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    The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), or Harappan Civilisation,[2] was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE)[3] mainly in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent.[2] Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early cradles of civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread.[4][note 1] The civilisation was primarily located in modern-day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir states)[2] and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces),[2] while some sites in Afghanistan are believed to be trading colonies.[5] A total of 1,022 cities and settlements had been found by 2008,[2] mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers, and their tributaries; of which 616 sites are in India and 416 sites are in Pakistan;[2] of these 96 have been excavated.[2] Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Ganeriwala and Rakhigarhi.[6] Aridification of this region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial spur for the urbanisation associated with the civilisation, but eventually also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward.[7][8][9][10][note 2] At its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million inhabitants.[11] The inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings.[12] Children's toys were found in the cities, with few weapons of war, suggesting peace and prosperity.[13] Their trade seals, decorated with animals and mythical beings, indicate they conducted thriving trade with lands as far away as Sumer in southern Mesopotamia.[13] The Indus Valley Civilisation is also named the Harappan Civilisation after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s (mainly 1921), in what was then the Punjab province of British India.[14] The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards Mohenjo-daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj.[15] Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999.[16] This Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. Of these, the earlier is often called the Early Harappan culture, while the later one may be referred to as the Late Harappan, both of which existed in the same area as the Mature Harappan Civilisation. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, from which the river plains were populated.[17][18] The Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered.[19] A relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars.

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    The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), or Harappan Civilisation,[2] was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE)[3] mainly in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent.[2] Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early cradles of civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread.[4][note 1] The civilisation was primarily located in modern-day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir states)[2] and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces),[2] while some sites in Afghanistan are believed to be trading colonies.[5] A total of 1,022 cities and settlements had been found by 2008,[2] mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers, and their tributaries; of which 616 sites are in India and 416 sites are in Pakistan;[2] of these 96 have been excavated.[2] Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Ganeriwala and Rakhigarhi.[6] Aridification of this region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial spur for the urbanisation associated with the civilisation, but eventually also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward.[7][8][9][10][note 2] At its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million inhabitants.[11] The inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings.[12] Children's toys were found in the cities, with few weapons of war, suggesting peace and prosperity.[13] Their trade seals, decorated with animals and mythical beings, indicate they conducted thriving trade with lands as far away as Sumer in southern Mesopotamia.[13] The Indus Valley Civilisation is also named the Harappan Civilisation after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s (mainly 1921), in what was then the Punjab province of British India.[14] The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards Mohenjo-daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj.[15] Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999.[16] This Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. Of these, the earlier is often called the Early Harappan culture, while the later one may be referred to as the Late Harappan, both of which existed in the same area as the Mature Harappan Civilisation. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, from which the river plains were populated.[17][18] The Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered.[19] A relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars.

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    Indus Valley Civilisation

    Uploaded by

    Rohan Pandhare
    The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), or Harappan Civilisation,[2] was a Bronze Age civilisation (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE)[3] mainly in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent.[2] Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three early cradles of civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread.[4][note 1] The civilisation was primarily located in modern-day India (Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir states)[2] and Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, and Balochistan provinces),[2] while some sites in Afghanistan are believed to be trading colonies.[5] A total of 1,022 cities and settlements had been found by 2008,[2] mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers, and their tributaries; of which 616 sites are in India and 416 sites are in Pakistan;[2] of these 96 have been excavated.[2] Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Ganeriwala and Rakhigarhi.[6] Aridification of this region during the 3rd millennium BCE may have been the initial spur for the urbanisation associated with the civilisation, but eventually also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward.[7][8][9][10][note 2] At its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million inhabitants.[11] The inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings.[12] Children's toys were found in the cities, with few weapons of war, suggesting peace and prosperity.[13] Their trade seals, decorated with animals and mythical beings, indicate they conducted thriving trade with lands as far away as Sumer in southern Mesopotamia.[13] The Indus Valley Civilisation is also named the Harappan Civilisation after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in the 1920s (mainly 1921), in what was then the Punjab province of British India.[14] The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards Mohenjo-daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj.[15] Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999.[16] This Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. Of these, the earlier is often called the Early Harappan culture, while the later one may be referred to as the Late Harappan, both of which existed in the same area as the Mature Harappan Civilisation. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, from which the river plains were populated.[17][18] The Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered.[19] A relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars.

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    Indus Valley Civilisation

    Duration: 3300 BC to 1700 BC

    Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient civilization that thrived in the Indus and Ghaggar-
    Hakra river valleys, now in Pakistan, along with the northwestern parts of India, Afghanistan
    and Turkmenistan. The civilization, which is also known as Harappan Civilization, lasted
    from 3300 BC to 1700 BC. The discovery of the Ancient Indus River Valley Civilization was
    made, when the Harappan city, the first city of Indus Valley, was excavated.

    Discovery

    The first description of the ruins of Harappa is found in the Narrative of Various Journeys in
    Balochistan, Afghanistan and Punjab of Charles Masson. It dates back to the period of 1826
    to 1838. In 1857, the British engineers accidentally used bricks from the Harappa ruins for
    building the East Indian Railway line between Karachi and Lahore. In the year 1912, J. Fleet
    discovered Harappan seals. This incident led to an excavation campaign under Sir John
    Hubert Marshall in 1921-1922. The result of the excavation was discovery of Harappa by Sir
    John Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats and Mohenjodaro by
    Rakhal Das Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Sir John Marshall.

    Further Excavations

    Even though most of the Mohenjodaro city had been unearthed by 1931, the excavation
    campaigns continued to be undertaken. Sir Mortimer Wheeler, the then director of the
    Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), led one such campaign in 1944. After the partition of
    India in 1947, the area of the Indus Valley Civilization was divided between India and
    Pakistan. In 1949, Sir Mortimer Wheeler conducted excavations as the Archaeological
    Adviser to the Government of Pakistan. The next three decades were full of discoveries of
    the remnants of civilization.

    Geography

    The Ancient Indus River Valley Civilization extended from Balochistan to Gujarat and from
    the east of the river Jhelum to Rupar. Some time back, a number of sites were also
    discovered in Pakistan's NW Frontier Province. Harappan Civilization covered most of
    Pakistan, along with the western states of India. Even though most of the sites have been
    found on the river embankments, some have been excavated from the ancient seacoast and
    islands as well. As per some archaeologists, the number of Harappan sites, unearthed along
    the dried up river beds of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries, is around 500. Apart
    from that, those along the Indus and its tributaries are approximately 100 in number.
    Phases

    The three main phases of the Indus Valley Civilization are:

     Early Harappan (Integration Era)


     Mature Harappan (Localization Era)
     Late Harappan (Regionalization Era)

    Early Harappan Phase

    The Early Harappan Phase lasted from 3300 BC to 2800 BC. It is related to the Hakra Phase,
    identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley. The earliest examples of the Indus script date
    back to 3000 BC. This phase stands characterized by centralized authority and an
    increasingly urban quality of life. Trade networks had been established and there was also
    domestication of crops. Peas, sesame seeds, dates, cotton, etc, were grown during that
    time. Kot Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan Phase.

    Mature Harappan Phase

    By 2600 BC, Indus Valley Civilization had entered into a mature stage. The early Harappan
    communities were turning into large urban centers, like Harappa and Mohenjodaro in
    Pakistan and Lothal in India. The concept of irrigation had also been introduced. The
    following features of the Mature Phase were more prominent:

    Cities

    Approximately 1052 cities and settlements belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization have
    been excavated till date, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar and Indus Rivers and
    their tributaries. The artifacts discovered in these cities suggest a sophisticated and
    technologically advanced urban culture. The concept of urban planning is also widely
    evident. There is also the existence of the first urban sanitation systems in the world. the
    sewerage and drainage system found in the each and every city of Indus Valley comes
    across as even more efficient than those in some areas of Pakistan and India today.

    Dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms and protective walls have been found in
    almost all the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. The evidence suggests that most city
    dwellers were traders or artisans, who lived with others belonging to the same occupation
    in well-defined neighborhoods. Social equality seems to be widely prevalent in the cities of
    Indus Valley, though there are some houses that are bigger than the others.

    Science

    The people of Indus Valley are believed to be amongst the first to develop a system of
    uniform weights and measures. Their smallest division was approximately 1.704 mm.
    Decimal division of measurement was used for all practical purposes. The brick weights
    were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1. The numerous inventions of the Indus River Valley
    Civilization include an instrument used for measuring whole sections of the horizon and the
    tidal dock. The people of Harappa evolved new techniques in metallurgy and produced
    copper, bronze, lead and tin. They also had the knowledge of proto-dentistry and the
    touchstone technique of gold testing.

    Arts and Culture

    Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry and figurines in terracotta, bronze and
    steatite, etc, have been excavated from the sites of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization.
    Other crafts that have been unearthed include shell works, ceramics, agate, glazed steatite
    bead making, special kind of combs, etc. There is also evidence of seals, toys, games and
    stringed musical instruments in the Indus Valley.

    Trade and Transportation

    Trade seems to the major occupation of the people of the Harappan Civilization. The main
    forms of transport include bullock carts and boats. Archaeologists have also discovered an
    enormous, dredged canal and docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal. The pottery, seals,
    figurines, ornaments, etc, of the civilization show great similarities with those of Central Asia
    and the Iranian plateau, indicating trade with them. Then, there are signs of maritime trade
    network between the Harappan and Mesopotamian civilizations also.

    Agriculture

    The major cultivated cereal crop was naked six-row barley, a crop derived from two-row
    barley. However, not much information is available on the farmers and their agricultural
    methods.

    Symbol System

    As many as 400 distinct Indus symbols have been found on seals, ceramic pots and other
    materials excavated from the Indus Valley. Typical Indus inscriptions are, at the most, four
    or five characters in length and quite small. The longest inscription on any object is 26
    symbols long. Indus symbols have been found on ritual objects also, many of which were
    mass-produced.

    Religion

    The large number of figurines found in the Indus Valley Civilization suggests that the
    Harappan people worshipped a Mother Goddess, who symbolized fertility. Some of the
    seals of that time also have the swastikas engraved on them. Then, there are some others
    in which a figure is seated in a yoga-like posture and is surrounded by animals. The figure
    is quite similar to that of Lord Pashupati, the Lord of Creatures.
    Late Harappan Phase

    The signs of a gradual decline of the Indus River Valley Civilization are believed to have
    started around 1800 BC. By 1700 BC, most of the cities were abandoned. However, one
    can see the various element of the Ancient Indus Valley Civilization in later cultures.
    Archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture till 1000-900 BC.
    The major reasons of the decline of the civilization are believed to be connected with climate
    change. Not only did the climate become much cooler and drier than before, but substantial
    portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system also disappeared.

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