. The vast
majority of flanges are forged carbon steel.
Forged Flange Ratings:

Forged steel flanges are made in seven primary ratings. These primary ratings are as follows:
• 150#
• 300#
• 400#
• 600#
• 900#
• 1500#
• 2500#
The Primary Rating is a pressure rating based on a pressure/temperature relationship.
Example:
A 150# Forged Flange is used for 150# PSIG at 500º F. This same flange may also be used
for 275# PSIG at 100º F. This same flange could also be used at 100# PSIG at 750º F. Note
the inverse relationship. When the pressure goes up, the temperature goes down and vice
versa. Pressure ratings are used as a guide to safely design piping systems and also to
standardize manufactured piping components. The same ratings hold true for screwed and
socket-weld flanges.
Cast Iron Flange Ratings:
The two most common ratings for Cast Iron flanges are 125# and 250#. Other flange ratings
are available but are not common. Cast Iron flanges are generally found associated with low
pressure cast iron valves and nozzles on cast iron equipment such as some pumps and
turbines. Mating forged steel flanges to cast iron flange can pose a potential for damage to
the "weaker" cast iron. The main point to remember now is that a 125# Cast Iron flange will
mate to a 150# forged steel flange, and a 250# Cast Iron flange will mate to a 300# forged
steel flange. The solution to the potential damage problem will be discussed later in flange
facings.
Flange Dimensions:
A flange has many dimensions. The most critical is the "length" of the flange. This
dimension will vary with each type of flange and will be covered in the section below
covering Flange Types.
All other dimensions for a flange will normally be the same across all flange types but will
vary with each flange rating. These common dimensions include:
• Flange Outside Diameter

• Flange Thickness
• Bolt Circle
• Number of Bolts
• Bolt Hole Size
• Bolt Size
Bolt Hole Location:
The ASME B16.5 has a standard for boltholes that in used by all (US) manufacturers for
flange sizes up through 24" For instance; the number of boltholes required varies with the
size and rating of the flange. But the number and size is the same no mater the type of flange.
The boltholes are evenly spaced around the flange on a concentric bolt circle. There will
always be an even number of boltholes, in graduations of 4 (i.e., 4, 8, 12, 16, etc.).
Unless specifically noted otherwise by the piping designer (and then only if for good reason)
all flange boltholes shall straddle the "natural" centerlines. This is the flange bolthole
orientation rule. This "natural" centerline rule for flange is known, understood and followed
by all responsible equipment manufacturers and pipe fabricators. The rule is:
• For a vertical flange face (the flange face in vertical and the line is horizontal) the boltholes
shall be oriented to straddle the vertical and horizontal centerlines.
• For a horizontal flange face (the flange face is horizontal and the line is vertical up or
vertical down) the boltholes shall be oriented to straddle the (plant) north/south centerlines.
Care must be taken to check all equipment vendor outlines to identify any flange orientations
that do not match this rule. When an exception is found the vendor can be requested to
change his bolt hole orientation. This is not always successful and if not then the piping
designer must insure that the piping fabrication documents call for the correct orientation.
This rule of boltholes straddling the natural centerlines is sometimes referred to as "Two-
Hole" the flange. This means that the two of the holes straddle the centerline. To "One-Hole"
a flange means that the flange has been rotated so that one hole is right on the natural
centerline. I assure you that 99.999% of the time that to "One Hole" a flange is a mistake and
will add cost to the field. It also makes the piping foreman very unhappy.
Flange Types:
Weld Neck Flanges:
Weld Face Flanges are distinguished from other flange types by their long tapered hub and
gentle transition of thickness in the region of the butt weld that joins them to pipe or a fitting.
A weld-neck flange is attached to a pipe or a fitting with a single full penetration, "V" bevel
weld. The long tapered hub provides an important reinforcement of the flange proper from
the standpoint of strength and resistance to dishing. The smooth transition from the flange
thickness to the pipe wall thickness by the taper is extremely beneficial under conditions of
repeated bending caused by line expansion or other variable forces, and produces an
endurance strength of welding neck flanged assemblies equivalent to that of a butt-welded
joint. This type of flange is preferred for severe service conditions, whether loading
conditions are substantially constant or fluctuate between wide limits.
The weld neck flange is used in each of the seven flange ratings and has the advantage of
requiring only one weld to attach it to the adjacent pipe or fitting.
The key dimension for a weld neck flange in the length through the hub from the beveled end
to the contact face of the flange. This "length" includes the bevel, the tapered hub, and the
thickness of the plate part of the flange and the raised face. To obtain the correct dimension
you must look at a correctly constructed flange dimension chart (see the "Tools" button on
this website) or a flange manufacturers catalog. Electronic piping design software will
normally already have the correct dimension built-in.
It is important to understand and remember that the (1/16") raised face on the 150# raised
face and on the 300# raised face flanges is normally included in the length dimension.
However, the ¼" raised face is not included in the chart or catalog length dimension for the
400# and higher pressure rated flanges. The raised face dimension for 400# flanges (and up)
normally must be added to the chart or catalog length to arrive at the true total length of these
higher-pressure flanges.
Slip-on Flanges:
Slip-On (SO) Flanges are preferred by some contractors, over the Weld-neck, because of the
lower initial cost. However, this may be offset by the added cost of the two fillet welds
required for proper installation. The strength of the slip-on flange is ample for it's rating, but
its life under fatigue conditions is considered to be only one-third that of the weld-neck
flange.
The slip-on flange may be attached to the end of a piece of pipe or to one or more ends of a
pipefitting. The slip-on flange is positioned so the inserted end of the pipe or fitting is set
back or short of the flange face by the thickness of the pipe wall plus 1/8 of an inch. This
allows for a fillet weld inside the SO flange equal to the thickness of the pipe without doing
any damage to the flange face. The back or outside of the flange is also welded with a fillet
weld.
A variation of the Slip-On flange also exists. This is the Slip-On Reducing Flange. This is
simply a larger (say a 14") Slip-On flange blank that, instead of the Center (pipe) hole being
cut out (or drilled out) for 14" pipe it is cut out for a 6" pipe. The SO Reducing flange is
basically used for reducing the line size where space limitations will not allow the length of a
weld neck flange and reducer combination. The use of the Slip-On Reducing Flange should
only be used where the flow direction is from the smaller size into the larger size.
Lap Joint Flanges:
A Lap Joint Flange is a two piece device that is much like a weld-neck flange but also like a
loose slip-on flange. One piece is a sleeve called a 'Stub-end" and is shaped like a short piece
of pipe with a weld bevel on one end and a narrow shoulder on the other end called the hub.
The hub is the same outside diameter as the raised face (gasket contact surface) of a weld
neck flange. The thickness of the hub is normally about ¼" to 3/8". The back face of the hub
has a rounded transition (or inside fillet) that joins the hub to the sleeve.
The other piece of a Lap Joint Flange is the backing flange. This flange has all the same
common dimensions (O.D., bolt circle, bolt hole size, etc.) as any other flange however it
does not have a raised face. One side, the backside, has a slight shoulder that is square cut at
the center or pipe hole. The front side has flat face and at the center hole an outside fillet to
match the fillet of the "Stub-end" piece. The flange part of the Lap-joint flange assembly is
slipped on to the stub-end prior to the sleeve being welded to the adjoining pipe or fitting.
The flange itself is not welded or fixed in any way. It is free to spin for proper alignment with
what ever it is joining to.
The "Stub-end" can normally be purchased in two lengths. There is a short version, about 3"
long and a long version of about 6" long. It is prudent for the piping designer to know which
version is in the piping specification.
Because of it's two piece configuration, the Lap Joint Flange offers a way to cut cost or
simplify work. The cost saving comes when the piping system requires a high cost alloy for
all "wetted" parts to reduce corrosion. The sleeve or Stub-end can be the required higher cost
alloy but the flange can be the lower cost forged carbon steel.
The work simplification comes into the picture where there are cases that require frequent
and rapid disassembly and assembly during the operation of a plant. The ability to spin that
backing flange compensates for misalignment of the boltholes during reassembly.
Screwed (or Threaded) Flanges:
Screwed flanges look very much like a Slip-On flange in some ways. The main difference is
the Screwed flange was bored out initially to match a specific pipe inside diameter. The
backside of this center opening is then threaded with the proper sized tapered pipe thread.
This flange is primarily used to make flanged joints where required in small sizes in threaded
pipe specs
Socket Weld Flanges:
Socket Weld flanges also look very much like a Slip-On flange. Here the main difference is
the Socket Weld flange was also bored out initially to match a specific pipe inside diameter.
Here however, the backside of this center opening is then counter bored to form the proper
size socket to take the pipe O.D. This flange is primarily used to make flanged joints where
required in small sizes in socket welded pipe specs
Blind Flanges:
Blind flanges are a round plate with all the proper boltholes but no center hold. This flange is
used to provide positive closer on the ends of pipes, valves or equipment nozzles.
Flange Faces:
Face Types:
Flanges faces come in different forms. Some forms are more common and others are old and
out of date forms. These old forms may be ordered but possibly only to match an existing
piece of old equipment.
Flange face forms are:

• Flat Face (FF) - The Flat Face is primarily used on Cast Iron flanges. With this face the
whole contact face of the flange is machined flat.
• Raised Face (RF) - The Raised Face is most common of all flange faces. The flange has a
raised area machined on the flange face equal to the contact area of a gasket.
• Ring-type Joint (RTJ) - This is a form of flange face that is becoming obsolete. This type
has a higher raised portion on the face into which a ring groove is then machined.
• Tongue and Groove (T&G) - This is also a form of flange face that in becoming obsolete.
With this type the flanges must be matched. One flange face has a raised ring (Tongue)
machined onto the flange face while the mating flange has a matching depression (Groove)
machined into it's face.
• Male-and -Female (M&F) - This is another form of flange face that is obsolete. With this
type the flanges must also be matched. One flange face has an area that extends beyond the
normal flange face (Male). The companion flange or mating flange has a matching
depression (Female) machined into it's face.
Dissimilar flange faces such as the RTJ, T&G and the F&M shall never be bolted together.
The primary reason for this is that the contact surfaces do not match and there is no gasket
that has one type on one side and another type on the other side. Don't even think about it!
Flat face flanges are never to be bolted to a raised face flange. If you need to bolt a Forged
steel flange to cast iron then you must call for the forged steel flange to be machined off to a
flat face. For more information on this see this link to Goulds pumps
Flange Face Finish:
The part of a flange where the gasket touches is called the contact surface. This area is the
most critical area to the prevention of leaks. This area of a flange must be protected from the
time it is machined clear through all the various shipping, storage, fabrication and installation
periods. Flange faces are machined with the following standard finishes. No doubt your
piping material engineer could request another special finish but that would only add extra
cost. The most common finish for the contact face of a flange is a concentric (or
phonographic) groove. This pattern is machined into the flange face and provides the grip for
the gasket.
Gaskets:
You can have 600# stainless steel flanges and have the bolts fully tight and if you do not
have a gasket (or the proper gasket) you will have a lot of leaks. Having the gasket and the
right gasket is very important. Gaskets provide the tight seal that retains the pressure and
keeps the gas or liquid in the pipe. In a vacuum system it keeps the outside air from getting
in. Gaskets are designed and later chosen considering all the same issues as were used to
select the pipe. These include pressure, temperature, and corrosiveness of the commodity,
among others. Gaskets are made of a wide range of materials. These include rubber,
elastomers and graphite. The Spiral Wound gasket has a graphite or teflon material wound
with a metal strip which is then held in shape by a flat metal ring. This metal retainer ring
also acts as a centering tool to insure that the casket is not misaligned or blocks the product
flow.
Gaskets for Ring Type Joint flanges are simply a solid metal ring. There are two basic cross-
sectional shapes for the RTJ gasket. These are "Oval" and "Hexagonal."
Bolts:
Bolting is the final element of a complete flange joint assembly. Here again we have some
variations. The most common is the Stud Bolt. Next is normally the Cap Screw. And finally
we have the Machine Bolt.
Stud Bolts:
The Stud Bolt is a long threaded rod (with no head on either end) and two nuts. The Stud
Bolt is used in all locations where you have two normal flanges with access to the backside
of both flanges and both ends of the stud.
Cap Screws:
The Cap Screw is a fully threaded rod with a head on one end. No nut is used with the Cap
Screw. The Cap Screw is normally used in all locations where a flange is being attached to a
piece of equipment where there are only tapped holes (i.e.: no access to the backside). Cap
Screws are also used to attach threaded-lug type wafer valves (Butterfly Valves) between a
pair of flanges. For this application the length of the Cap Screw selected is critical. Two Cap
Screws are used at each lug position, one from one side and one from the other side. The Cap
Screw must be long enough to go through the flange, the raised face and half of the threaded
lug minus 1/16 of an inch. This leaves a 1/8 inch total gap between the ends of the two cap
screws when the screws are tight.
Machine Bolts:
A Machine Bolt is a rod with a hexagon head on one end and threads on some of the length.
Machine Bolts are normally made of a lower strength material than Stud Bolts and are
therefore considered only where low strength bolting is required. These applications most
often include Cast Iron flanges.
Section III
PIPE SUPPORTS (PART-1)
By: James O.Pennock
The subject, "Pipe Supports" is a much more complex subject than the term suggests. There
are so many situations that a pipe can find itself in and in every case it will need to be
supported. Pipe supports is a general term that actually is split into two families. There is
what I call the primary pipe support systems, and then there are the secondary pipe support
systems.
The primary pipe supports systems are those supports that are a part of the infrastructure and
fall under the prime responsibility of the structural department. The secondary pipe support
systems are more a part of the piping systems and as such fall under the prime responsibility
of the piping department. You notice I used the words 'prime responsibility' with each of
these there is still a cross over responsibility to provide proper, accurate and timely
information and then action.
Primary Pipe Support Systems
As noted above the primary pipe supports are a part of the infrastructure. This is true of most
all projects. For simplicity the emphasis here will focus on "Grass Root" or new construction
plants. These primary pipe supports systems may also be referred to as piperacks, pipeways,
pipe alleys. These support systems may be major or minor and they may be overhead or
sleeper pipe racks. It is important to understand that even though they are called pipe racks
they support and carry more than just piping. These other items may include the cables for
electrical and instrumentation services.
For clarification, overhead pipe racks are elevated to the point where you can walk and/or
drive under the supported piping. Sleepers or sleeper ways are low to the ground so there is
no passage under the supported piping.
Pipe racks (overhead or sleeper) are normally established and sized early in the preliminary
engineering phase of a project. This time of the project is normally called the plant
development phase or the plot plan development phase. Once they are established and sized
they are one of the first things the structural department can work on. The terms 'establish'
and 'size' requires a lot of wisdom and work.
The wisdom and work means thinking one, two or three years into the future and deciding
where (location) the primary pipe support systems will run. Other critical elements include
the configuration, height, width, spacing and the materials of construction/fabrication
method. Let's take these elements one at a time.
» Location - In order to set the location of the primary pipe support systems the total plant
layout must be established. This means that all the various disciplines must have a very good
idea what equipment is required and it's size. The "Plot Plan" must be reviewed by all the key
people on the project and then approved by the client.
» Configuration - This is the selection of "fit-for-purpose." Each main run, minor run and
branch run must be looked at to determine its configuration. Will it be an overhead rack or a
sleeper way? Will each be single deck (layer) or multiple deck? Will the support be a single
column ("T") support or multi-column support? How many columns? A second part of the
configuration issue effects pipe racks in the process units themselves. This is the question of
whether or not the pipe rack will support equipment such as Air Coolers (Fin Fans). Another
part of configuration is the issue of intersections. Poor planning on this issue can cause
problems later with the piping.
» Height - How high should each run of rack be? Should they be elevated or low sleepers.
The sleepers are concrete with an imbedded steel plate on the top. For sleepers, they need to
be off the ground to allow for maintenance and drainage also to prevent corrosion. For
elevated multi-level racks what should the separation be? For elevated racks you must plan
the height and the separation of the whole system together. A key element in the
determination of separation is the line sizes to be carried on the racks.
» Width - This requires a detailed study of the total piping systems for the whole plant based
on pipe rack routing. In the past, a study (called a "Transposition") was done to, as best you
could, account for each line on each pipe rack. From this study, a berth sequence was
established and the line spacing set. A percentage was added as an error factor and then the
clients "future" reserve was added. This then constituted the minimum rack width. The final
width would be set after all racks were "sized" and then some might be rounded up in width
for consistence based on the materials of construction/fabrication method.
» Spacing - This issue can be addressed after the transposition has been completed. The
transposition identifies all the rack piping from the largest to the smallest From this the
average line size for each leg of the rack system can be established. With the pipe size
information (largest, smallest and average pipe size) the number and spacing of the pipe
support bents can be set. A cost tradeoff is evaluated and made between more pipe supports
spaced closer together or fewer pipe supports and some sort of intermediate support system.
» Materials of construction/fabrication method - What materials are the pipe racks to be made
of and what will be the fabrication method? Pipe racks can be bare steel, steel w/a concrete
encasement (fireproofing), reinforced concrete or a combination. The steel can be steel
structural shapes or pipe shape. The concrete fireproofing can be cast in place onto (or
around) the steel columns and beams or it can be pre-cast onto the columns and beams prior
to installation. The reinforced concrete pipe supports can also be cast in place or pre-cast then
field erected. The space requirement dimensions for a reinforced concrete column or beam is
about twice that of bare steel.
The piping design group on the project (at the company where I came from) was the lead
group in all of the above issues except the last one, materials of construction/fabrication
method. This issue was properly the responsibility of the structural department, construction
and the client. There is no doubt that economics, the jobsite location, labor and material
availability played a part. Piping, however must know what the materials of
construction/fabrication method will be because it can affect one or more of the other issues.
Secondary Pipe Support Systems
The secondary pipe support systems are a broad family of devices with two branches and
actually include more than just supports. The two branches are defined as (a) "engineered"
devices and (b) "miscellaneous" pipe support devices.
The term "engineered" pipe supports relates to devices that are non-static, one-of-a-kind,
location and condition specific. They are identified at the time the need is recognized and
then designed and engineered for that specific need. Constant support spring hangers and
snubbers are just two of the devices in this category. The piping stress engineer is the
party/person who is responsible for the engineering of these. However, the piping designer
working in the specific area has a shared responsibility.
The term "miscellaneous" pipe support refers to a broad array of devices that includes items
such as Anchors, Base Supports, Cradles, Dummy Support Legs, Guides, Hanger Rods, Pick-
ups, Shoes, Trunnions, etc. All companies have their own operating methods and may not use
a different approach to miscellaneous pipe support devices. Some may allow each piping
designer to pick and choose pieces and parts from various catalogs to design their own pipe
supports. Others may use a more organizational approach and "pre-engineer" these supports.
The term "pre-engineer" means that the various devices are an existing company standard
that may be used on the project. Secondary support devices typically have multiple or
repetitive point of use subject to similar conditions. Having these devices "pre-engineered"
and available to the piping designer on the project saves money, provides consistency of
design, and results in a safer design. The configurations, hardware and materials have already
been established, the load calculations have been performed (and are on file). There is also an
"If-then" selection key and criteria established (If you have "X" support problem, then you
can/must use "Y" support device). The extensive use of computers and plant design software
makes this approach more viable. Having these support devices "pre-engineered" and
documented allows for the inserting of the item's specific electronic symbol required for
model generation and document (plans, elevations and isometrics) extraction.
Secondary pipe support devices

(Item name, purpose and frequency of use)
Name Purpose Frequency

Prevent the movement of the pipe line normally in a
Anchors High
pipe rack
Prevent any movement of a piping assembly
Base Anchors Low
normally at grade
Allows only vertical movement (up or down) of
Base Guides Low
piping assemblies at grade
Provides support under piping assemblies normally
Base Supports High
at grade
Provides protection for cold insulation when High for cold
Cradles
crossings a pipe support in pipe racks service
Directional Restricts the movement of a pipe line to a specific
High
Anchor direction pipe racks
Dummy Provides added length to a pipeline for the purpose
High
Support Legs of support. Not restricted to only pipe rack usage
A catchall term sometimes used by a piping
Field Supports designer that includes any type of non-infrastructure High
support. These items are not location specific.
Provides restraint to keep a pipe line in place in
Guides horizontal pipe racks or vertical pipe racks in High
buildings or up tall equipment
Gussets Provides added reinforcement for small (fragile) See note #1

branch connections on a larger header or pipe
A wide verity of top-down pipe supports situations,
Hanger Rods
not location specific. High
Prevents or controls mechanical vibration in piping
Hold Downs
systems. See note #2
Load Provides additional mass for thin wall pipe at a point
Distribution of concentrated stress loading.
Low
Pads This item is not location specific.
Provides support of pipes from other pipes or
Pick-ups Moderate
overhead beams and is not location specific.
Provides "mini-supports for lines with hot insulation
Shoes High
normally only used only at pipe support points
Provides load-carrying points for vertical pipelines
Trunnions most often used to support pipes attached to tall Low
vertical vessels or hung from tall structures.
Note #1 - This item is normally used only for (a) services subject to heavy vibration such as
at reciprocating compressors or (b) services that contain highly hazardous or toxic material.
Note #2 - This item is normally only used for the suction and discharge piping at
reciprocating compressors.
Now, lets look at and discuss each of these "miscellaneous" or "pre-engineered" devices. The
description for these items is based on my own experience. Others will no doubt have other
and even better ways. Everyone is encouraged to create "a better mouse trap."
Anchors
The anchoring of a pipe in place can be achieved in a number of ways. An anchor will
normally require some additional material regardless of the line size. You cannot just weld a
pipe to a pipe support. For some small lines in the right situations you can use "U" bolts over
the pipe (tack-welded to the pipe) and through-bolted to a bare steel pipe support. Another
way for small line sizes (2" and 3") uses 1-1/2" angle iron 6" long. Weld one leg of the angle
iron (horizontal) flat to the top of the pipe support with the other (vertical) leg against the
pipe. Stitch weld (1" fillet weld on 5" centers) to the vertical leg to the pipe. For larger lines
use a pipe guide to restrain the side-to-side movement and add a piece of steel ("T" or
channel) to the bottom of the pipe (or shoe) at the pipe support to restrict longitudinal.
Anchors will be required for both bare (uninsulated) pipe and insulated pipe. The
requirements for anchors for cold insulated and hot insulated pipe is different.
Base Anchors
This will occur most often at control valve manifolds (or stations) situated close to grade or a
platform. Base anchors are simply a stub of pipe (dummy leg) attached to the lower portion
of an elbow and extended to grade (or platform). A square steel plate is welded flat to the
pipe. The plate may have holes in it and be cinch-anchored to the paving or welded to
platform steel. The sizing of the "pipe leg" can be the same as for Dummy Legs.
Base Guides
This item is constructed of the material and methods as the base anchor except that the
bottom plate is not bolted or welded down. For this item angle iron strips are installed on two
opposite sides (depending on desired movement) to control the direction.
Base Supports
This is another name for one of the items that sometimes falls under the name Field Support.
This item also has a dummy leg type pipe extension (or stub) welded down from an elbow.
However, the bottom end if the stub is threaded using a straight (conduit) thread machine. A
straight thread, conduit coupling in then used to make height adjustments to the support.
When this is required for high cost piping materials that require post weld heat treating the
stub is shortened and added in the shop. The balance of the stub is added in the field from
carbon steel. Another variation of this is restricted to small diameter piping. For this a 3'-0"
(1 meter) length of 3"x3" steel angle is welded to a 6"x6" plate. Holes are drilled in the angle
at the proper elevation and a "U" bolt secures the pipe to the angle.
Cradles
This device is normally fabricated from carbon steel that is shaped to fit the outside diameter
of cold insulation. The potential number of sizes for this item can be vast. The sizing
requirements are based on (a) the pipe size, (b) the insulation thickness, (c) the load bearing
capability of the insulation, (d) the length of the required cradle and (e) the thickness of the
cradle material. The pipe size, the insulation thickness and the load bearing capability should
be easy to understand. The length if the cradle is influenced by questions such as: Does this
line require an anchor at this cradle? What kind of pipe supports do we have at the point of
this cradle? How much thermal movement will this line "see" at the point of this cradle? All
of these items effect the cradle length. If there is to be an anchor at this cradle and the forces
are substantial then the cradle thickness may need to be increased.
Directional Anchor
This item could also be called a Directional Guide and is most often associated with hot
piping. This item is designed to allow for thermal movement in a specific axis. The design
may require longitudinal movement or it may require side-to-side movement of a line. This
item has two versions, one for longitudinal movement and a second for the side-to-side
movement. Remember this most often occurs in hot piping. Hot piping also requires shoes to
elevate the line and the insulation above the pipe support. So we have a pipe, a hot pipe,
already on a shoe. Now, to allow for longitudinal movement we simply add (weld) Guides to
the top (steel) surface of the pipe support. To allow for side-to-side movement in the pipe we
DO NOT ADD GUIDES. We add two pieces piece of steel ("T" or channel) to the bottom of
the pipe shoe, one on each side of the pipe support with a small (1/4") gap to avoid binding.
Dummy Support Legs - (or Dummy Legs)
This is simply a piece of pipe extended from an elbow to provide support when a pipe line
enters or leaves a pipe rack short of a support and is left improperly support. A stub or length
of pipe sized to carry the load is welded to the elbow and extended beyond the support. The
length and the wall schedule of the pipe extension are a rather complex formula based on the
parent line size and the total load. The total load is based on the distance (indirection of flow)
from the last support to the drop, the distance of the drop, the distance from the drop to the
next support, the weight of any insulation plus the weight of the hydrotest water or
commodity which ever is greater.
Field Supports
This "catch-all" term is used to describe a simple piece of steel angle or channel welded to a
column or beam intended to provide a support point for a pipe. As mentioned above (Base
Support), this term is also used for the support under control valve stations and pump suction
or discharge piping.
(The term "Field Support" (or F.S.) is seen on old drawings from existing plants of years
ago. It was used on drawings with only a simple symbol indicating a location. This may have
occurred when the piper got lazy or did not know enough about pipe supports. The intention
was for the installation contractor "Field" to do what ever they chose to do with whatever
material that was available.)
Guides
Guides are predominantly in elevated pipe racks or sleepers to keep the pipes in their
assigned berth. Guides are most often short lengths of properly sized steel angle welded to
the pipe support on each side of each pipe. For small lines using small angle the angle is
installed with the point up, like a pyramid. For larger uninsulated lines with larger angle one
leg of the angle is flat on the support and the other is vertical. For the installations of guides
care must be taken by thew installers to leave a small gap between the pipe and the angle to
avoid binding. Because of the close spacing of the pipes in a rack guides are attached to
alternate pipe bents in staggered fashion.
Gussets
This is a simple piece of angle steel welded or clamped to a header pipe and to a (small)
branch to prevent breakage due to vibration or other action. There are some locations and
services where the use of gussets is highly recommended.
These are:
1. Suction and discharge piping of reciprocating compressors and pumps
2. Lines in mixed phase flow subject to slug flow or surge
3. Lines in hydrogen service
4. Lines in toxic service (category "X" or "M")
5. Branches in piping low to grade (or platforms) that may be used as a step by operators
Hanger Rods
These devices are one of the most dangerous items used in the piping field. In many if not
most cases they are not properly "designed". Hanger Rods, Rod Hangers and Pipe Hangers
all terms for the same device. There are three basic types of Hanger support devices: (type 1)
beam-to-pipe, (type 2) pipe-to-pipe and (type 3) beam-to-beam (or trapeze). In general they
all have three components, a top connection component, a connector component and a
bottom component. For the type 1 Hanger the top component normally connects to a
structural beam. The connector component is normally steel rod. The bottom component is
normally a pipe clamp. For the type 2 Hanger the top component is also a pipe clamp. Other
components are the same as type 1. For the type 3 Hanger there are two top connector
components and two connector rods. The bottom component is a piece of steel angle or
channel sized to span the distance and carry the intended load.
The danger with the design of these items is in the lack of knowledge of the people doing the
design. They do not know how to calculate all the actual dead and live loading that the
Hanger will support. Then they choose the wrong type or strength of component for the
intended load.
Hold-Downs
These items are a combination of clevises, steel shapes, bolts and compression washers. The
are used to hold down the piping on the suction and discharge of reciprocating compressors
and pumps. Normally this type of piping is low to the ground and supported on sleepers. The
hold-down is a bridge assembly over the pipe and welded to the sleeper steel plate. The
combination of clevises, steel shapes bolts and compression washers exert tension on the pipe
to suppress vibration.
Load Distribution Pads
This is simply a 120 degree section of pipe about 18" long. The Pad is cut from the same
material as the subject line. The Pad is opened up a little to fit the pipe O. D. and then welded
to the pipe at the required location.
Pick-ups
This is a set of devices used to provide intermediate support for small diameter piping that
will not span the existing distance. Its use is normally restricted to locations where the small
size pipelines run parallel to one or more large diameter pipelines. This is also used to save
the cost in time and material from adding a formal (primary) structural pipe support. This is
simply a length of properly sized, steel angle and one or more "U" bolts. The angle is cut
long enough to span under both the supported and the supporting lines. The "U" bolts are
sized based on the large pipes that will be doing the supporting.
Shoes
This device is required to raise a hot insulated off the structural support surface. The reason
for this is to prevent damage to the insulation as the pipe expands as it heats up and shrinks
as it cools down. For pipe sizes 3" thru 10" a simple inverted "T" shoe with a flat bottom
plate and one (single) vertical plate should be used. For pipe sizes 12" thru 18" a shoe with a
flat bottom plate and two (double) vertical plates should be used. For pipe sizes 20" and
larger consideration should be given to the addition of a Load Distribution Plate (see above)
where thin wall pipe may exist. The material for pipe shoes will normally be carbon steel.
However, where the pipeline is an exotic material this would cause a weld of dissimilar
metals to exist where the shoe is attached to the pipe. For shoes used on exotic materials only
the bottom plate is carbon steel. The (single or double) vertical plates are made of the same
material as the pipe. For piping that requires post weld heat treating (PWHT) after fabrication
the shoes must be added by the shop. Some company's (engineering and client) will also
require the use of shoes (with the Load Distribution Pad) for all uninsulated 24" and larger
piping where the pipe wall is below a certain limit.
Trunnions
For this device a vertical pipeline will have two (2) stub pipes attached horizontally to
opposite sides of the pipe. One end of these stub pipes is shaped to fit the O.D. of the vertical
pipe the other end is normally square cut. The shaped end of the stubs are welded to the
vertical pipe with a full penetration (*) fillet weld. When used on a pipe attached to and
supported from a vertical vessel the vessel department supplies the primary support.
Coordination of size, type, elevation, orientation, etc. between the piping designer and the
vessel group is required. When used on a pipe attached to and supported from a vertical
structure the structural department supplies the primary support. Coordination of size, type,
elevation, location, etc. between the piping designer and the structural group is required.
(*) This full penetration refers to the wall thickness of only the stub pipes not the vertical
pipe.
The recommended practice for all of these secondary pipe support devices is to determine
what is needed. Start out with items that are found to have consistent and repetitive use
within the company's past projects. Document each device complete with parts list and
installation instructions. (Documenting also includes the updates required for any electronic
design system database, AutoCAD, PDS, PDMS or other) Qualify each device by the
specific use criteria based on pipe size, load limitations and application. Define the selection
criteria for each based on the qualification criteria. Then train all the piping designers, stress
engineers, material group and construction contractors on the responsibility, purpose, use,
application and limitations.
What about responsibility? Who is responsible for pipe supports or the supporting of the
piping? Some may say, "That it is the structural groups responsibility." That is only partly
true. They are only responsible for providing a support of the size; shape and strength based
on information given to them. If nobody tells them to put a pipe support (of a specific size,
shape and loading) in a specific location they are not going to do it. So, who is responsible
for doing the telling? The piping designer is responsible for the piping, which means all the
piping and all aspects of all the piping. The piping designer is responsible for telling the
structural group what is required for all primary pipe support systems. And, the piping
designer is also responsible for telling the structural group when a secondary pipe support
device will be attached to and impose a load on a structural member.
There are of course other opinions on this subject and there are no doubt questions and more
that can be discussed. The other opinions I will warmly accept. And, as for the questions,
please ask. If you don't ask you will never give others a chance to offer answers.
Pipe Supports, Part - B, Will discuss data requirements and the process for the selection and
qualification of typical pipe supports.
PIPE SUPPORTS (PART-2)
By: James O.Pennock
Pipe supports as we stated in Part 1 (of Pipe Supports) is a much more complex subject than
the term would first suggest. We also want to make it clear that there are many ways that
errors can be made when designing or selecting pipe supports this includes the various
secondary pipe supports.
In Part - 1, we saw a chart that described some of the many different types of secondary pipe
support devices. In this, Part - 2 of Pipe Supports we are going to focus on specific data
required to properly size, qualify and select a support.To do this we will look at one specific
device. The specific device we will focus on is the Hanger Rod.
You will remember that in Part - 1 we said there are three basic types of Hanger Rod support
devices: (type 1) beam-to-pipe, (type 2) pipe-to-pipe and (type 3) beam-to-beam (or trapeze).
They all have three major components, a top connection component, middle or connector
component and a bottom component. For the type 1 Hanger the top component normally
connects to a structural beam. The connector component is normally steel rod. The bottom
component is normally a pipe clamp. We also said that the danger with the design of these
items is in the lack of knowledge of some of the people doing the design. They do not know
how to calculate all the actual dead and live loading that the Hanger will support. Then they
choose the wrong type or strength of component for the intended load.
In order to bring attention to some of the potential problems lets take a hypothetical piping
configuration and plant situation for study. We will look at two cases. We will use the same
configuration with different conditions for each case.
Case #1
Let's take the following as an example scenario for the basis for our discussion.
>> The project is a process plant in a multi-story structure
>> The line is 12", standard weight carbon steel pipe located in a lower level of the structure
>> The line will carry a process liquid with a specific gravity of .85
>> The line is subject to hydrotest
>> The line is not insulated
>> The piping travels horizontal north in a well supported manner, then after crossing the last
normal pipe support (support 'a') it travels 40 feet, then drops down (3'-0") and turns east
(right) with two elbows (fitting-to-fitting) and travels another 40 feet to the next normal
support (support 'b').
>> There are no additional horizontal support beams available at or near the turn point and at
the exact piping elevation.
>> The closest steel available as a possible support point is 24" deep major equipment
support beam located 6'-0" (top-of-pipe to bottom-of-beam) above the pipe and 4'-0" from
the pipe drop.
It is logical and factual that structural support 'a' will carry one half of the pipe load of the
north-south run. And the structural support 'b' will carry half pipe load of the east-west run.
However, the L-shaped "dog-leg" in this scenario is obviously excessively overspanned and
the pipe will be over stressed. The piping designer must provide some type of additional
support at or near the corner. Because of the availability of the overhead beam a hanger rod is
chosen as the best possible and most economical method of support for the pipe.
We must now look at the factors so we can choose the correct Hanger Rod assembly. The
factors include all the weight to be supported.
The component weights are as follows:
>> 20'-0" of pipe in the north-south run (1/2 the 40' run)
>> 20'-0" of pipe in the east-west run (1/2 the 40' run)
>> Two 90 degree elbows
>> 43 lineal feet of hydrotest water in the 12" Standard Weight pipe
With this information the next step is a simple look-up of the correct data.
Case #1-12" Standard Weight, Carbon Steel Pipe
Pipe Weight Fitting Weight Insulation Weight Water Weight Total Weight
1984 lbs. 246 lbs. 0 2107 lbs. 4337 lbs.
We now have what we need to select a hanger rod assembly to support our pipe. There are
two ways that this can be done. First, the designer can use the "pick-and-choose" or "do-it-
your-self ' method. This is the process of picking up a hanger parts catalog and then selects
each individual piece and part. The hope is that the designer knows what they are actually
doing.
The second method is that we select from a pre-packaged Hanger Rod assembly that fits our
need. One that comes complete with all the proper and matched pieces and parts. The term
"pre-packaged hanger assembly" also means that the assembly has been "tag named," has
been pre-designed, pre-engineered, pre-qualified and fully documented including the related
needs for the applicable computer aided design system, material procurement and
installation.
The assembly we need for our "Case #1 includes the following:

(All components and load data are taken from "PTP" Piping Technology and Products
online catalog, see pipingtech.com)
Load Capacity*
>> Figure 110, Eye Rod (Welded), Size 1" 4960 lbs.
>> Figure 20, Welded Beam Attachment, Size #8 (for 1" Rod) 4900 lbs.
>> Figure 40, Weldless Eye Nut, Size #2 for 1" threaded Rod 4960 lbs.
>> Figure 80, Heavy Three-Bolt Pipe Clamp, for 12" pipe 7000 lbs.
>> Beam attachment welds ¼" fillet, 2 sides 12000lbs.
* It is normal practice for components of this type to be designed with a plus 50% safety
factor. The safety factor is not to be considered as available when making a selection.
**The Beam Attachment is 3" on each side, ¼" attachment fillet weld 1" long is rated @
2000 lbs. Per inch.
We now compare our pipe weights against the Hanger Rod load capacity data and see that
(not using any of the safety factor) the Hanger' weakest link is the Welded Beam Attachment
(4900 lbs.) but it is more than enough for our piping needs (4337 lbs.).
If we were using the "pick-and-choose" method then the designer must indicate the hanger in
the design then identify each and every piece and part. The detailed part identification is
required for proper procurement and installation.
If we use the "pre-package" method the designer is only required to indicate the hanger and
the item name or tag number (example: HR-1-12".) All the procurement and installation
details are included in the hanger documentation.
Now Case #2
Later someone else has a similar problem. They had seen what was done by another designer
with the Case #1 problem and decided they would just copy it and callout for the same
Hanger Rod Assembly. Why not? They too had a 12" line. They had the same configuration.
And, they also had the same span distances. No problem, right? However, all things were in
fact not the same.
So what was different?
Case #2
>> The project is also a process plant in a multi-story structure
>> The line is 12", Schedule 160 carbon steel pipe located in a lower level of the structure
>> The line will carry a process liquid with a specific gravity of .85
>> The line is subject to hydrotest
>> The line is insulated with 3" of Calcium Silicate
>> The piping travels horizontal north in a well supported manner, then after crossing the last
normal pipe support (support 'a') it travels 40 feet, then drops down (3'-0") and turns east
(right) with two elbows (fitting-to-fitting) and travels another 40 feet to the next normal
support (support 'b').
>> There are no additional horizontal support beams available at or near the turn point and at
the exact piping elevation.
>> The closest steel available as a possible support point is 24" deep major equipment
support beam located 6'-0" (top-of-pipe to bottom-of-beam) above the pipe and 4'-0" from
the pipe drop.
With this information we look-up of the correct data.
Case #2, 12" Schedule 160, Carbon Steel Pipe
Pipe Weight Fitting Weight Insulation Weight Water Weight Total Weight
6412 lbs. 794 lbs. 528 lbs 1462 lbs. 9196 lbs.
We see here that the total load to be actually carried by the Case #2 hanger is more than
twice the safe capacity any of the components included in the original Hanger Rod. This will
not work! This is an example of the type of errors that result when there is a lack of thinking
or laziness on the part of the piping designer.
All of the items identified, as Secondary Pipe Support Systems are subject to this same kind
of miss-design and miss-use. It is incumbent on the piping designer to become trained and
knowledgeable about these issues.
Having identified the need for the hanger in the case study above and selected the correct
hanger is not the end of the piping designers responsibility. That hanger is carrying a load
and the top of that hanger is attached to a steel beam. The load is being transferred to that
beam. That hanger and the pipe it is carrying is an abnormal load added to that beam. It is a
load that the structural engineer would not normally be aware of. It is the piping designer's
responsibility to document that loading and advise the proper member of the structural
engineering group. That beam may be a very large beam and is at or very near it's safe design
limit. You might think "Oh it is okay, it can carry my pipe" However, you are not a structural
engineer and this is not your decision to make. Whenever an abnormal piping load is added
to a structural beam (steel or concrete) the structural group must be advised.
Section IV
THE DESIGNER, STRESS PROBLEMS AND STRESS TRAINING
By: James O.Pennock
Stress related technical and execution problems in the design of process plant piping are
complex and must be addressed properly. There will be some Piping Designers, Stress
Engineers and others who read this and say that they agree. Others may say that they do not
agree. Others will just not know one way or the other. This discussion, while not covering
solutions to every potential problem, is intended only to highlight some of the most common
stress related factors and designer training needs
There are five basic factors that influence piping and therefore piping stress in the
process plant. There is temperature, pressure, weight, force and vibration. These factors
will come in many forms and at different times. Stress problems become all the more
complex because two or more of these will exist at the same time in the same piping
system. The main objective of the focus when dealing with problems related to piping
systems is not normally the pipe itself. In a very high percentage of the time it is not the
pipe that is the weakest link. Note this: the pipe is normally stronger and/or less
vulnerable to damage than what the pipe is connected to. Pumps are just one examples of
equipment to which pipes are routinely connected. Misalignment problems caused by
expansion (or contraction) in a poorly designed system can result in major equipment
failure. Equipment failures can lead to the potential for fire, plant shutdown and loss of
revenue. At this point it should be emphasized that the success (or failure) of the plant’s
operation, years down the road can and will depend on what is done up front by all the
members of the design team during the design stage. An important point to remember,
“While analysis cannot create a good design, it can confirm a good design” (Improved
Pump Load Evaluation,” Hydrocarbon Processing, April 1998, By: David W. Diehl,
COADE Engineering Software, Inc Houston, TX). On the other hand, proper analysis will
identify bad design and potential problems in a piping system design.
Stress Related Design Factors
Temperatures in piping systems may range from well over 1000o F (537.8 C) on
the high side to below -200 o F (-128.8 C) on the low side. Each extreme on the
temperature scale and everything in between brings its own problems. There will also be
times when both high and low temperatures can occur in the same piping system. An
example of this would be in piping that is installed in an arctic environment. The piping is
installed outdoors where it is subjected to -100 o F (-73.3 C) over the arctic winter. Six to
nine months later it is finally commissioned started up and may operate at five or six
hundred degrees.
The problems that temperature causes is expansion (or contraction) in the piping
system. Expansion or contraction in a piping system is an absolute. No matter what the
designer or the stress engineer does they cannot prevent the action caused by heat or cold.
Expansion or contraction in a piping system it self is not so much a problem. As we all
know if a bare pipe was just lying on the ground in the middle of a dry barren desert it will
absorb a lot of heat from just solar radiation. In the hot sun piece of pipe can reached 150
o
F (65.5 C). The pipe will expand and with both ends loose it would not be a problem.
However, when you connect the pipe to something, even if only one end is connected you
may begin to have expansion related problems. When the pipe is anchored or connected
to something at both ends you absolutely will have expansion induced problems.
Expansion induced problems in a piping system is stress. There are a number of ways to
handle expansion in piping systems. Flexible routing is the first and by far the cheapest
and safest method for handling expansion in piping systems. The other way is the use of
higher cost and less reliable flexible elements such as expansion joints.
Stress will exist in every piping system. If not identified and the proper action
taken, stress will cause failure to equipment or elements in the piping system itself. Stress
results in forces at equipment nozzles and at anchor pipe supports. Two piping
configurations with the same pipe size, shape, dimensions, temperature and material but
with different wall schedules (sch. 40 vs. sch. 160) will not generate the same stress.
Force in piping systems is not independent of the other factors. Primarily, force
(as related to piping systems) is the result of expansion (temperature) and/or pressure
acting on a piping configuration that is too stiff. This may cause the failure of a pipe
support system or it may cause the damage or failure of a piece of equipment. Force, and
the expansion that causes it, is best handled by a more flexible routing of the piping.
Some people suggest that force can be reduced by the use of expansion joints. However
we must remember that for an expansion joint to work there must be an opposite and equal
force at both ends to make the element work. This tends to compound the problem rather
than lessen it.
Pressure in piping systems also range from the very high to the very low. Piping
systems with pressure as high as 35,000 psi in some plants are not unusual. On the other
hand piping systems with pressures approaching full vacuum are also not unusual. The
pressure (or lack of) in a piping system effects the wall thickness of the pipe. When you
increase the wall thickness of the pipe you do two things. First, you increase the weight of
the pipe. Second, you increase the stiffness of the pipe thus the stress intensification
affecting forces. Increasing the wall thickness of the pipe is the primary method of
compensating for increases in pressure. Other ways, depending on many factors include
changing to a different material. With low or vacuum systems there are also other ways to
prevent the collapse of the pipe wall. Among these the primary method is the addition of
stiffening rings. Stiffing rings may be added internally or externally depending on the
commodity type and the conditions.
Weight in a piping system is expressed normally as dead load. The weight of a piping
system at any given point is made up of many elements. These include the weight of the
pipe, the fittings, the valves, any attachments, and the insulation. There is also the test media
(e. g. hydrotest water) or the process commodity whichever has the greater specific gravity.
Piping systems are heavy, period. Everybody involved in the project needs to understand this
and be aware that this weight exists and it needs to be supported. Ninety-nine times out of a
hundred this weight will be supported from a structural pipe support (primary pipe support
system) of some kind. However there are times when the piping (weight) is supported from a
vessel or other type of equipment.
Vibrations will also occur in piping systems and come in two types. There is the
basic mechanical vibration caused by the machines that the piping is connected to. Then,
there is acoustic (or harmonic) vibration caused by the characteristics of the system itself.
Typically the only place severe vibrations will be found is in piping connected to
equipment such as positive displacement reciprocating pumps or high pressure multi-stage
reciprocating compressors and where there is very high velocity gas flows.
All of the issues listed above that a piping system is exposed to need to be
covered in a company specific or company sponsored piping designer, stress-related
training program. This piping designer, stress-related training should be done at the
department level, early in the designer’s career and prior to the start of the project.
Unfortunately however this is not always the case.
By definition, the role of the piping designer is to design the plant piping systems.
This means design all of the system. Design all of the system means that the piping
designer shall define the proper routing of each and every pipeline required for the project.
This includes each and every inline component (pipe, valves, fittings, flanges, instruments,
etc.), every online component (anchors, guides, hangers, etc.). It includes the definition of
any attached piece of equipment and the definition of every support point. To do this and
do it properly the designer must know about piping stress issues and know what to do
about them. The designer is responsible for a lot and so they need to know a lot.
Is there any risk involved to the company or the project in not doing this stress
related designer training? Yes! First, a designer who is naïve about the cause and effect
of stress related problems would not be able to recognize the symptoms and will burn a lot
of budget hours and create bad designs. Second, bad designs are subject to the ‘domino
effect’ when the need for corrective action is finally identified and taken then other lines
get “pushed” and then modifications to them are required. Third, when the bad design
does get to the stress engineer for analysis there is the potential for repeated recycle and a
serious delay in the design issue schedule.
Designer Stress Training
What does the piping designer need to know? Piping design is more than just
knowing how to turn on the computer, how to find the piping menus and the difference
between paper space and model space. So, appropriately, what else does the designer need
to know about piping design besides how to connect a piece of pipe to a fitting?
Here is a list of some of the most basic of things that a good piping designer
should know. Thinking about every one of these items should be as natural as breathing
for a good piping designer.
· Allowable pipe spans – All designer need to know and understand the span
capabilities of pipe in the different schedules for a wide variety of common piping
materials. When a new project introduces a new material with severely reduced span
capabilities; supplemental training may be required.
· Expansion of pipe – All designers must understand that they need to treat a piping
system as though it is alive. It has a temperature and that temperature causes it to
grow and move. That growth and movement must be allowed for and incorporated in
the overall design. Not just of that specific line but for all other lines close by. The
process of expansion in a pipe or group of pipes will also exert frictional forces or
anchor forces on the pipe supports they come in contact with.
· Routing for flexibility – The piping designer must understand how to route pipe for
flexibility. Routing for flexibility can normally be achieved in the most natural routing
of the pipeline from its origin to its terminus. Routing for flexibility means (a) do not
run a pipe in a straight line from origin to terminus and (b) building flexibility into the
pipe routing is far cheaper and more reliable than expansion joints.
· Weight and loads (live loads and dead loads) – The piping designer needs to
understand the effects of weight and loading. They need to know and understand that
everything has a weight. They need to be able recognize when there is going to be a
concentrated load. They need to have access to basic weight tables for all the standard
pipe schedules, pipe fittings, flanges, valves for steel pipe. They also need to have the
weight tables for other materials or a table of correction factors for these other
materials vs. carbon steel. They need to be able to recognize when downward
expansion in a piping system is present and is adding live loads to a support or
equipment nozzle.
· Equipment piping – The piping designer needs to know the right and the wrong way
to pipe up (connect pipe to) different kinds of equipment. This includes pumps,
compressors, exchangers, filters or any special equipment to be used on a specific
project.
· Vessel piping – The piping designer also needs to understand about the connecting,
supporting and guiding of piping attached to vessels (horizontal or vertical) and tanks.
They need to know that nozzle loading is important and does have limitations.
· Rack piping – The designer needs to understand that there is a logical approach to
the placement of piping in (or on) a pipe rack. It does not matter how wide or how
high the rack or what kind of plant, the logic still applies. Starting from one or both
outside edges the largest and hottest lines are sequenced in such a manner that allows
for the nesting of any required expansion loops. The spacing of the lines must also
allow for the bowing effect at the loops caused by the expansion.
· Expansion loops – The designer needs to understand and be able to use simple rules
and methods for sizing loops in rack piping. This should include the most common
sizes, schedules and materials.
· Cold spring/Pre-spring – Designers should understand the basics rules of cold spring
and pre-spring. They need to understand what each one is along with when to and
when not to use each.
Piping Designer or Piping Drafter
Any piping designer that has this type of training, this type of knowledge and then
consistently applies is indeed a piping designer. He or she will also be a more valuable asset
to their company and to themselves in the market place. On the other hand anyone who does
not know or does not apply the knowledge about these issues while doing piping work is
nothing more than a piping drafter or a CAD operator.
THE PROBLEM WITH PIPING “LIFT-OFF”
By: Mr. Ron Haupt, P. E
Contemporary commercial piping analysis programs deal differently with the problem of
apparent lift-off of an operating pipe at a rod hanger or a one-way vertical support, such as a
pipe on a support rack. A few programs provide error messages; others show a vertical
movement with a possible increase in sustained (weight) stress (see NOTE below for
CAEPIPE). A proper understanding of the standard piping design practice is the key to
correct interpretation of these results from different programs. Such standard piping design
practice was generally understood when the sustained and flexibility analysis rules were
introduced in the 1955 Edition of the ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping.
The problem with lift-off is compounded by the intention of the piping analysis being
performed - whether the intent is to design new or revamp existing piping or the intent is to
analyze as-built. The intention of the various sections of ASME B31 Code (B31.1, B31.3,
etc.) is to provide guidance for new construction. Note, since the publication of the 1935
Edition of ASME B31.1 (which included the predecessor of B31.3 as a chapter, Paras. 101.6
and 121.4 and their predecessor paras.) state:
Piping shall be carried on adjustable hangers or properly leveled rigid hangers or supports,
and suitable springs...
Hangers used for the support of piping, NPS 2½ (NPS 2 in 1935 edn.) and larger, shall be
designed to permit adjustment after erection while supporting the load.
While not quite as explicit, the current ASME B31.3 Para. 321.1.1 states:
The layout and design of piping and its supporting elements shall be directed toward
preventing... piping stresses in excess of those permitted by in this Code;... unintentional
disengagement of piping from its supports;... excessive piping sag in piping requiring
drainage slope;...
These paragraph excerpts define standard practice in piping design. That is, during operation,
it is neither the intention of the code nor standard practice to allow piping to lift-off. Piping is
normally designed to be supported in the operating condition. The means to achieve this is
through proper adjustment of the supports during operation. This is important in piping
because unadjusted supports will permit the pipe to sag and create locations in steam or
condensable gas piping where condensates can collect or concentrate. And it is especially
important for piping operating above 800 degF, where unadjusted supports will allow the
pipe to permanently deform (creep) over time.
Small gaps are inevitable in actual construction because of fabrication and installation
tolerances and would normally be closed by support adjustments. But, so long as the pipe is
prevented from significant lateral movement, small gaps below pipe during operation (¼ inch
and less in moderate size piping) may be tolerable because the weight analysis is a very
simplified and conservative method that the ASME B31 codes use to guard against collapse.
Stresses caused by takeup of a small gap below the pipe could even be considered expansion
or building settlement type stresses and thus would not need to be considered in the weight
analysis. Weight analysis with the intent of designing pipe normally considers all the weight
supports perform their intended function. Any significant gaps determined by analysis could
either indicate that a support is not required, or that adjacent supports need to be modified, or
that an alternate means of support is needed, e.g., a variable or constant spring should be
used.
However, if the purpose of an analysis is not to design a new or revamp an old piping system,
but to evaluate an as-built and maintained piping system, small gaps may have more
significance in as much as they would indicate that the pipe support system may not be acting
as designed and maintained. A lack of or improper adjustment of the supports in the
operating condition may cause lift-off at rigid supports. Improperly designed or adjusted or
maintained or degraded variable or constant spring supports may cause lift-off, too.
The interpretation of the results of the analysis of as-built piping systems need not
necessarily conform to the rules of the ASME B31 codes. Remember, the rules in the B31
codes are required for new construction, not the evaluation of existing piping. It is
understood that a greater factor of safety is required for the design process because the pipe
and its components are not yet available to be measured and materials confirmed, as well as
the knowledge of how the piping is to be actually used. The interpretation of the analysis
results of as-built piping may be able to take advantage of what the actual piping dimensions
and materials are and how the piping has been operated. Competent engineering judgement
based on knowledge of the intent of the respective ASME B31 codes must then become part
of the evaluation process.
For the reasons noted, it is important to distinguish between the design and analysis of
piping. If designing, certain assumptions are normally made with regard to whether the
piping is supported in the operating condition. Such assumptions might include tolerating a
small gap at a given support but realizing that the installation of the given support will
require adjustment. Alternately, a larger gap at the given support may require support
relocation to be effective or the selection of a different type of support, most typically a
constant or variable spring. If merely analyzing existing piping, no assumptions need be
made regarding supports acting and analysis gaps may become important considerations.
That said, however, the analyst must realize that the piping analysis model is a very idealized
estimation of the as-built piping and for the analysis results to be meaningful, the analyst
needs to consider how well the results correlate with the actual performance of the in-situ
piping.
NOTE: In case of lift-off, CAEPIPE will show a gap and possibly increased sustained
stresses. The user must interpret the gaps according to whether the user is designing new or
revamping existing piping or is analyzing an existing condition.
Author: Mr. Ron Haupt, P. E., of Pressure Piping Engineering (www.ppea.net) is a member
of several piping code committees (B31, B31.1, B31.3, BPTCS, and others). He consults
with us in the capacity of Nuclear QA Manager.
Section V
FIELD TRIP GUIDELINES
By: James O.Pennock
What is involved when you are asked to go to the field? If you are truly a knowledgeable
and experienced designer or engineer you are supposed to know the answer to that question.
If you are a novice, new to the business or if you have never been to a job site you will not
know. However, you should be smart enough to ask. Yet, we see many cases where people
show up at a job site, uninformed of what they are supposed to do, and unprepared to do it.
I remember a case that is a classic. A team of four were selected and sent to a job site. All
the members had ten plus years of experience so the supervisor made the assumption that
they all knew what was expected. The individuals involved happened to live in a widely
scattered area and were to travel from different airports and at different times. This point
eventually contributed in part to the problem because there was no face to face meeting in the
office or at the airport before getting on the plane. Friday they were all given (or sent) plane
tickets and directions for finding the plant and were to meet at the job site on arrival on
Monday.
Three of the four seemed to know what was expected. The forth, a contract employee, new
to the company, but with more than thirty years of total experience proved to be the
exception. This person showed up in “dress casual” and with nothing in hand. The
supervisor, thinking the person had left his work clothes in the car or some place close by,
told him to change into his field gear and be ready to go to work. “Change, into what?”
“What field gear?” To make a long story short, this person had only brought casual clothes
and had brought nothing in the way of field gear or tools. He had no work shoes, no work
clothes, no hard hat, no safety glasses, and no hearing protection. He also had no pencil,
eraser, sketch paper, no clipboard, and no tape measure. Nothing! When asked why not, the
answer was that he expected the company or the client to supply everything. As quietly as
possible the person was told that he was fired and to leave the job site, go get on the plane
and go home.
The situation proved to be an embarrassment to not only the supervisor but also the company.
You see job sites such as the type we had in this case are tight little communities and you
cannot keep secrets from people who are in charge. It was not long before the company
construction manager and the client both knew about the fiasco. Although they agreed with
sending the employee away, they were not happy with the cost and the effect on the schedule.
They expected everyone to show up ready, willing and able to work.
Ready, willing, and able to work means everybody. It means all the members of the team. It
includes the team leader and each individual engineer or designer. The balance of this article
is intended to be a guide to any individual who is required to go to a job site to perform work.
It is offered to held define the major procedural and technical issues related to making the
field trip both cost effective and safe.
When it is recognized that a trip is required, the first thing that is normally done is to define
the purpose of the trip and obtain all required approvals. This is normally done at the project
senior supervisory and management levels. We will not dwell on why a field trip is required.
What we need to do is insure that it is done right.
The next thing to do is activate the team. Engineers or designers assigned to a field team for
routine fieldwork or specific problem solving need to be selected carefully. They should be
selected on the basis of knowledge and prior experience. They may also need specific skills,
or the familiarity with operations, maintenance, or construction.
In order to activate the team the following may be required:
Names & phone numbers of client site primary & secondary "Key" contacts
Names of the engineering company primary & secondary contacts
Name of the person responsible for decision making, time sheet and expense report approval
Team member names
Assign someone as the team leader, someone in charge
Team member release from present assignment (if applicable)
Travel arrangements (Airline, lodging, ground transportation, meals, etc.)
Maps to site location, site logistics, site safety criteria, badges, camera pass and site access
Charge number for this (Problem/Solution) assignment
Next, before leaving for the site, there should be a pre-trip meeting of all the team members.
The direct supervisor who is responsible for the team and the results should conduct this pre-
trip meeting. The agenda for this meeting should include a review of the purpose of the trip
and the expected results. Have a plan for everyone and for all the work objectives. Other
items that should be covered would include the chain of command, the schedule, the cost and
expense issues, and an exchange of phone numbers for emergency contacts. Review what to
do if someone misses the plane, etc.
On arrival, check in with the key Client contact person and the jobsite construction
manager. Safety is the first and most important step of the actual site visit. Make sure that
every member of the team has received the site-specific safety training. Know and
understand the emergency warning system and the evacuation routes. Identify and agree on a
place to meet, if there is a possibility of getting separated.
Engineers and Designers who visit a Client facility or site are expected to know the
type of work they will be doing when they arrive and should be prepared to take prompt
action to address that work. They are also expected to have with them the tools and supplies
required for their jobs.
Standard safety clothing and personal protective equipment (PPE) Requirements:
- Hard hat
- Goggles or safety glasses w/ permanent side shields (no contact lenses and no removable
side shields)
- Work shoes (check, some job sites require steel toed work boots)
- Gloves
- Ear protection
- Respirator with Cartridges (When required)
- NOMEX or Equivalent flame retarding outer wear (This is sometimes optional depending
on the client or type of plant)
Basic tools:
- Pencils and markers, a clip board, straightedge
- Sketch paper and Isometric forms
- 25 ft. Tape measure
Alternate tools that may be helpful
- String line, Plumb Bob, and String Level (Used for measurements)
- Stopwatch (Used for checking frequency of events)
- Medical type Stethoscope (Used for listening for unusual noises inside of pipes)
- Camera (Requires Client approval and pass)
The team should not expect to borrow any tools or supplies from the Client. If a new
requirement for tools or supplies is identified, after arrival at the site, the team should arrange
to rent or purchase the item and turn in the cost on an expense report. An exception may be
made if the required item is unusual and or very costly and the client has the item available.
Once in the field and trained in the site safety criteria, the team is ready to go to work.
Everyone should go about the work in a prompt and professional manner. Where possible,
fieldwork should be done by two person teams. The people on each team should check each
other’s work as the work progresses. They should review their list of activities and tasks as
they proceed. Review the trip plan. It’s better to get too much information thus insuring you
do not miss something. Remember that this job site may be thousands of miles from your
home office. A return trip for one missed item could be very costly.
Check in with the home office daily or per previous instructions. Let the home office
supervisor know the progress of the planned work and ask if there are any new requirements.
Proceed through the list of all planned trip requirements. Perform all activities and tasks. Do
no return from the job site until all planned items are complete (unless directed otherwise). It
is also recommended that you check in with the site construction manager on a daily basis.
There may be additional project needs that have come up. There may also be a change in
some critical site condition that could effect the team safety. When leaving the job site you
should check out with the construction manager and your client host.
Upon return to the office, there should be a debriefing meeting. The responsible supervisor,
the project engineer (or manager) and all team members should attend. Review the purpose
of the trip, the results. Review the trip plan. Did you accomplish everything that was
required? If not, why not? Were there any problems? Were they solved and what were the
solutions? Are there any lessons to be learned from this trip? Is another trip required? If so
why? And when will the next trip be required?
Every field trip should be planned and executed in a proper and cost effective manner. If so,
then the project will benefit. The individuals on the team also benefit. They gain value and a
reputation for being an experienced and effective candidate for future fieldwork. Good luck
and have a safe and successful trip.
James O. Pennock is a former Piper with more than 45 years experience covering process
plant engineering, design, training, pipe fabrication and construction. He is now retired and
lives in Florida, USA.

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PIPING DESIGNER.

A. Valves - By Anton Dooley

B. Pipe - By: James O. Pennock

C. Fittings - By: James O. Pennock

D: Flanges - By: James O. Pennock

Section II - Equipment Piping and Assembly Applications

Section III - Pipe Supports

A. Pipe Supports - Part 1, By: James O. Pennock

B. Pipe Supports - Part 2, By: James O. Pennock

Section IV - Piping Stress for the Piping Designer

A. Stress Problems and Designer Stress Training - By: James O. Pennock

B: The Problem with Piping "Lift-off" - By CAEPIPE

Section V - Field Trips

A. Field trip guidelines - By: James O. Pennock

Ball valve, which is good for on/off control;

Butterfly valve, particularly in large pipes;

Gate valve, mainly for on/off control;

Globe valve, which is good for regulating flow;

The valve is similar in operation to a ball valve.

A flat circular plate is positioned in the center of the pipe.

It is a very robust and reliable design.

Most gate valves have a rising or a nonrising stem.

Bonnets* provide leakproof closure for the valve body.

Gate valves may have a screw-in, union, or bolted bonnet.

Screw-in bonnet is the simplest, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal.

Globe valves are named for their spherical body shape.

Globe valves operate by screw action of the handwheel.

A bonnet provides leakproof closure for the valve body.

Globe valves may have a screw-in, union, or bolted bonnet.

Screw-in bonnet is the simplest bonnet, offering a durable, pressure-tight seal.

Bolted bonnet is used for larger or higher pressure applications.

Pressure Relief Valve

High Purity Valve

What is a high purity (H-P) ball valve?

What are the industry criteria for high purity valves?

ASME/BPE-1997 (Specifications for Bioprocessing Equipment), and FDA material and

II. Surface Condition

valve design for minimum hold-up volume

IV. Areas of Valve and Piping Systems

VII. Marking Information

What valve types does ASME/BPE address?

Validation is a regulatory procedure that intends to assure repeatability of a processed

What industries/systems use high purity ball valves?

The semiconductor industry derives valve design specifications from a compilation of

economical -- compared to most other valve designs;

quick, quarter-turn operation;

What is mechanical polishing? Electro polishing?

Mechanical polishing is accomplished using aluminum oxide abrasives on rotary equipment.

Electropolishing is the electrochemical removal of microscopic irregularities from metal

As a result of electropolishing, a metal surface exhibits the following properties:

Surface roughness is significantly reduced, thus reducing adhesion properties;

How is surface finish measured?

Surface smoothness is generally measured with a profilometer, an automatic instrument with

What fluids are typically handled by high purity ball valves?

steam -- process temperature control/cleaning

How do ball valves compare to diaphragm valves in piping/system design?

high temperature/low temperature

Where are fire-safe valves used?

Area & Equipment

VOC emission level = 0.

Nominal Size Actual O. D.

Determining wall thickness:

Item Line A Line B

Nominal Line Size (and