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Service Life Models and Design Procedure of Metal Fasteners Subjected to

Corrosion in Timber Structures

Conference Paper · June 2008

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 Service Life Models and Design Procedure of Metal Fasteners Subjected to
Corrosion in Timber Structures

Minh N. Nguyen
Senior Research Scientist
CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems
Melbourne, Australia
Minh.Nguyen@csiro.au

Robert H. Leicester
Honorary Research Fellow
CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems
Melbourne, Australia

Chi-Hsiang Wang
Senior Research Scientist
CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems
Melbourne, Australia

Greg C. Foliente
Senior Principal Research Scientist
CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems
Melbourne, Australia

Summary
This paper presents models and procedures to estimate the service life of metal fasteners in timber
structures subjected to corrosion in Australia, which would be equally applicable in other countries.

1. Introduction
Service life is one of the most important considerations in the use of timber in construction. With
the large number of timber construction in Australia, a development of service life design for timber
construction was identified as a high priority in the early 90’s. The Forest & Wood Products
Australia had therefore engaged multi-disciplinary agencies in a major national project to develop
service life design procedures for all types of timber construction located anywhere in Australia
against various attack mechanisms, including decay fungi, termites, marine borers and corrosion (of
fasteners). The project had been carried out by CSIRO Australia since 1995, and completed in 2007.
A project overview has been presented by Leicester [1].
A major part of the project was to develop models and Atmospheric catm
procedures to predict the service life of metal fasteners corrosion
subjected to corrosion in timber construction. The service life
prediction for metal fasteners is based on two prediction models
Embedded
of corrosion. The first model is for the parts of metal fasteners cemb
embedded in timber, i.e. embedded corrosion; and the second corrosion
model is for the parts of metal fasteners that are exposed to air,
i.e. atmospheric corrosion. Illustrations of the two types of
corrosion are shown in Figure 1. Nguyen et.al. [2] presented the
detailed equations and parameters of the two models, and also
proposed a durability design procedure [3] from which
structural engineers can compute the acceptable design load Figure 1 Corrosion on fasteners
capacity of the metal fasteners by normal structural design
rules.
In this paper, simple procedures in the form of hazard score systems developed from these corrosion
models to predict typical service life for the fasteners will be presented. These procedures aim at
providing a quick and effective way for timber end-users, such as timber industry employees,
timber builders, architects and specifiers of timber to select members and structures with respect to
their service life requirements. Examples of the uses of the hazard score systems to estimate the
service life of metal fasteners will be provided.

2. Service Life of Metal Fasteners

Steel fasteners used for timber construction are often galvanised with a zinc coating. Both zinc and
steel are involved in consideration of corrosion. Consider a cross-section of a fastener, the service
life of the fastener can be assumed to be the time at which all of the effective zinc coasting, if any,
and 30% of the original strength the steel cross-section, is lost due to corrosion. Using the corrosion
models, the average service life of a fastener, tservice, is therefore estimated by,
− nz − ns
⎛d ⎞ ⎛d ⎞
tservice = ⎜⎜ coating ⎟⎟ + ⎜ service ⎟
⎜ c0,steel ⎟
(1)
⎝ c0,zinc ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
where co,steel, co,zinc (μm) are the first year corrosion depths of steel and zinc, respectively; nz and ns
are power coefficients for zinc and steel, respectively. The values of these coefficients depend on
the type of corrosion and hence the model used, and will be given accordingly in the following
Sections. The 1st terms denote the life of the zinc coating, where dcoating (μm) is the effective
thickness of the zinc coating. The 2nd term presents the life of the steel cross-section, where dservice
is the loss of the steel cross-section in terms of the corrosion depth (μm) corresponding to 30% loss
of strength. The depth dservice is therefore computed from the dimension of the fastener and the type
of loading, using standard procedure of evaluating strength of materials.

3. Service Life of Fasteners due to Atmospheric Corrosion

The model for estimating the mean corrosion depth on the exposed parts of fasteners (atmospheric
corrosion) was presented in [2]. The corrosion is governed mainly by time of wetness on the metal
surface, airborne salinity, and airborne pollution agents. Details of the model development are
reported in Nguyen et al. [4].

3.1 Hazard Score System for the First Year Atmospheric Corrosion Depth
As developed with a comprehensive consideration of possible scenarios that would be encountered
in reality for in-service structures, the model has a high level of complexity which involves many
parameters and sub-models (e.g. salinity, pollution, time of wetness) to be evaluated. To make its
application easier for timber end-users, a simple hazard score system for a fast assessment of the
hazard of atmospheric corrosion to metal fasteners was developed by the following steps.
• Decouple the model equation of the first year corrosion depth into a simple addition form of
separate terms, each of which is for each influencing parameter.
• Establish a score table for each of the parameters based on values of the corresponding term.
• Compute the first year corrosion depths of all possible scenarios, i.e. all combinations of model
parameters’ values. Each scenario corresponds to a total score.
• Divide the total score into ranges in which the first year corrosion depths are similar or have
limited variation. Name the ranges after their levels of the corrosion hazard, e.g. hazard rating 1
for the least hazardous ranges of smallest total scores.
• Assign a representative first year corrosion depth for each hazard rating, which will be used to
estimate the service life.
The derivation of the score system is reported in details in Nguyen et al. [4]. The hazard score
system is presented in the followings. The total score, Scoretotal,atm is calculated as
Scoretotal,atm = Scorecoastal-zone + Scoremicroclimate + Scorecoastal-exposure+ Scoresite+ Scoreindustry (2)
where:
• Scorecoastal-zone is the score set for the site of the structure, given in Table 1, depending on the
 coastal zone of the site. Based on data of sea-state activities and computed time of wetness
from meteorology data, the Australian coastline has been divided into 5 coastal hazard zones,
as illustrated in Figure 2.
• Scoremicroclimate is the score set for the location of the fastener in the structure. The score is given
in Table 2, depending on the microclimate within a building envelope parts (i.e. sub-floor, wall
cavities, roof space) or exposed to outdoor (façade).
• Scorecoastal-exposure is the score set for the local coastal exposure of the site, given in Table 3. The
effect of the local coastal exposure condition is defined in Figure 3 in terms of the opening
angle, θ (degree) and the radius, R (km), of an idealised bay at the nearest coast.
• Scoresite is set for the topography of the site, given in Table 4.
• Scoreindustry is set for the effect of industry zone near the site, given in Table 5. Lin (km) is the
distance from the structure to the industry zone.

Opening angle of bay θ (deg.) θ

250 R
open surf
200

open bay R = radius of bay

150
θ = opening angle
100
partially closed bay
50
closed bay
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Radius of bay R (km)

Figure 2 Coastal Hazard Zones Figure 3 Coastal Exposure Conditions

Table 1 Hazard score for coastal zone Table 2 Hazard score for microclimate
Coastal hazard zone Scorecoastal-zone Microclimate Scoremicroclimate
A 3.2 Wall cavity 0.3
B 3.3 Roof space 0.2
C 3.5 Sub-floor 0.4
D 4.3 Outdoor Sheltered from rain 1.0
E 4.9 Exposed to rain 0.7

Table 3 Hazard score for coastal exposure Table 4 Hazard score for site classification
Coastal exposure Scorecoastal-exposure Site classification Scoresite
Closed bay 1.1 Open to sea 1.0
Partially closed bay 1.3 Urban (suburb) 0.3
Open bay 1.8 Urban (city centre) 0.0
Open surf 2.3 Other site 0.7

Table 5 Hazard score for pollution

Industry type Scoreindustry
Lin = 1* Lin = 5 Lin = 10 Lin ≥ 20
Heavy industry (steel works, petrochemical) 3.0 1.0 0.5 0.0
Moderate industry (paper mills, large manufacturing) 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0
Light industry (assembly plants) 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0
No industry 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
* Lin is the distance from the structure to the industry zone, in km
 Table 6 Definition of hazard rating
Total hazard score, Scoretotal,atm Hazard rating
<6 HR1atm
≤6<7 HR2atm
≤7<8 HR3atm
≥8 HR4atm

Table 7 The first year atmospheric corrosion depth of zinc c0,zinc and steel c0,steel
Hazard The 1st year corrosion depth of steel c0,steel The 1st year corrosion depth of zinc c0,zinc
rating Lc = 0* Lc = 1 Lc = 10 Lc = ≥50 Lc = 0 Lc = 1 Lc = 10 Lc = ≥50
HR1atm 12.9 8.9 8.0 6.2 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2
HR2atm 27.5 14.7 12.5 9.2 0.8 0.4 0.3 0.3
HR3atm 61.6 27.6 22.1 15.4 1.6 0.7 0.6 0.4
HR4atm 151.4 53.4 39.4 26.3 3.8 1.3 1.0 0.7
* Lc is the distance from the structure to the nearest coast, in km

As the atmospheric corrosion models for steel and zinc have similar mathematical formulation and
functional dependence, it is therefore possible to have one hazard rating set applicable to both steel
and zinc corrosion. The definition of the atmospheric corrosion hazard ratings and their boundaries
in terms of the total hazard scores are given in Table 6. The representative 1st year corrosion depth
assigned to the atmospheric corrosion hazard ratings are listed in Table 7 for steel and zinc, which
depend on distance to the nearest coast, Lc (km).

3.2 Estimate of Service Life using Hazard Score System

The hazard score system provides a straight-forward procedure without involving any sophisticated
equation. In summary, the procedure consists of the following simple steps:
• Determine the 5 individual hazard score values from Tables 1 to 5, based on
information/characteristics of the fastener, the structure/site and the surrounding area.
• Add the individual scores up to obtain the total score by Eq.(2).
• Determine the hazard rating from the total hazard score by Table 6.
• Obtain the representative 1st year corrosion depth for the hazard rating from Table 7.
The service life of a fastener due to atmospheric corrosion then can be estimated by Eq.(1). The
power coefficients are nz = 0.6 and ns = 0.8.

4. Service Life of Fasteners due to Embedded Corrosion

The model for estimating the mean embedded corrosion depth of fasteners with time was presented
in [2]. The corrosion is governed mainly by moisture content of timber and the timber natural
acidity or the use of preservative. Details of the model development are reported in [5].

4.1 Hazard Score System for the 1st year Embedded Corrosion Depth
In a similar way as for the atmospheric corrosion model, to provide timber end-users a quick and
simple assessment procedure for the hazard of embedded corrosion to metal fasteners, a hazard
score system was developed for estimating the 1st year embedded corrosion depth. The derivation of
the score system was reported in [5]. The hazard score system is presented in the followings. The
total score, Scoretotal,emb is calculated as

Scoretotal,emb = Scorehazard-zone + Scoremicroclimate + Scorerain (3)

where:
• Scorehazard-zone is the score set for the site of the structure, as given in Table 8, which depends on
the corrosion hazard zones defined for Australia as shown in Fig.4. This embedded corrosion
hazard zone map was established based on mean annual timber surface equilibrium moisture
content computed from temperature and humidity data measured by the Bureau of Meteorology
 for hundreds of sites across Australia.
• Scoremicroclimate is the score set for the location of the fastener in the structure, given in Table 9,
depending on the microclimate within a building envelope parts or exposed to outdoor. It also
depends on distance to coast (Lc) in km.
• Scorerain is the score set for the outdoor microclimate only. The score is given in Table 10,
which takes into account the wetting effects of rain water on the timber surface located at
different places and in different orientations.
For ease of application to service life prediction of various types of fastener, the selection of hazard
rating limits have been chosen to have the same limits for steel and zinc, but to have different limits
for types of wood. The definition of hazard ratings and their boundaries in terms of the total hazard
scores are given in Table 11. The representative 1st year corrosion depths assigned to the hazard
ratings are listed in Table 12. The acidity classification of timber is presented in Section 4.2.
Table 8 Hazard Zone score
Hazard zone Scorehazard-zone
A 9
B 12
C 15
Table 9 Hazard score for microclimate
Scoremicroclimate
Microclimate
Lc ≤ 1.0 Lc > 1.0
Sub-floor 5.0 3.0
Wall cavity 2.5 3.0
Roof space 2.0 0.0 Figure 4 Embedded corrosion
Facades (Outdoor) 10.0 3.0
* Lc = distance to the nearest coast, in km
hazard zones

Table 10 Hazard score for the effect of rain water on outdoor microclimate
Scorerain
Outdoor (Facades)
Hazard zone A Hazard zone B Hazard zone C
Sheltered / partly sheltered from rain 0 1 2
Vertical surface exposed to rain 1 4 8
Horizontal surface exposed to rain 3 9 17
Table 11 Definition of hazard ratings
Total hazard score Scoretotal,emb
In untreated timber CCA-treated Hazard rating
Hardwoods Softwoods timber
<12 <14 <12 HR1emb
12~19 14~22 12~17 HR2emb
>19 >22 18~23 HR3emb
– – 24~30 HR4emb
– – >30 HR5emb
Table 12 The 1st year embedded corrosion depth for zinc c0,zinc and for steel c0,steel
1st year corrosion depth of zinc, c0,zinc 1st year corrosion depth of steel, c0,steel
Hazard In untreated timber In CCA- In untreated timber In CCA-
rating Acidity Acidity Acidity treated Acidity Acidity Acidity treated
Class 1* Class 2 Class 3 timber Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 timber
HR1emb 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
HR2emb 1.0 2.5 4.5 4.0 1.5 4.5 7.5 7.0
HR3emb 2.0 4.5 8.0 10.0 3.0 6.0 10 15.0
HR4emb – – – 15.0 – – – 25.0
HR5emb – – – 20.0 – – – 32.0
* Acidity classification of timber is presented in Section 4.2.
4.2 Timber Acidity Classification
As mentioned above, the corrosion of fasteners in untreated timber is dictated by the acidity of the
timber, defined by pH, which is the acidity of free water in contact with the wood. To simplify its
use in the corrosion model, an acidity classification of timber has been established according to the
pH of the species as defined in Table 13. For species without a measured pH value, a classification
based on wood type may be used. The acidity classification for hundreds of timber species has been
done in this way and is listed in [5] and [6].

Table 13 Timber acidity classification

pH of timber species Typical wood type Acidity Class
>5 – 1
4~5 Non-Eucalyptus 2
<4 Eucalyptus 3

4.3 Estimate of Embedded Fastener Service Life using the Hazard Score System
Similar to the procedure for atmospheric corrosion, the 1st year embedded corrosion depth is
obtained first using the hazard score system, which consists of the following simple steps:
• Determine the 3 individual hazard score values from Tables 8 to 10, based on
information/characteristics of the fastener, the timber used, and the structure/site.
• Add the individual scores up to obtain the total score by Eq.(3)
• Determine the hazard rating from the total hazard score by Table 11.
• Obtain the representative 1st year corrosion depth for the hazard rating from Table 12.
The service life of a fastener due to embedded corrosion then can be estimated by Eq.(1). The
power coefficients are nz = 0.5 and ns = 0.6 when the fastener is embedded in untreated wood; and
nz= 0.6 and ns = 1.0 when the fastener is embedded in CCA-treated wood. It is noted that this
procedure is applicable for the corrosion of embedded parts of fasteners that are in a tight contact
with wood, e.g. nails, screws, staples; but not applicable for bolt shanks. A procedure for estimating
service lives of the bolt shanks is presented in the next Section.

4.4 Estimate of Service Life of Bolt Shanks

Bolt shanks are subjected to a very special case of embedded
corrosion, because they are often placed in oversized holes pre-
drilled into the timber, thus allowing moisture, water, salt and
oxygen to enter, a situation that does not occur with other fasteners. Corrosion
To provide an indication of service lives of the bolt shanks, an
assumption is made that the worst corrosion occurs near the neck of
the bolt, as illustrated in Figure 5, and this is either due to the
embedded corrosion mechanism that is enhanced by water ingress
into the bolt’s hole; or due to atmospheric corrosion that is enhanced
if the connector is near a coastline. The procedures are as follows,
• To estimate the service life due to the embedded corrosion
mechanism, follow the procedure in Section 4.3, with a Figure 5 Corrosion on a
modification that the Scorerain defined in Table 10 is multiplied bolt shank
by factor of 1.5 to take into account the increase of timber
moisture due to water ingress into the bolt’s holes.
• To estimate the service life due to atmospheric corrosion mechanism that is enhanced when the
fastener is near a beach, follow the procedure in Section 3.2, with a modification that the 1st
year corrosion depth listed in Table 7 is multiplied by the following simple enhanced factor λb,
which depends on the distance to the coast Lc (km),

λ b = 1 + 2e − Lc 2
(4)

The service life of the bolt is taken to be the lower of these two estimated service lives.
5. Implementation – Service Life Design Guide
Using the procedures presented, service lives now can be estimated for fasteners in timber
construction located anywhere in Australia. In practice, as fasteners are made in standard sizes, the
service lives of the standard or commonly used fasteners therefore can be tabulated into Service Life
Tables for quick references, where the service lives are given depending on the hazard ratings. The
procedures described in Sections 3.2 and 4.3 are therefore simplified further, as the users do not
need to know the 1st year corrosion depth and to use Eq.(1). The timber end-users just need to do
the following simple steps to find the estimated service life of a standard fastener:
• Determine the individual hazard scores, then sum them up for the total hazard score,
• Determine the hazard rating from the total hazard score,
• Use the hazard rating to find the service lives in the corresponding tables.
The hazard score system procedures and the Service Life Tables for various standard fasteners in
timber structures have been implemented in a Service Life Design Guide [6] intended to assist
architects and builders in the utilization of structural timber. Some examples of the Service Life
Tables are given in the following.
Table 14 gives the service live of embedded parts of some standard fasteners in CCA-treated timber
subjected to bending. Note that the protection life of zinc coating, if any, is already included in the
service life. The protection life of the zinc coating (alone) that contributes to the service life can
also be estimated, as shown in Table 15.
Table 14 Service lives of embedded fasteners in CCA- Table 15 Protection lives of zinc
treated timber coating in CCA-treated timber
Fastener Hazard Typical Zinc Hazard Typical
Commercial Diameter Zinc rating service coating rating protection
name coating life (yrs) life (yrs)
HR1emb >100 HR1emb >100
HR2 emb 95 HR2emb 15
Galvanised 2.8 mm 50 μm HR3 25 20 μm HR3emb 3
emb
nail HR4emb 15 HR4emb 0
HR5emb 10 HR5emb 0
HR1emb >100 HR1emb >100
HR2emb 25 HR2emb 70
No.10 3.2 mm 0 μm HR3 12 50 μm HR3emb 15
emb
steel screw HR4emb 8 HR4emb 8
HR5emb 6 HR5emb 5

Table 16 Service lives of bolt shanks in CCA-treated timber subjected to tension

Due to embedded
Fastener Due to atmospheric corrosion mechanism corrosion in CCA
treated timber
Zinc
Type Diameter coating rating Hazard Service life (yrs) Hazard Service
Lc* = 0 Lc = 1 Lc= 10 Lc ≥ 50 rating life (yrs)
HR1atm 20 45 >100 >100 HR2 HR1emb >100
M6 HR2atm 7 25 80 >100 HR3emb 60
Steel 5.2 mm 0 μm HR3 <5 10 40 60 emb 30
atm
Bolt
HR4atm <5 <5 20 30 HR4 emb 17
HR5emb 13
HR1atm >100 >100 >100 HR1
>100 HR2emb >100
M6 HR2atm 80 >100 >100 >100 HR3emb 90
Galvanised 5.2 mm 30 μm 35
Bolt
HR3atm 25 >100 >100 >100 HR4emb 20
HR4atm 5 50 >100 >100 HR5emb 15
emb
* Lc = distance to the nearest coast, in km
 Table 16 gives service life estimates of standard steel and galvanised M6 bolts embedded in CCA-
treated timber subjected to tension. Effects of the galvanised coating on the service lives are
reflected in much longer lives for the galvanised bolt. To use Table 16, both atmospheric and
embedded corrosion hazard ratings for the bolts need to be determined by the hazard score systems,
as explained in Section 4.4. From the hazard ratings, the service lives due to atmospheric corrosion
and embedded corrosion mechanisms can be read from the table. Then the service life of the bolt is
taken to be the lower of these two service lives. As presented in Table 16, the service life of the
bolts near the coast appears to be controlled by the atmospheric corrosion mechanism; whilst the
service life of the bolts located further inland are controlled by the embedded corrosion mechanism
in CCA-treated timber. On the other hand, for bolts in untreated timber, it was found that the
atmospheric corrosion mechanism is dominant in all cases, so that the service lives due atmospheric
corrosion mechanism can be used solely.

6. Concluding remarks
Using the corrosion models and procedures presented, service lives against corrosion can be
estimated for fasteners in timber construction located anywhere in Australia. The hazard score
systems used in the procedures provide a simple and fast assessment method for the corrosion
hazard of both embedded and exposed parts of metal fasteners, including the special case of bolts.
The procedures have been implemented in a Service Life Design Guide [6] intended to assist timber
end-users, such as architects, timber industry employees, timber builders and specifiers in the
utilization of structural timber with respect to their service life requirements.
It should be emphasized that the corrosion models have been based on relatively short-term
laboratory and limited field experiments currently available to the developers. Accordingly long-
duration in-service data for re-assessing and calibrating the models is needed for two purposes: (1)
to verify the predicted long-term performance with reality; and (2) to check the estimate of timber
moisture on a larger number and variety of houses and other structures than has been done. With
further calibrations, the models and procedures developed should also be equally applicable in
countries outside of Australia.

7. Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the sponsorship of the research from the Forest & Wood Products
Australia. Special thanks are due to the project manager, Mr. Colin MacKenzie of Timber
Queensland Ltd., Australia.

8. References
[1] Leicester R.H. (2001). Engineered durability for timber construction. Progress in Structural
Engineering and Materials.Vol.2, No.3, pp. 1-12.
[2] Nguyen, M.N., Leicester, R.H., Wang, C-H., and Foliente, G.C. (2008), "Service Life Design
for Metal Fasteners in Timber Construction ", Proceedings of the Australasian Structural
Engineering Conference ASEC2008, Melbourne, Australia, June, 2008.
[3] Nguyen, M.N., Leicester, R.H., Wang, C-H., and Foliente, G.C. (2008) “A Draft Proposal of
AS1720.5 – Durability Design of Structural Timber Members.” (To appear at
www.timber.org.au)
[4] Nguyen, M.N., Leicester, R.H. and Wang, C-H. (2008) “Manual No. 5: Atmospheric
corrosion of fasteners in timber structures.” Forest & Wood Products Australia. (To appear at
www.fwpa.com.au)
[5] Nguyen, M.N., Leicester, R.H. and Wang, C-H. (2008) “Manual No. 6: Embedded corrosion
of fasteners in timber structures.” Forest & Wood Products Australia. (to appear at
www.fwpa.com.au)
[6] MacKenzie, C.E., Wang, C-H., Leicester, R.H., Foliente, G.C., and Nguyen, M.N. (2008)
Timber Service Life Design Guide, Forest & Wood Products Australia. (In press – also to
appear at www.fwpa.com.au)

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