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FIŞA DISCIPLINEI*

1. Date despre program


1.1 Instituţia de învăţământ superior Universitatea „Lucian Blaga” din Sibiu
1.2 Facultatea Litere si Arte
1.3 Departamentul Studii Anglo-Americane si Germanistice
1.4 Domeniul de studii Filologie – Masterat Limba şi Literatură Engleză
1.5 Ciclul de studii Masterat
1.6 Programul de studii/ Calificarea Masterat Engleză

2. Date despre disciplină


2.1 Denumirea disciplinei Istoria ideilor şi mentalităţilor
în spaţiul cultural anglo- 6 credite
american
2.2 Titularul activităţilor de curs Lect. Dr. Mirela Petrascu
2.3 Titularul activităţilor de seminar
2.4 Anul de I 2.5 II 2.6. Tipul de E2 2.7 Regimul Fundamentala
studiu Semestrul evaluare disciplinei

3. Timpul total estimat (ore pe semestru al activităţilor didactice)


3.1 Număr de ore pe săptămână 3 din care 3.3 1
seminar/laborator
3.4 Total ore din Planul de învăţământ 42 din care 3.6 14
seminar/laborator
Distribuţia fondului de timp ore
Studiul după manual, suport de curs, bibliografie şi notiţe 40
Documentare suplimentară în bibliotecă, pe platformele electronice de specialitate şi pe teren 40
Pregătire seminarii/laboratoare, teme, referate, portofolii şi eseuri 40
Tutoriat: numărul de ore de tutorat este inclus în numărul de ore al activităţilor enumerate mai sus.
Examinări: numărul de ore pentru pregătirea examinărilor este inclus în numărul de ore al
activităţilor enumerate mai sus.
3.7. Total ore studiu individual 120
3.8. Total ore din planul de învăţământ 42
3.9 Total ore pe semestru 42
3.10 Numărul de credite 6

4. Precondiţii (acolo unde este cazul)


 Parcurgerea cursului de Civilizatie americana (fundamental, trunchi
4.1 de curriculum comun, anul II L.M.A. sau Istoria literaturii engleze, Litere, anii I si
II)
4.2 de competenţe 

5. Condiţii (acolo unde este cazul)


5.1 de desfăşurare a cursului 
5.2 de desfăşurare a 
seminarului/laboratorului

6. Competenţe specifice acumulate


Competenţe  Transpunerea cunostintelor de cultura generala in cunostinte specifice domeniilor
profesionale de competenta
Competenţe o capacitatea de a transpune în practică cunoştinţele dobândite
transversale
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o abilităţi de cercetare, creativitate
o capacitatea de a concepe proiecte şi de a le derula

7. Obiectivele disciplinei (reieşind din grila competenţelor specifice acumulate)


OBIECTIVELE CURSULUI:

Obiectivele cursului:
Cursul propune o privire de ansamblu asupra dezvoltării democrației britanice şi
americane, urmarind cadrul constitutional, rolul partidelor politice intr-un
sistem democratic, si nu in ultimul rand, implicarea cetatenilor in mecanismele
7.1 Obiectivul
general al
de functionare ale unui stat democratic. Cursul presupune cunostinte acumulate
disciplinei de studenti pe parcursul primilor ani de studiu, in domenii ca literatura,
respectiv civilizaţia Marii Britanii şi a S.U.A., cunostinte ce vor face posibila
abordarea la un nivel mai amanuntit a unor documente constitutionale, contexte
sociale sau istorice si a anvergurii implicarii individului in spatiul public
britanic şi american.

Studentul trebuie să demonstreze că a studiat temeinic materia și că este


familiarizat cu aceasta. Trebuie să demonstreze că poate oferi o privire de
7.2 Obiectivele ansamblu asupra unei epoci din istoria Marii Britanii, respectiv a Statelor
specifice Unite ale Americii, și că poate face legătura între fenomene istorice din
epoci diferite, pentru a avea o perspectivă panoramică asupra istoriei și a
evoluției și culturii și mentalităților în această țară.

8. Conţinuturi
8.1. Curs/seminar (unităţi de învăţare) Metode de predare Nr. de ore
1. The Early Middle Ages in England. Conquest prelegerea intensificată 2/
and feudal rule. The power of the kings in conversaţia euristică unitate
England. Government and society. The House of curs / 1
Normandy. Magna Carta and the beginning of oră/
unitate
English democracy.
seminar
2. The Late Middle Ages. The Century of war and
plague. The crisis of kings and nobles. The Wars of
the Roses. Government and society. Language and
culture. The Tudors. The birth of the nation state.
The new trading empire. Government and society.
Tudor parliaments. The impact of the Reformation
on English and American culture and mentality.

3. The Stuarts. Civil War. Republican and


Restoration Britain. Life and thought in the Stuart
age. Rich and poor in town and country. Domestic
life. Language and culture. The eighteenth
century. The political world. Life in town and
country. The years of revolution.

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4. The nineteenth century. Workers’ revolts. Family
life. The years of self-confidence. The rise of the
middle classes. The growth of towns and cities.
The Victorian ethos.

5. Colonial settlement in America. The Pilgrim


Fathers. The Massachusetts Bay Colony. The
Mayflower Compact. The social structure of the
colonies. The emergence of colonial
government. The pattern of colonial culture. The
impact of Puritanism on American society. The
Protestant work ethic. The Great awakening and
the impact of European Enlightenment.
6. The American Revolution. The Boston Tea Party.
No taxation without representation. The
Declaration of Independence. Government and
state constitutions. Ratification and the Bill of
Rights. Westward expansion. The Frontier
spirit. The Louisiana Purchase. Texas and the war
with Mexico. The California Purchase. The last
frontier.
7. North and South. Slavery, Civil War and
Reconstruction. America after the Civil War.
Order and civil liberties. The Bill of Rights.
Constitutionalizing public policies. Equality and
civil rights. Gender and equal rights. Affirmative
action at present.
8. Dilemmas of democracy. The concepts of
freedom, order and equality. Majoritarian or
pluralist democracy? The theory of democratic
government. Institutional models of democracy.
9. Linking people with Government. Public
opinion and political socialization. Social groups
and political values. From values to ideology. The
process of forming public opinion.

10. Participation and voting. Democracy and

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political participation. Unconventional
participation. Conventional participation.
Participation through voting. Political parties,
campaigns and elections. Party ideology and
organization. Campaigning for elections. Parties
and the models of democracy.
11. Interest groups. Interest groups and the American
political tradition. Formation, resources, lobbying
tactics. Making public policy. Government
purpose and public policies. Theories of economic
policy. Tax policies. Spending policies. Domestic
policy – individual welfare, social insurance,
public assistance.
12. Institutions of Government in the U.S.A.
Congress and the Presidency. Committees – the
workhouses of Congress. Rules of procedure. Norms of
behavior. Parliamentary government. Pluralism versus
Majoritarianism in Congress. The Constitutional basis of conversaţia euristică
dezbaterea
Presidential power. The White House staff. The President studiu de caz
as national/world leader.
13. The Bureaucracy. Bureaus and bureaucrats.
Policy-making – the formal process/ informal politics.
Reforming the bureaucracy. Citizen participation
programs. The Courts. Federal judicial supremacy. The
legal profession. Public opinion and the Courts. The
Washington community. Law firms. Consulting firms.
Think Tanks. Public relations firms. Issue networks and
democracy.
14. Foreign and defense policy. U.S. values and
interests. The Constitutional context. The administrative
machinery. The public, the media and foreign policy.

Total ore curs / seminar 14/7

BIBLIOGRAFIE:

Bibliografie curs:
Briggs, Asa 1987. A Social History of England. London: Penguin.
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Black, Jeremy 1989. A History of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press.
Brinkley, Alan 1999. American History: A Survey. New York: McGraw Hill.
Cannon, John (ed.) 2003. The Oxford Companion to British History. Oxford & New York:
Oxford University Press.
Cannon, John (ed.) 2004. Oxford Dictionary of British History. Oxford & New York: Oxford
University Press.
Cincotta, Howard et al (eds.) 1994. An Outline of American History. United States Information
Agency.
Cornelison, Pam & Yanak, Ted 2004. The Great American History Fact-Finder: The Who, What,
Where, When and Why of American History. New York: Houghton Miffin.
Elton, Geoffrey 1994. The English. Oxford and Cambridge: Blackwell.
Fraser, Rebecca 2006. The Story of Britain. From the Romans to the Present: A Narrative
History. WW.Norton & Co. Inc.
Gans, Herbert J. 1988. Middle American Individualism: The Future of Liberal Democracy. New
York: McGraw Hill Inc.
Garraty, John A. 1975. The American Nation: A History of the United States to 1877. (vol. 1)
New York: Harper and Row.
Garvy, Patrick M. 1992. Liberalism and American Identity. Kent & London: The Kent State
University Press.
Gillespie, Judith & Lazarus, Stuart 1979. Government: Comparing Political Experiences. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.
Johnson, Thomas H. 1996. The Oxford Companion to American History. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Kearney, Hugh 2004. The British Isles: A History of Four Nations. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Kenyon, J.P. (ed.) 1994. The Wordsworth Dictionary of British History. Ware, Hertfordshire:
Cumberland House, Wordsworth Editions Ltd.
Knowles, Jerry 1997. A Cultural History of the English Language. London & New York: Arnold.
Lader, Curt 2009. Painless American History. New York: Barron’s.
Levy, Peter B. (ed.) 1994. 100 Key Documents in American History. Westport: Greenwood
Press.
Perkin, Harold 1986. Origins of Modern English Society. London: Routledge.
Risjord, Norman K. 1985. America: A History of the United States. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.
Wood, Gordon 1998. The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787. University of North

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Carolina Press.
Zinn, Howard 2005. A People’s History of the United States: 1492-Present. New York: Harper
Collins.
Bibliografie seminar:
Corbish, Mike et al. 1996. The Young Oxford History of Britain and Ireland. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Frazier, Thomas R. (ed.) 1979. The Private Side of American History: Readings in Everyday
Life. Vol. 2. Yale: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.
Homberger, Eric 1995. The Penguin Historical Atlas of North America. London: Penguin.
McDowall, David 1997. An Illustrated History of Britain. Edinburgh Gate, Harlow: Longman.
Nash, Gary (ed.) 1975. The Private Side of American History: Readings in Everyday Life. Vol. 1.
Yale: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.
Oakland, John 1993. A Dictionary of British Institutions: A Student’s Guide. London & New
York: Routledge.
Oakland, John 1991. British Civilization: An Introduction. London & New York: Routledge.
O’Callaghan, Bryn 1996. An Illustrated History of the USA. Edinburgh Gate, Harlow: Longman.
Room, Adrian 1991. An A to Z of British Life: Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.
Tocqueville, Alexis de 1981. Democracy in America. New York: McGraw Hill Inc.
Weissberg, Robert 1986. Understanding American Government. New York: Random House.

9. Coroborarea conţinuturilor disciplinei cu aşteptările reprezentanţilor comunităţii epistemice,


asociaţiilor profesionale şi angajatorilor reprezentativi din domeniul aferent programului
Competențe specifice disciplinei
1. Competențe privind cunoașterea
și a) identificarea trăsăturilor distinctive ale
înțelegerea spiritului american;
b) înțelegerea metalimbajului specific
discursului social/politic;
c) cunoașterea particularităților evolutive ale
democratiei americane în context internațional;
d) cunoașterea principalelor direcții ale vietii
politice si comunitare in S.U.A.;
e) sesizarea relațiilor dintre discursul politic și
alte tipuri de discurs (filosofic, jurnalistic ș.a.).
2. Competențe în domeniul explicării și a) capacitatea de a explica și interpreta
interpretării conceptele studiate;
b) integrarea textelor într-o anumită direcție
metodologică și/sau ideologică;
c) contextualizarea istorică a textelor si
conceptelor;

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3. Competențe instrumental - aplicative a) capacitatea de a aplica în analiza textului
social/politic conceptele și metodele dobândite;
b) dezvoltarea capacității de problematizare și
a gândirii creative;
c) capacitatea de a concepe referate și eseuri și
de a le susține într-un limbaj critic adecvat.
4. Competențe atitudinale a) capacitatea de a emite judecăți de valoare
referitoare la textele discutate.
b) promovarea respectului față de alte opinii și
sisteme de valori, precum și capacitatea de a
valorifica multiculturalitatea;
c) capacitatea de lucru în echipă;
d) reacția pozitivă la sugestiile, cerințele și
sarcinile specifice predării disciplinei;
e) implicareaîn activități științifice corelate
disciplinei (sesiuni de comunicări, proiecte de
cercetare etc.)
f) respectarea și promovarea eticii profesionale
în cercetare.

10. Evaluare
10.2 Metode de 10.3 Pondere
Tip de activitate 10.1 Criterii de evaluare
evaluare din nota finală
Volumul şi corectitudinea
Examen final 70%
cunoştinţelor 70%
10.4 Curs
Rigoarea ştiinţifică a limbajului 10%
Organizarea conţinutului
Întocmirea şi susţinerea unui
10.5 10%
referat, a unei aplicaţii
Seminar/laborator
Participare activă la seminarii 10%
10.6 Standard minim de performanţă
Studentul trebuie sa fi participat la cursuri si seminarii si sa dovedeasca un grad minim de
cunostinte, care sa reflecte faptul ca a parcurs materia de studiu si a inteles, per ansamblu,
informatiile din cursul teoretic. De asemenea, pentru a participa la examenul final, studentul
trebuie sa fi participat activ la seminar, prin prezentarea orala a unei lucrari de seminar.
 50% rezultat după însumarea punctajelor ponderate conform pct.10.3.

* Fişa disciplinei cuprinde componente adaptate persoanelor cu dizabilităţi, în funcţie de tipul şi


gradul acestora.

Data completării Semnătura titularului de curs/seminar


______________
Data avizării în Departament Semnătura Directorului de Departament

______________ ______________________

7
THE HISTORY OF THE BRITISH ISLES

1. The British Isles from pre-Roman Britain to the Middle Ages. The Roman Conquest.
Celts, Saxons and Vikings. The Rise of Large Kingdoms.

1.1. Pre-Roman and Roman Britain

Before the Roman Conquest of the British Isles, the present territory of Britain was known as
Albion, a name that had been used by Greeks as early as 6000 BC. Later, in the 4 th century BC,
Britain and Ireland were known as the Pretanic Islands – the Romans used the term generically to
denote people belonging to a Celtic-speaking tribe.
In ancient times the territory was inhabited by Iberians, of whom very little is actually
known. Before the formation of the English state, the territory was invaded, in turn, by Celts,
Romans and Anglo-Saxons.
In the 7th-3rd centuries BC, the Celtic tribes, originally occupying the northern and western
parts of Germany and the Netherlands, were moving across Europe in successive waves. Some of
them settled in France, others in Italy. The Celtic invaders of Britain came in successive tribal
waves and imposed themselves as an aristocracy on the conquered tribes throughout Britain and
Ireland.
The Roman occupation occurred between the coming of the Celts and the coming of the
Saxons. In 55 and 54 BC (after having conquered Gaul in France), Julius Caesar launched
expeditions against Southern England, but met strong resistance from the Celtic tribes. It was only
in 43 AD that Emperor Claudius, encouraged by internal discord among the British tribes, invaded
Britain, which was incorporated into the Roman Empire. The Britons, led by the legendary Queen
Boadicea, fought the Romans, but were defeated. Legend has it that the queen chose to drink poison
rather than be taken prisoner. By 78 AD England and Wales were under Roman control, a situation
that was to last until links with Rome collapsed in 409 (possibly 449).
The British Isles were, however, not conquered entirely (Highland Scotland was never
conquered, while Ireland was never attacked). A ‘frontier zone’ (Hadrian’s Wall) was consolidated
by the Romans to protect England from invasion from the North. The Romans tried for over a
century to conquer Caledonia, as they called Scotland, but were unsuccessful. Once the border with
Scotland was consolidated, the Romans made it the farthest outpost of their Empire. They never
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succeeded in conquering the Scots, whom they identified with the ‘Barbarians’ from the farther
northern regions. Moreover, Hadrian’s Wall was frequently destroyed by the repeated invasions of
the Picts from Scotland, and it was ultimately abandoned.
In the South, the Roman society encouraged a process of Romanization, granting rights to
the native population. The Romans imposed their superior civilization on the inhabitants of the
conquered territory. They left behind Welsh Christianity, the roads and the city sites, which gained
in importance. Many of the towns were originally army camps and the Latin name for camp, castra,
has remained in many modern town names ending in ‘caster’, ‘chester’ or ‘cester’, such as
Manchester, Doncaster or Leicester.
Nevertheless, the Romans were not successful in imposing Latin, which influenced the
English language only later, namely after the Norman Conquest of 1066, when it was imposed as
the official language in religion, written documents and education.

The end of Roman Britain was brought by increasing attacks from Barbarian peoples: Picts
– Celtic-speaking tribes from Scotland, Angles, Jutes and Saxons from north Germany, Jutland and
Frisia, and Saxony, respectively. These attacks caused the decline of trade and the stagnation of
activity in urban centers. The Romans gradually withdrew from Britain. Having had the support of
the extremely well organized Roman army, the natives had not consolidated any form of defense
and were now powerless and unable to resist the attackers.
In 409 AD the Roman-Britons expelled the officials of Emperor Constantine III and were left to
resist the attacks by themselves. According to most historians, it was the lack of an efficient army
and of consolidated sites that made Britain so vulnerable to invasions from that moment
onwards.

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1.2. Angles, Saxons and Jutes

The Anglo-Saxon settlement, which began in the 5th century AD, was, most likely, not the
arrival of a unified army, but rather that of successive groups of warriors, who saw the possibility
for expansion and began to settle on the island.
The Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes came from the regions of continental Europe that
correspond to the modern territories of Holland, Southern Denmark and Western Germany. It has
yet not been established to what an extent there were large-scale movements of peoples, or bands of
warriors who settled in different parts of the country. There was a long-lasting struggle with the
Roman-Briton population and domination was not established until late in the 6 th century,
apparently, the age of the legendary King Arthur.
These tribes gradually took over the area that is now known as England (the land of the
Angles), while the Celts retreated north and west to Scotland and Wales. The Saxons attacked
England, the Jutes established themselves in Kent and the Isle of Wight, and the Angles went farther
North. By 700, these peoples had occupied most of the land, with the exception of Cornwall and
part of southern Scotland.

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In the conquered areas the Roman-Britons survived as slaves and peasants. The Old English
word ‘wealh’, initially meaning ‘foreigner’, came to mean, after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, both
‘Celt’, ‘Welshman’, and ‘servant’, ‘slave’, which is indicative of the survival of the Britons, but also
of their low status in the new society.
As trade declined, England relapsed to a more violent stage and Christianity faded away, as
the invaders were all pagans. The Anglo-Saxons brought with them an extensive body of tribal
culture. Some of them used a runic alphabet, but the runes were only used for short inscriptions.
Writing was not used extensively until the conversion to Christianity, when manuscript technology
was introduced from Rome; even then, a Celtic version of the Roman alphabet was used, but runic
signs were also introduced in it.
The Anglo-Saxons lived in small villages; they used mud, wood and straw to build their
houses, which were grouped around the house of the lord. The lord, or thane, was the most
important man in the village, as he kept order and made people obey the laws. There was no body
of laws in Anglo-Saxon society, but there were compensations one had to pay for a crime. Offenders
or criminals were, depending on the severity of their deed, either hanged or compelled to pay a sum
of money called wergild. On the whole, the Anglo-Saxons formed a peaceful society. Once they
settled the English territory, they ceased carrying on wars and their biggest enemies became disease
and starvation, as life expectancy was very short.

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1.2.1. The Language

The Anglo-Saxon invasion meant the settlement of a whole people, which means that their
language became the dominant one and only a few traces of the Celtic language remained. The
English language retained the names of some towns (London, Leeds), regions (Kent, Devon,
Cornwall – ‘the land of the Welsh’), and of rivers (Avon – ‘water’, the Thames – ‘dark river’).
The fact that the Celtic language (namely two of its branches, Gaelic and Britannic –
Cornish and Welsh) did not influence Old English to any great extent, does not mean that the
Britons were all killed or driven out, but that their language simply did not have any impact on the
conquerors.

The English language proper derives from the early Germanic, which, like the Celtic, is a
branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The Germanic languages derived from the Proto-
Germanic dialect of the Indo-European family of languages. The Proto-Germanic dialect was first
mentioned by Tacitus in Germania, written in 98 AD. As a result of the expansion of thee
Germanic-speaking peoples, differences in the dialects within the Proto-Germanic became more
marked, until three distinct branches (North, East and West Germanic) emerged.
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The West-Germanic branch is subdivided into two dialects: High German, which evolved
into German and Yiddish, and the Low German dialects of North Germany (called Old Saxon in
their earliest form). They include Dutch, Afrikaans, Flemish, Frisian and English. Frisian is the
language most closely related to English. It was once spoken along the coast of the North Sea, from
Northern Holland to Central Denmark. Historians speculate the possibility that the Anglo-Saxons
might have been near-neighbors with the Frisians before the former migrated to England.
After the Anglo-Saxons conquered England, the result in terms of language was a variety of
dialects (especially due to the fact that they had come and settled in successive waves). In The
Ecclesiastical History of the English People (731), the Venerable Bede mentioned these three
powerful Germanic tribes. They were referred to as groups related in language and culture, and they
regarded themselves as people belonging to one culture. In this respect, the Old English words
‘Engle’ (the Angles) and ‘Englisc’ (English) were used to denote all these peoples and the language
they spoke.

Old English, the earliest phase in the development of the English language, lasted until
approximately the year 1100. Old English simplified the Proto-Germanic language system - it had
four cases for the nouns, reduced the number of declensions to three or four, it had fewer distinctive
case endings, which were further reduced in time. Old English relied for its case distinctions on the
adjectives, which had preserved more distinctive endings than the nouns, and on the definite article
‘se’. In its verb system, it preserved a Proto-Germanic two-tense system, but it also saw the
beginning of a new tense system using auxiliaries and it developed forms for the present/past
perfect and for the passive voice.
In terms of syntax, Old English had greater variety of word order than today, because of its
inflectional system. Negation was achieved by means of the particle ‘ne’, which was used so
frequently that it often mixed with certain words, producing forms like ‘nis’ (‘is not’) or ‘nolde’
(‘would not’). It retained the use of prefixes and suffixes from the Proto-Germanic (in words such
as blodig, thancful, freondleas). Adverbs were commonly formed from adjectives by means of
suffixes (‘faest’ – ‘firm’, ‘faeste’ – ‘firmly’). Prefixes were added to verbs in order to intensify their
force or to denote destruction (‘baernan’ – ‘to burn’, ‘forbaernan’ – ‘to destroy by burning’. The
prefix ‘ge’, for instance, indicated the completion of an action: ‘ridan’ – ‘to ride’, ‘geridan’ – ‘to
conquer’, ‘to occupy’; ‘siglde’ – ‘to sail’, ‘gesiglde’ – ‘to get somewhere by sailing’. Compounding
was also frequent: OE ‘boccraeft’ (‘book-skill’) for ‘literature’, OE ‘rimscraeft’ (‘number-skill’) for
‘arithmetic’. Some of the compound words have survived in Modern English: OE ‘sunnebeam’ >
‘sunbeam’, OE ‘wifmann’ > ‘woman’.

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1.3. The Heptarchy

The Anglo-Saxons established several kingdoms before they united slowly. The Angles
established themselves in East Anglia and Middle Anglia, the Saxons settled mainly in the south and
west (Wessex, Essex, Middlesex, Sussex), and the Jutes settled in Kent, the Isle of Wight and parts
of Hampshire. In Scotland, Picts and Scots formed the kingdom of Alba. Ireland had a rather
obscure position, as there was no post-Roman continuity here. Christianity spread in Ireland in the
5th century, not as a consequence of Roman Christianity, but as a result of the missionary activity of
St. Patrick, a monk who came from England.
There is little information about Wales as well. Once it was no longer part of the Roman
Empire, it split into a number of political unions, governed by powerful warlords. Latin was used
for religious purposes, but the Celtic language survived as an active vernacular and developed into
Welsh.
In England, gradual political union reduced the kingdoms to seven (the Heptarchy):
Northumbria (southern Scotland and England north of the river Humber), Mercia (the West
Midlands), East Anglia, Essex, Wessex, Sussex and Kent. In the 7 th century, Northumbria was the
strongest center of power, while in the 9th century it was Wessex, whose kings finally united
England.

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However, there was no consciousness of England or of Wales as such until the 6 th century,
even if Wales was dissimilar. As the Welsh had carried on a long struggle with the invaders, Wales
was culturally and politically individualized. Literature was written in Welsh and Wales became
culturally a survivor from an older civilization. There was a long struggle with the invaders: in the
8th century, for instance, marked the definition of a border between Wales and England. After the
Anglo-Saxon settlements, the identity of the Welsh was defined in terms of ‘otherness’, but Wales
nevertheless became the most important area of surviving Roman-Briton civilization.

In England, the West-Saxon dialect became the literary standard. Even if there are surviving
texts from the Old English period written in four major dialects (West Saxon, Kentish, Mercian and
Northumbrian), there was a tendency for the manuscripts to be copied by West Saxon scribes and
put into West Saxon form (e.g. Beowulf). However, the West Saxon dialect is not the direct ancestor
of the English language.

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1.4. The Spread of Christianity

The English were converted to Christianity in about the year 600 and it took them a century
to complete the process. It was carried out from two directions, the Celtic church penetrating from
the north-west and the Roman church from the south-east.
In 597 a mission from Pope Gregory the Great came to Canterbury in Kent and it was
successful in southern England. Augustine, the monk sent by the Pope, became the first Archbishop
of Canterbury. However, it was the Irish Church that was the base of conversion for most of
England. Christian missionaries also arrived in Scotland from Ireland, where the Church of Iona had
been founded by Columba, an Irish monk, in 563. The Irish had a major influence in England as far
as religion was concerned. The first Saint Paul’s Church was built in London in 607.
As a result of the Synod at Whitby (664), the Roman custom prevailed in the English
Church, which was properly organized by Theodore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury. From the
7th century onwards, England became the base for missionary activity, contributing to the spread of
Christianity in Germany and Scandinavia. The monastic churches that were built had a major role in
the spread of literacy and education. The converted Anglo-Saxons produced remarkable academic
works, the most notable of them being Bede’s first history of England. However, many of the
monasteries would be destroyed by Britain’s next invaders, the Vikings.

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1.5. The Development of the English State

In the 6th and 7th centuries, the relationship between the kingdoms of the Heptarchy was
subject to change. Some of them flourished, while others lost their independence, until three major
kingdoms remained on the map of Britain (Northumbria, comprising southern Scotland and
England north of the river Humber,, Mercia, namely the present-day West Midlands and Wessex).
It was difficult, for any of the rulers of these kingdoms, to maintain lasting and effective
control over the others, as each of the kingdoms was defeated, in turn. For instance, Aethelbert of
Kent acted as overking in 590; Mercia dominated East Anglia from 654. Northumbria was defeated
by Mercia from 670 to 685. Ireland was divided into about 100 small kingdoms, among which it
was hard to establish any hegemony. After it ceased to be part of the Roman Empire, Wales was also
divided into a group of political unions, governed by powerful local warlords.
There were faint indications of a sense of national identity. The Synod at Hertford (672)
issued canons for the English people, while Bede also wrote about the English people in his
Ecclesiastical History (731), but neither had political echoes.
Despite the lack of a sense of national unity and identity, some of the rulers of the dominant
kingdoms were often called ‘King or Overlord of the English’. Most probably, the term was first
used with reference to Offa, the ruler of Mercia, who managed to control formerly independent
kingdoms (Essex, East Anglia, Sussex and Kent). Durable and effective control of much of Britain
was beyond the capability of any one of the rulers of these kingdoms. However, the institution of
monarchy originated in the struggle for supremacy among the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, and it
was consolidated by the Viking invasions.

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1.6. The Viking Invasions

From about 750 to 1035, another group of peoples invaded the British territories. They were
generically known as ‘Vikings’, a term that used to mean ‘creek-dweller’, or ‘pirate’, and which
comprises the Swedes, the Norwegians and the Danes. The invasion of the Scandinavian Vikings
was the last phase of the expansion of the early Germanic peoples. In the 8 th century, Charlemagne
destroyed the power of the Frisians, who had been the greatest maritime power, and thus he left
open the sea-route for the Vikings, who, in turn, had become the strongest boat-building people and
were at the same time attacking, pirating, and trading in new territories. They are said to have
reached the shore of America long before it was actually discovered, in about the year 1,000.
The Vikings who conquered England were called ‘Dene’. The first Danish raid took place in
787, and the subsequent ones greatly contributed to the emergence of the idea of English national
unity. In 829, Egbert, king of Wessex, was recognized as ‘overlord of England’. In 835 he defeated
the Danes, but in 870 they conquered East Anglia. Aethelred died fighting them at Merton (871). He
was succeeded by Alfred the Great, who became king of Wessex in 871. Alfred prevented the Danes
from conquering the whole of England, but there were massive Scandinavian settlements in the
north and east (the Norwegians settled in Lancashire and Cumbria, the Danes in Derbyshire,
Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Norfolk). Many present-day place-names ending in ‘thorpe’ are of
Scandinavian origin.

1.6.1. Old English and Old Norse

The language of the Scandinavian invaders, Old Norse, had a tremendous impact on Old
English. Some words are identical or very similar in the two languages, and they had the same
result in Middle English (OE ‘na’ and ON ‘nei’ produced ‘nay’, later ‘no’ in Middle English). Often
a word is not recorded in Old English, but it is in Old Norse. For instance, the verb ‘to take’ has its
origin in the on word ‘taka’, while its OE correspondent was ‘niman’. Both words existed in Middle
English, but then ‘to nim’ meant ‘to steal’. The word ‘gate’ comes from the OE ‘gatu’, but in the
northern dialects it also meant ‘way’, ‘street’, from the ON ‘gata’ (in Leeds and York there still are
streets called ‘Kirkgate’, the corresponding version of ‘Churchstreet’.
Most Scandinavian loan-words first appeared in writing in the Middle English period, but
their form shows that they had been taken over in the late Old English period, for they underwent
the transition from Old English to Middle English. Many of the words that were taken over are

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ordinary ones, relating to everyday life and denoting the similarities between the two cultures
(‘sister’, ‘bag’, ‘cake’, ‘fog’, ‘knife’, ‘skin’, ‘skill’, ‘window’, ‘flat’, ‘loose’, ‘odd’, ‘ugly’, ‘they’,
‘them’, ‘their’). However, their number is rather small compared to the number of words that were
later borrowed from French and Latin.

1.6.2. Anglo-Saxons and Vikings

In 878, the Danelaw was established. When Alfred defeated the Danes he allowed them to
inhabit part of England east and north of a line from Chester to London. Initially, the Danelaw
designated the parts of north, central and eastern England where Danish, rather than Saxon, customs
and laws, prevailed. Later, King Edgar (959-75) would grant autonomy to the inhabitants of the
Danelaw.
At the same time, Ireland was attacked by the Norwegians. Consequently, the conflict with
the Vikings played a crucial role in the development of the English state, just as the Viking
invasions of Scotland contributed to the increase of the power of the kingdom of the Scots.
Alfred the Great (871-99) was regarded as English, rather than West-Saxon king. The West-
Saxon rulers claimed ownership of the overlordship of all Britain, and in 920, the rulers of Scotland,
York and Northumbria accepted Edward’s lordship. The West-Saxon dynasty was dominant in the
incipient English monarchy. Athelstan (924-39) and Eadred (946-55) were regarded as the first
kings of the English. In 973, Edgar staged an elaborate coronation at Bath, in which he was the first
ruler to be crowned king of the English, even if the title itself had been used before (by Offa and
Athelstan).
Monarchy in Anglo-Saxon times had no extensive rights. Its duties were to defend the
people, to uphold the law, to administer justice. The laws that were promulgated were declaratory,
rather than legislative. However, most laws were given with the help of the Witan, the council of
Anglo-Saxon kings.
The Witan had developed from earlier Germanic assemblies, and it had become, under the
Anglo-Saxon rulers, a formal gathering of the main noblemen and bishops. They were summoned
by the king in order to give him advice and to witness acts of royal administration, new laws, to
make decisions on taxation, foreign policy and defense. The Witan played a fundamental role in
checking royal power and in preventing autocracy – it was an incipient element in the development
of English democracy.
Ireland, Scotland and Wales were at most times independent of England. Ireland generally
resisted to the Viking attacks due to a succession of kings who weakened the attackers’ power.

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There was no ethnic union between England and Scotland. What eventually became Scotland was
ethnically, geographically and culturally diverse and included Scots, Picts, Britons and some
Angles. For instance, until mid-12th century it was unclear whether much of what is now Northern
Ireland, and especially Cumbria and Northumbria, would be part of England or of Scotland.
In Wales there were few attacks from the Vikings, but there was pressure from England. The
division of property among sons had eventually made it difficult for Wales to achieve unity. Thus,
even if they were individualized (they even had their own coins), the Welsh in the south made some
kind of submission to Alfred, who offered them help against the Vikings, and they later became
subordinates of Athelstan.

In the 11th century, the English kingdom created by the rulers of Wessex was overthrown by
foreign invasion. The Danish raids culminated with the taking over of the country by King Canute
(1017-35). Canute also inherited Denmark and he made England part of it. As king of a number of
kingdoms, Canute complied with the English governmental system, he treated Englishmen and
Danes as equals and faced no rebellion. His empire fell apart after his death.
Under Edward the Confessor (1044-66) the royal titles of ‘King of the English’ and ‘King of
the British’ were used indifferently – even if Ireland was completely independent, Wales and
Scotland were dependent on England and offered her military help.
In actual fact, from the 10th century onwards, when Edgar ruled England, as well as Wales
and Scotland, England was perceived as a single territory, whether it was ruled by Danish kings
(Canute), half-English (Edward the Confessor) or Norman French ones, like William the Conqueror
and his immediate successors; all of them were perceived as rulers of a single country.

By the time of Canute’s reign, the country had already been divided into shires (later
counties), which were unequal in size and wealth (some of them were former kingdoms). Each shire
had a court which met twice a year and was presided over by the king’s representative (sheriff).
Shires were divided into hundreds, each with its court (of rural population). By the 11 th century the
existing laws reveal a carefully defined hierarchy: one’s position in society was established not only
by laws, but also by titles. At the base were the slaves, some of them descendants of pre-Saxon
peoples, above them were the cottagers, who were tied in their work and obligations to their lord’s
will, and at the top were the magnates and the warriors. The bond between man and lord was
essential and lordship gained in importance.
This was the social background against which, with the battle of Hastings in 1066, the
Normans conquered England.

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CONCEPTS AND KEYWORDS

1. Celts, Angles, Saxons, Jutes


2. Old English
3. Kingdoms – the Heptarchy
4. Viking invasions – Old Norse
5. The Witan

QUESTIONS

1. How did the Roman occupation influence the development of the Celtic people?
2. What is the origin of the English language?
3. What was the significance of the Heptarchy in the development of the English state?
4. How did Christian religion spread on the English territory?
5. What was the influence of Old Norse on Old English?
6. What was the impact of the Witan on the development of English democracy?

2. England in the Middle Ages. House of Normandy.

2.1. House of Normandy William the Conqueror (1066-87) signified the advent of a new era in
English history, the beginning of the Middle Ages. England was now centered on the ruler, on his
views and entourage. The very character of his reign depended entirely on the personality of the
monarch.
With the coming of the Normans, there was a social revolution at the level of the Anglo-Saxon
elite, while the new rule of foreigners affected the ordinary people to a lesser degree.
The Normans introduced the social system of feudalism in England, a system that was to
change the social structure of the country dramatically. Under the Normans, the main economic unit
was the manor – the home farm and the surrounding estate. The lord was entitled to day labor and
rent. Even if rents and labors had existed under Anglo-Saxon rule in order to offer people
protections against invaders, the system was refined and consolidated. Under the feudal system
instituted in England by the Normans, manors were given to the king’s vassals in return for military
service. The social system of the country was characterized by personal relationship. The king

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granted lands to his subjects in return for military service and this exchange was consolidated by the
act of homage paid by the vassal to the lord.
The Normans built castles that were symbolic of their power and which became centers for
governmental, political and religious activity. Peasants were more closely controlled and the status
of free men became lower.
In contrast to Canute’s reign, William’s rule caused strong opposition. Even if those
noblemen who willingly submitted to William the Conqueror were allowed to keep their lands,
there was strong resistance to the spread of Norman rule. Many noblemen revolted and in 1069 the
revolt spread throughout the north of country. The stifling of the revolt, the ‘harrying of the North’,
resulted in the ‘Normanization’ of both Church and land. The English were denied clerical
appointments and landlords were dispossessed of their properties.
Latin was introduced as official language, as the Norman invasion had enjoyed the support
of the Pope. These changes intensified resistance, and more uprisings in the North and in the West
Midlands took place parallel to Danish and Scottish invasions in support of the English. As there
was lack of coordination among the rebellions, they were unsuccessful. Malcolm III of Scotland
was forced to submit and in 1086 most of the important landlords paid homage to William.
In order to get an estimate of the land and to gain as much as possible by land tax, William
conceived the Domesday Survey Book, a record of property that functioned as the final authority
in any disputes over property, and from which there was no appeal. Royal commissioners visited
each shire and village, made reports on the identity of the landowners, the size and use of land, the
number and status of its cultivators. Juries that consisted of both Englishmen and Normans attested
the truth of the answers, and the information was tabulated on an abacus.
Despite the fact that William’s rule was regarded as an excessively oppressive one, the
process of centralization of the state powers had begun its course, and future monarchs of the House
of Normandy contributed to this ongoing process.

During the reign of Henry I (1100-1135), who was mainly concerned with consolidating his
political and military position in the newly conquered Northern France, means had to be found to
rule England in the absence of the king. Consequently, his reign witnessed the growth and
rationalization of the royal administrative and judicial systems. From about 1130, itinerant
justices (justices in eyre) toured the country and later royal judicial activity expanded as the
Crown appointed local justices, in order to keep England stable.
The Exchequer, the financial and accounting office of medieval England, dating from King
William’s time, was also consolidated (in 1172 it settled at Westminster). Records were made by
means of counters on a chequered table, based on the abacus. [At present, the Finance Minister of
the U.K. is called Chancellor of the Exchequer.]

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2.2. Changes in Language

The year 1100 is regarded as the approximate date when Old English was replaced by
Middle English, a further phase in the development of English language, which was to last,
conventionally, until 1500. Old English did not, of course, die out suddenly, but for some centuries
English ceased to be the language of the upper classes and it was replaced by French.
Even if English was still spoken by the ordinary people, there was no longer any standard
literary language. The Anglo-Saxons had a tradition of scholarship that went back to the 7 th century
(when Charlemagne had wanted to reform his educational system, he had called an Englishman to
do it). This tradition had been disrupted by the Viking invasions, but it was revived in the 10 th
century under West-Saxon leadership.
Once French was decreed the official language, the West-Saxon dialect lost its place as
standard literary language. For about three centuries, there was no single form of English
recognized as a norm, and people spoke in the language/dialect of their own region. The prestige
languages were Latin and French – the former was the language of the Church, of scholarship, of
international commerce, while the latter was used mainly in administration. But French was never
the mother tongue of the population and, as the French never outnumbered the English in the way in
which Anglo-Saxons had outnumbered the Britons, French gradually died out in the 14th century.

Generally, Norman England was characterized by conflict under various forms. There was
rivalry within the Norman elite (competition between noblemen, disputes between noblemen and
monarchs, most of which were linked to the dominant principle of the undivided inheritance, which
went to the eldest male child, a principle which also established succession to the throne).
Moreover, the military campaigns against Wales and Scotland, paralleled by hostilities with the
rulers of France and the civil war within the Norman elite following William’s death, contributed to
the weakening of England’s military values and potential.
The House of Normandy was replaced for a short while by the House of Blois (Stephen –
1135-54), but even the future kings were descendants of King William I.

2.3. House of Plantagenet. Law and administration. Magna Carta.

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King Henry II (1154-89) was granted overlordship of Ireland by Pope Adrian. Thus, an
Anglo-Irish struggle was started, that was to last ever since. Henry II obtained the submission of
many of the Irish kings and of the Irish Church. Much of Ireland was captured, but Henry was just
overlord, never king, of Ireland. He also obtained the homage of the King of Scotland, who restored
him some territories, and he subdued the Welsh.
In order to put an end to the anarchy in England, Henry II instituted a number of legal
reforms. The most notable example was the Assize of Claredon (1166), where the jury system was
established, and which was fundamental in the development of the English judicial system.
He became famous for the conflict with his Chancellor, Thomas Becket, Archbishop of
Canterbury, who defended the rights of clerics to be tried in Church courts (the freedom of
appeal to Rome). As a result of the disputes over the rights of Church and State, Becket was
exiled and murdered at Canterbury. He was canonized and his shrine became a place of
pilgrimage.
The expansion of governmental activity required an increasing number of professional
people. These were called ‘curiales’ – a word originating in ‘curia regis’, the royal court of Norman
kings, which had fulfilled the functions of royal government. The ‘curiales’ enforced justice and
collected royal revenues. They contributed to the increase of the coercive power of government.
The administration became even more independent during the reign of Richard I Coeur de
Lion (1189-99), whose participation in the Crusades and frequent absences from the country placed
heavy burdens on England’s finances.
Until 1189, English monarchs had enjoyed great power, but they had accepted advice and
certain limitations on their authority. King John (1199-1216), however, ignored these restrictions.
He made England a fief of the Papacy and this, along with the previous growth in the role and
liberty of the State, caused the opposition of the noblemen, who united against his dictatorial rule.
In 1215, King John was forced to accept the terms of Magna Carta, a document that was
originally intended to protect the aristocracy, not the ordinary people, but which, in time, became a
landmark in British constitutional history.
Magna Carta was a charter of liberties that condemned King John’s use of feudal and judicial
powers. It defined and limited royal power and royal rights, it forced the king to accept advice
and promoted an aristocratic influence in national affairs. It guaranteed every man’s security
from illegal interference in his person and property and provided freemen with some rights and
liberties against royal action. It guaranteed justice to everyone, stipulating that no person could
be punished or kept in prison without a fair, however speedy, trial.
According to the terms of Magna Carta, the Crown was no longer able to determine its
rights alone. Magna Carta constrained monarchs to accept limitations in their power, and it was to
be enforced by a Council of barons, who could declare war on the king if he failed to respect his
promises.

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Magna Carta was frequently reissued by Great Councils and, even if later monarchs often
tried to ignore it, and its importance was not perceived as such at the time, it remained the oldest
written constitutional paper in England.

The 13th century was marked by further decisive political events. Crises in Anglo-Welsh
relationships culminated in 1277, when Edward I (1272-1307) invaded Wales and established a new
military order and political settlement. The Statute of Wales was established in 1284, and it defined
the legal and administrative changes and arrangements made by Edward for the conquered
territories. New government centres were established, new boroughs and counties were formed,
more castles were built. English criminal law was made compulsory, while Welsh civil law was
allowed to continue. Edward initiated the English custom of entitling the king’s eldest son Prince of
Wales.
The wars with Scotland were not as successful – Scotland was not defeated because, at the
same time, a conflict with France emerged, which was to degenerate into the Hundred Years’ War.

2.4. The emergence of Parliament

In 1295 Edward I summoned the Model Parliament. Basic parliamentary structures had
existed before – in 1265 Simon de Montfort had called England’s first Parliament, composed of
nobles and minor aristocrats. Parliament emerged out of the need for an important political body to
complement monarchy. In 1295, representatives of the clergy, of counties and boroughs were called
to give advice to the King and to consent on behalf of the communities they represented; the nobles
appeared on their own behalf. The Model Parliament was to serve as an example for similar future
structures. Its two sections consisted of the Lords and Bishops, who were chosen by the King, and
the Commoners, who were elected.
In the 14th century, the practices of Parliament were established. Tax money from the nobles
was no longer enough to finance the upkeep of administration and pay for the wars against France,
so that the middle classes were asked to contribute as well. In 1349, during the reign of Edward III
(1327-77) the representatives of the counties and boroughs (knights, yeomen and merchants)
complied, and began to meet as a separate assembly, the Council of the Commoners. In return, they
demanded to be consulted by the king when important decisions had to be taken (this was the
beginning of the House of Commons).
Parliament became important because of the constant need to raise taxes in order to pay for
warfare (military troops). At the end of the 14th century, taxation was established by the House of

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Commons, with the consent of the Lords. [However, for most of the Middle Ages, the Commons
were an adjunct to Parliament, rather than a part of it – they met separately and were represented in
the Parliament Chamber by their speaker, who was, until the end of the 17 th century, a servant of the
Crown.]
While Parliament did serve as a means to support royal policies financially, it also
constrained monarchial freedom of political manoeuvre. England was on the road of becoming the
first and only parliamentary monarchy in Europe. From a situation in which the monarch had
enjoyed almost absolute power, by the end of the Middle Ages, two councils, one made up of
aristocrats and one of commoners, had a say in the running of the country. England was the first
country in the world where the principle that the representatives of the people had a right to
participate in government was accepted.

2.5. England in the 14th Century

In the 14th century, social and economic crises increased. Most of them were triggered by the
conflicts between the nobility and the newly emerged middle classes.
During the reign of Edward II (1307-27) the Great Famine (1315-17) occurred, as a result of
extensive harvest failure. During the reign of Edward III (1327-77), the Hundred Years’ War with
France began (1337-1453), and the most decisive episode was the Bubonic plague (Black Death),
which killed, from 1348 to 1351, one third of the population and disrupted the economy of the
country. Both the war and the plague hastened the breakdown of the feudal system in England.
In 1377 Edward III was succeeded by Richard II Plantagenet (1377-99). In 1381 the King
was faced with the Peasant Revolt – a revolt against feudal power and at the poor living conditions
against the background of the Hundred Years’ War with France. In order to support war expenses, a
poll tax was introduced for all people over the age of 14. This tax pressed hard on the rural
population, leading to riots in 1381. The peasants, led by Watt Tyler, occupied London, seized the
Tower of London and murdered the Chancellor and the Archbishop of Canterbury.
King Richard II granted charters of freedom to the rebels, but as soon as they had returned to
their homes, he revoked the charters and punished the leaders of the rebels.
In 1399 he conducted a successful expedition to Ireland, where the Irish lords paid him
homage. Three years later, he banished Henry Bolingbroke (Lancaster) and seized his inheritance,
but in 1399 he was deposed. Henry IV (House of Lancaster) became king until 1413.

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The succession of the House of Lancaster to the throne of England caused the War(s) of the
Roses (1455-86). Both families involved (Lancaster and York) claimed royal right by descent from
Edward III. Internal political conflict between the House of Lancaster and the House of York began
in 1454, when King Henry VI (Lancaster) was declared temporarily insane and was replaced by
Richard, Duke of York, who became Protector of England.
In 1461 Edward, Duke of York, defeated the Lancastrians and proclaimed himself Edward
IV. Henry VI fled to Scotland. He returned in 1464, but he was captured and imprisoned. In 1470 he
was restored and Edward fled to Flanders. Henry ruled again for only one year, when Edward of
York returned and claimed the Crown. Henry VI was imprisoned again and murdered (1471).
Edward IV became king once again (1471-83). He was succeeded to the throne by his son, Edward
V, who was king for only one year. In 1483, his uncle, Richard of Gloucester, imprisoned him in the
Tower, where he was probably murdered.
King Richard III – House of York (1483-85) was not trusted by the noblemen. In 1485,
Henry Tudor (House of Lancaster) invaded the country with the help of French troops. Richard,
supported only by a few noblemen, was defeated and killed at Bosworth. Henry became King of
England as Henry VII (1485-1509). When he married Elizabeth of York (1486), the War of the
Roses was ended.

2.6. The Language. Middle English.

Since the Norman Conquest, three languages had been used in parallel in England: Norman
French was spoken in Court and by the noblemen, Latin was the language of the Church and of
official documents, while English was the language of the ordinary people. But, at the beginning of
the 13th century, King John lost Normandy to the French Crown. The ties with Normandy were
gradually severed and the Norman nobility gradually became English. Gradually, there was a switch
from French to English as the official language.
The first state document to be issued in English was the Proclamation of Henry III (1216-
72) – a constitutional document that reformed Parliament in 1269. In 1362 Edward III’s Parliament
enacted a statute whereby the use of French in the court laws was terminated (even if records were
still kept in Latin) and in the same year the king made the first royal speech to Parliament in
English. By the end of Richard II’s reign (1399), English had become the everyday language of the
Court. In the 14th century there was a switch from French to English as the medium of grammar
school education.

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When, in 1399, Henry Lancaster seized the throne of England, he would be the first king
whose native language was English, and in the 15 th century there were members of the nobility who
spoke no French at all.
As English became the language of administration and culture, there came a re-
establishment of an English literary language – a standard form of the language, which could be
regarded as a norm (there were, in fact, two standard forms of the language, that of England and
that of Scotland). In England, the new standard language was no longer based on the West-Saxon
literary language, but on the East Midland dialect, as the East Midlands had a superior cultural,
economic and administrative life. The North remained a rather backward region, but in the south,
the London speech imposed itself and its prestige grew gradually.
Nevertheless, the 13th and 14th centuries represented a code-switching, transitional period, as
both languages were used simultaneously. More French words were adopted in English now than
they had been when French had been the official language, because back then it had not been
spoken by the ordinary people. An illustrative example is that of the 2 nd person pronouns.
Originally, the English words had been ‘thou’ (singular) and ‘ye’ (plural), and ‘thee’ (singular) and
‘you’ (plural) after a preposition or as an object, respectively. Due to the ambiguity of the French
‘vous’, the English word ‘you’ took over the functions of the plural ‘ye’, and then ‘you’ took over
the functions of the singular ‘thou’, so that the distinction between singular and plural was lost.

With the emergence of a new class – the merchants who took control of an international
trade, with London guilds beginning to use English for their records, specialized terms, in which
English was deficient, were taken over from French. By mid-15 th century, the tradesmen had
become an almost separate literate group, apart from the clergy and the nobility. Sometimes,
English, French and Latin occurred together in their documents (the symbol ‘&’ was first used in
their documents).

2.6.1. French Loan Words

Most French words were not borrowed in English while French was the language of the upper
classes (the ordinary people in England did not speak French), but in the 13th and 14th centuries,
when there were bilingual speakers changing over to English for purposes such as commerce,
administration and literature. They were not homely words such as the Scandinavian ones. The
influence of French was a vertical one, reflective of cultural and political dominance, and they
are more common in the fields of administration (‘chancellor’, ‘council’, ‘government’), the law
(‘to accuse’, ‘attorney’, ‘crime’, ‘to punish’), heraldry, arts (‘costume’, ‘apparel’, ‘dress’),
military and ecclesiastical life (‘castle’, ‘tower’, ‘abbey’, ‘clergy’, ‘prayer’). Most words
denoting titles of rank in English are also of French origin (‘baron’, ‘count’, ‘duke’, ‘peer’,
‘prince’), while the language retained the English words ‘king’, ‘queen’, ‘lord’, ‘lady’, ‘earl’,
‘knight’.
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When they were first borrowed, French words were given a French pronunciation, but they were
soon adapted to the English phonological system and they were pronounced in the English
manner. This process of assimilation made it easier for later Romance and Latin words to be
adopted by the English language (French stems with English prefixes and suffixes, such as
‘beautiful’, ‘faithless’, ‘preaching’, ‘ungracious’).
The dominance of French for so many centuries had a huge impact on writing as well:
English writers began writing verse chronicles in the French manner. However, in certain places,
some English literary traditions were preserved – until the 2 nd half of the 14th century, there was a
line of poets using the alliterative line descending from Old English poetry. With Geoffrey Chaucer,
whose versification was deeply influenced by Italian and French models, Old English versification
became obsolete.

2.6.2. Characteristics of Middle English

Linguists conventionally date Middle English from 1100 and 1500. Old English did not
disappear suddenly in the years following the Norman Conquest. The West-Saxon literary tradition
was continued for a while in some monasteries, but the changes that had begun to occur in the
language before the conquest now developed at a much higher speed. Significant changes took
place in spelling: the Norman scribes disregarded Old English spelling altogether – they spelled
words as they heard them and often resorted to the conventions of Norman French.
A sound change that took place in late Old English but did not become apparent until the
Middle English period, was the lengthening of short vowels before certain consonant groups, under
the influence of French pronunciation. For instance, the OE word ‘bakan’ (‘to bake’) became
‘baken’ in Middle English, but it was still pronounced with a long ‘a’. With the French influence, it
then became ‘to bake’, and its pronunciation was the one used nowadays. The Middle English
lengthening of vowels in open syllables of disyllabic words also affected the spelling conventions of
the English language. In early Middle English, words like ‘bake’ had two syllables. After the first
vowel was lengthened, the final –e was lost and such words became monosyllabic.
In the field of morphology, there was a great reduction in the inflectional system inherited
from Old English (the period of ‘reduced inflections’). The loss and weakening of unstressed
syllables at the end of the words destroyed many of the distinctive inflections of Old English. The
Old English word-finals –a, -u, -e became –en in Middle English, to be finally reduced to –e. The
endings –as and –es for the Nominative plural and Genitive singular became –es. Even the final –e
ultimately disappeared in the Nominative during the Middle English period and many endings
became identical. By the 15th century the –es plural became universal.

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A similar process of loss of case distinctions took place in adjectives and demonstratives. In
the case of adjectives, the language used two forms: the base form (e.g. ‘fair’) and a form with the
ending –e used for the plural (‘faire’). Towards the end of the Middle English period, the –e was
lost and the adjective became indeclinable. In Old English, the definite article showed three
genders, but by the end of the Middle English period ‘the’ became the only form of the definite
article.
In Old English, the definite article and the adjective played a major role in marking the
distinctions of case and number. When they lost this function by the end of the Middle English
period, the language changed a lot. Grammatical gender disappeared in favor of the ‘natural gender’
(in Old English, for instance, the word ‘wifmann’ – ‘woman’ was masculine, while ‘wif’ – ‘wife’
was neuter).
Word order became very important, because inflections were no longer capable of showing
which noun was the subject of the sentence. In the verb system, there was also a tendency for
inflections to be replaced by more analytical devices. If, in Old English, there were many
inflections, but only two tenses (present and past), in Middle English the system of inflections was
reduced, but a new system of tenses was built up by means of the primary auxiliaries and of the
modal auxiliaries.

2.7. Literacy and Education in the Middle Ages

In the Anglo-Saxon period, the control of education in England became the responsibility of
the Christian church (the first schools were founded in the 6 th century). In the Middle Ages, the
monastic and cathedral schools, which had originally been established for the clergy and for those
intending to enter the monasteries, gradually admitted lay pupils and broadened the curriculum to
include the study of the classics, grammar, logic, rhetoric, geometry and arithmetic. The Church
continued to dominate education until the end of the Middle Ages.

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In Norman and early medieval times only a few people were educated – especially
churchmen. Before the Norman Conquest, Alfred the Great had attempted to bring the benefits of
literacy to a wider section of the community (he founded a court school and translated some works
from Latin into Anglo-Saxon himself). However, Alfred was something of a unique figure in this
respect. With the Normans, education was regarded as something incompatible with fighting men
(William the Conqueror could not even sign his name and he ‘signed’ charters with a cross).
However, there were schools attached to monasteries in the Middle Ages. It was to the
greatest extent the Church that enjoyed the prerogatives of education, but the Universities of Oxford
and Cambridge developed around centers of learning established by the clergy in the 12 th and 13th
centuries. During the Middle Ages, the number of cathedral grammar schools rose to approximately
400. By the 14th century, grammar schools existed for the education of boys who were not destined
for the Church.
With the Black Death, many of these schools had closed by the 15th century. They were
restored afterwards, this time by certain citizens and companies who founded new schools by
donation. These were the Livery Companies – the London trade and crafts associations – such as
those of the weavers, merchants and vintners, who were the successors of the guilds and dominated
London’s political and economic life in the Middle Ages. They began to control trades in the mid-
13th century and exercised power over all aspects of commercial organization. As they were
immensely wealthy, they also engaged in charitable and educational activities, so that they founded
boys’ schools, took over responsibility for running them and provided scholarships at schools and
universities. At the same time, a basic education was also provided in some areas for the children of
the poor, usually by the local parish priest.

CONCEPTS AND KEYWORDS

1. Feudalism
2. Domesday Survey Book, Exchequer
3. Transition from Old English to Middle English
4. Magna Carta
5. Model Parliament
6. Middle English
7. The Great Famine, the Plague, the Peasant Revolt

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QUESTIONS

1. How did the Norman Conquest influence the early English democracy?
2. What was the feudal system characterized by?
3. How did judicial activity expand in the Middle Ages (House of Plantagenet)?
4. How did early Parliament structures emerge in the 13th century?
5. Discuss the main social crises in the 14th century.
6. How did the War(s) of the Roses influence monarchy in the 15th century?

3. The 16th Century: Reformation. The Elizabethan Age.

England in the 16th century was characterized by significant changes. On the whole, there was
more emphasis on religious division, there were problems at home and abroad, and transoceanic
developments. The population of the country had nearly doubled by mid-16th century, which
brought about a growth in economic demand.
Inflation also grew, rents and food prices grew faster than wages. This brought about a growth
of the number of beggars. The 1495 Parliament Act concerning vagabonds and beggars was
followed by a number of laws regarding the poor: paupers who were not able to find work became
the responsibility of parishes in England, whereas in Scotland paupers had to earn the right to beg
and beggars were required to wear a distinctive blue badge.
The discrepancy between the rich and the poor created a rift in the social order. The rich
displayed their growing wealth, which was visible in clothes, furniture, music instruments. Homes
were no longer built like fortresses – they had large windows and were surrounded by ever more
elaborate gardens.
The gentry tried to adopt a code of aristocratic conduct and developed an interest in
education, which distinguished them from the rest of the community. Caxton had introduced
printing in England in 1474. Books thus ensured the possibility of a more private and individual
culture. Theaters appeared towards the end of the 16th century (The Globe was opened in 1599)
under the patronage of aristocrats.
The coal industry developed in the north mainly to supply London. The role of the market
economy became more consistent and affected areas that had been poor before (Edinburgh in
Scotland). Welsh cattle and sheep were brought to England and Welsh coal was mined and exported.
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3.1. House of Tudor

Under the Tudors, England flourished and was introduced to Renaissance learning. It also
became an important power in European diplomacy. Henry VII (1485-1509) was the first Welshman
to become King of England. The process of administrative assimilation of Wales was begun during
his reign and it was completed during the reign of Henry VIII, from 1536 to 1547.
Henry VIII had an active role in reasserting the monarch’s control over the nobility. The nobility
had been weakened by wars and by internal conflicts so from 1485, in Tudor England there was
a return to royal dominance. The noblemen were often excluded from policy-making.
Consequently, Tudor monarchs controlled Parliament and summoned it only when they wanted
to raise money.
The reign of Henry VIII (1509-47) – King of Ireland from 1540 – was significant for the
Reformation of the Church. The Reformation was a religious and political movement in 16 th century
Europe, inspired by a wish to reform the Roman Catholic Church and resulting in the establishment
of Protestant Churches in several countries.
The first part of Henry VIII’s reign was dominated by his desire for a glorious foreign
policy. He was determined to make England an influential country in Europe and in this sense he
sustained military campaigns that brought the country close to bankruptcy.
Apart from these concerns, Henry VIII also had dynastic concerns. His first wife, Catherine
of Aragon, had given him one daughter, Mary. Henry tried to end his marriage when he fell in love
with Anne Boleyn. As divorce was almost impossible, Henry needed a Papal dispensation. He asked
Pope Clement VIII for an annulment of his marriage, which he was not granted. One of the reasons
for the Pope’s refusal was the fact that, at the time, Catherine’s nephew was Emperor Charles V, the
most powerful ruler in Italy, and he did not want to upset him.
In a dramatic gesture, Henry rejected Papal jurisdiction over the English Church. Until 1533,
the English Church was subject to the papacy. The clergy owed loyalty to the King and to the Pope
in Rome. They also had the right to be tried in Church courts (the right of Appeals to Rome). A
series of statues (the Restraint of Appeals to Rome) ended the papal jurisdiction over the English
Church and also brought papal authority to an end in England. This Act permitted Henry to divorce
Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn.
In 1533 Henry VIII proclaimed England an Empire, governed by ‘one supreme head and
king’. By being declared an Empire, England was proclaimed self-sufficient from a jurisdictional
point of view. Henry established the sovereignty of Law made in Parliament.
In 1534, the term ‘majesty’ was used for the first time in proclamations and documents (it
replaced ‘your grace’ as a form of address to the king). Henry devised the doctrine of royal
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supremacy, and developed the theory that the monarch was not responsible to the people, but to
God alone (the mystique of kingship).
In the same year (1534), the Act of Supremacy established that Henry would be the
‘Supreme Head of the Church’. A dramatic turn took place in religion, a shift that was to change the
political future of the country as well.
There had been no indications that England would become, from a Catholic country, a
Protestant one. In 1517, in Germany, Luther had challenged the Papacy. Not only had Henry (a
devout Catholic) not responded, but he had written a book against Luther. The Pope had rewarded
him with the title Fidei Defensor (Defender of Faith). But later, his break with Rome encouraged
Protestants in England.
Henry VIII moved in the direction of Lutheranism. He changed those aspects of the Church
that he viewed hostile. In 1536 the dissolution of the (extremely wealthy) Catholic monasteries was
set in motion. The properties of the monasteries were transferred to the Crown. Becket’s shrine at
Canterbury was destroyed and pilgrimages were forbidden.
As a result of the royal supremacy, all religious questions became political questions and
any form of dissent became a direct challenge to the Crown. Those who did not accept thee
Reformation were persecuted. The Treason Act of 1534 extended the notion of treason to words, not
just deeds. Religious dissent was identified with the denial of royal supremacy. Thomas More, who
had persecuted Protestants before, resigned as Lord Chancellor in protest at Henry’s divorce and
was executed for treason.
In 1534 an Act was passed in Parliament, establishing that Henry’s marriage to Anne Boleyn
was “undoubted, true, sincere and perfect”, and that their children would succeed to the throne of
England. Mary, Catherine’s daughter, was declared illegitimate. After Elizabeth was born, Anne
Boleyn was beheaded in 1536. Henry married Jane Seymour, who bore him a son, Edward. In 1536
an Act replaced that of 1534, and provided for the succession of Henry’s children with Jane
Seymour. In 1544, a final Act settled the order of succession to the throne of England: Edward I,
Mary I, Elizabeth I.

In England, the general reluctance to accept Protestant religion was counterbalanced by the
unwillingness of most people to overthrow the King, but this political move had weakened the
authority of the Crown. Scotland was determined not to follow the English lead, and, even if Henry
VIII attacked it in 1542, the negotiations failed and Scotland would accept the Reformation much
later.
Wales accepted the Reformation easily, as it was threatened by Spain, the most powerful
Catholic country, and it needed English help. From 1536 to 1543, the Union of Wales with England

34
was consolidated. Wales was assimilated into the English governmental system and the Welsh
people became English subjects, with representatives in Parliament. In 1543, the introduction of
English law and administration contributed to the prosperity of the country, but the replacement of
Welsh with English as the official language had a devastating effect on Welsh culture.
Ireland rejected the Reformation and the Protestant colonists whom the King sent there. This
resulted in a war that lasted for nine years, but in 1540 the Irish Parliament accepted Henry VIII as
King of Ireland.

During the reign of Edward VI (1547-53), Protestantism was consolidated, despite the
general hostility to religious change. Two Acts of Uniformity that were passed during Edward’s
reign established that the moderately Protestant ‘Book of Common Prayer’ should be used in
Anglican service, and that fines should be paid for non-attendance at church.
When Mary I (1553-58) succeeded her brother to the throne of England, there was a
dramatic return to Catholicism. Mary was a fervent Catholic; she also married Philip of Spain (an
unpopular marriage that caused revolts in the country). England was absolved from Schism, and a
synod restored Catholicism. Massive persecution of Protestants (Bishops and about 270 Protestants
were burnt at the stake) earned her the name ‘Bloody Mary’.
In 1558 Elizabeth I became Queen of England and Ireland. Having been declared
illegitimate after her mother’s death, she had been imprisoned in the Tower of London by her half-
sister Mary, who had seen in her an exponent of Protestantism.
Even if she opposed religious extremism, she inherited a country (nation) that was deeply
divided by religious strife. She restored her father’s moderate Anglicanism - in 1559 she
reintroduced Anglican service and in 1563 the 39 Articles formulating the established doctrine of
the Church were issued. She maintained control over the Church and over the bishops, and the Act
of Supremacy that was passed during her reign (the Elizabethan Settlement) defined once again the
sovereign as the Supreme Head of the Church.

Moreover, she made use of her prerogative (the powers and privileges that the law
recognizes as belonging to the sovereign) and claimed that Parliament had no right to initiate
discussion of the religious settlement, her marriage, and the succession to the throne.
She accepted only those aspects of the Protestant doctrine and practice that were consistent
with order, and she made it clear that there would be no further Reformation of the Church. This
brought about the conflict with the Puritans (the radical exponents of Protestantism). She only
offered moderate and cautious help to the Dutch Protestants and the French Hughenots.

35
Her moderate Protestantism had political reasons, as England was threatened by two great
Catholic powers, France and Spain. Philip of Spain attacked the “heretical Queen”, but the powerful
Spanish Armada was defeated by the English in 1588.
Elizabeth I showed great interest in the welfare of her subjects, who called her ‘Gloriana’.
She was prudent in her economic decisions – she often financed Government from her own
revenues and rarely raised taxes. She helped create a national self-confidence that was reflected in
the works of Marlowe, Spenser and Shakespeare.

The basis of Britain’s trading Empire was set in 1600, when the East India Company was
founded to trade there. At the same time, the first English colony in America (Virginia) was
established and some unsuccessful attempts were made to break into Portugal’s trade with West
Africa.

3.2 Linguistic Changes in the 15th and 16th Centuries

The English language in the 16th century underwent dramatic changes, which represented a
new stage in its development – (early) Modern English (1500-1700). As early as the 15 th century,
the emerging literary standard made it possible for the English language to create some kind of
recognizable order out of the chaos of co-existing regional, social and stylistic variations.
The disproportionate growth of London and the growing mobility of the population in
general combined to spread London prestige linguistic forms in waves out to the regional dialects,
after the language of the written documents was affected first. The social varieties also affected one
another increasingly, in the sense that the speech of the educated determined the norms of the
middle class.
It is generally accepted that the beginning of the Early Modern English can be dated back to
1500. Several social factors were brought in support of this theory. One of them was the expansion
of a written standard form and its increasing homogeneity (book printing had begun in England in
1476). Another factor was the beginning of humanism in England (the Oxford reformers – 1485-
1510). Another major contribution was the translation of the Bible into English, as a consequence of
the breakaway of the English Church from Rome in 1533-34.
Both linguistically and culturally, the 15th century had been a transitional period, and many
16th century language features had their beginnings in the preceding century – the reduction of
inflections, the rise of Chancery English as the standard after 1430, the increase in middle-class
readership.

36
Another factor in favor of English was the increase in national feeling, particularly during
the Renaissance and the reign of Elizabeth I. The rise of the modern nation-state in the 15 th and 16th
centuries brought greater interest and pride in the national language. The rise of social groups,
educated and eager to read and learn, increased translations and book printing in English.
In terms of grammar, the speakers of early Modern English often had a choice of terms and
constructions that are not possible nowadays – in verb inflections, personal pronouns, relative
pronouns, negative and interogative sentences (e.g. ‘has’/’hath’, ‘you’/’thou goest/goes’).

3.2.1. The Great Vowel Shift was a change in the quality of all the long vowels, which
became shorter in quality. It began in the 15th century and was completed in the 17th century. In
relation to this, many linguists believe that the causes of early Modern English variation among
long vowels and of the rift between spelling and pronunciation go back to Middle English times.
The social reasons for these innovations are unexplained. According to a hypothesis advanced by
some linguists, the upper classes, highly competent in French in the 15 th century, may have
substituted a more ‘refined’ pronunciation of English. Moreover, the medieval concept of spelling
presupposed a kind of phonetic spelling (scribes in Norman times spelled words as they heard
them). Therefore, in the 16th century, spelling had remained extremely archaic. While pronunciation
had changed a lot, spelling had lagged behind. It is generally believed that, in many ways, modern
spelling in English still represents medieval pronunciation.
Latin was also influential during the Renaissance period, a period that was remarkable for
the rediscovery of the classics. To some extent, Latin remained the linguistic ideal – it was still the
international language of scholarship, the lingua franca that would safeguard a writer’s
international fame. Thomas More, William Camden, Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes
still wrote in Latin, so that, if works in Latin were ignored, the cultural history of England would be
incomplete. In grammar schools, Latin was still used because of the medieval belief in its
superiority. The educational system would adopt the English medium education only in the 17 th
century, when the influence of Puritans, who equated Latin with Roman Catholicism, increased; it
was only the upheaval of Civil War that disrupted the old traditions of the schools.
If, at the beginning of the 16th century, English had still been considered a rather rude,
‘barbarian’ language, by the end of the 16th century, after the Golden Age of the English language,
there was an unparalleled sense of pride in the national language.

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3.3. Education

In the 15th and 16th centuries, English humanists, such as John Colet (who founded St. Paul’s
School) and Sir Thomas More helped to establish a revival of classical learning and liberal studies.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the spread of Calvinist reforms by the Puritans in England and by
the Presbyterians in Scotland led to an emphasis on the study of English, the sciences, modern
languages and sport. Many King’s schools (public schools) appeared in most cathedral cities.
However, for a long time, the state played no role in the school system. There were
exceptions – some monarchs opened schools (Henry VI opened Eton – one of the most exclusive
colleges nowadays, and Edward VI founded some dozen schools still known as King Edward VI
Grammar Schools), but, apart from that, the state was reluctant to intervene in the educational
sphere.

CONCEPTS AND KEYWORDS

1. Henry VIII and the Reformation: Restraint of Appeals to Rome


2. Sovereignty of Law made in Parliament
3. Act of Supremacy
4. Lutheranism and Protestantism; the Elizabethan Church Settlement
5. Union of Wales with England
6. Early Modern English – the Great Vowel Shift

QUESTIONS

1. Define Lutheranism and Protestantism.


2. Discuss the impact of the Reformation on Wales and Ireland, respectively.
3. Mary I and the Counterreformation.

4. The 17th Century: James I. Civil War in England. The Restoration of the Stuarts. The
Glorious Revolution.

4.1. The 17th Century: House of Stuart


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The reign of Tudor monarchs ended with Queen Elizabeth’s death and with the accession of
James I (1603-25) to the throne of England and Ireland. The son of Mary, Queen of Scots, he was
an infant when he succeeded to the Scottish throne as James VI, following his mother’s enforced
abdication in 1567. Mary, Queen of Scots, who was related to Elizabeth, had been executed for
treason, as Queen Elizabeth feared that she might be the focus of Catholic conspiracies against the
authority of the English Crown.
In 1586 he was awarded an English pension, and Elizabeth I promised not to oppose his
claims to the English succession, unless he provoked her with his actions in Scotland. In 1592, as
King of Scotland, he consented to an Act of Parliament establishing Presbytarianism as the official
religion of Scotland, and he subdued the Catholics in the north of the country. [Presbytarianism is
the main branch of the reformed churches, embodying the principles of Calvinism, principles that
had been advanced by the French Protestant theologian of the Reformation. Calvin denied Papal
authority; he considered that the Bible was the sole source of God’s law and that it was man’s duty
to interpret it.]
When he succeeded to the English throne, he promised that he would not alter the
Elizabethan Church Settlement, and he did not accept religious diversity in the country. He believed
that the Anglican Church and the monarchy should be interdependent - his slogan was “no Bishop,
no King”. He was the target of the Gunpowder Plot in 1605, when Guy Fawkes, a Roman-Catholic,
attempted to blow up Parliament.
In 1611 the established version of the Bible was translated into English (King James Bible).

When he became king of England, James I united the crowns of England and Scotland, by
the Act of Union. The two countries still had separate Parliaments, and the formal Union would be
accomplished only in 1707, but all people born in Scotland after his accession to the throne of
England became English citizens.
The Union flag (Union Jack) was devised in 1606, combining the crosses of St. George and St.
Andrew (the cross of St. Patrick was introduced in 1801). [The term ‘jack’ was used to refer to
the flag when it was flown at a vessel’s bow, i.e. used as a ship’s flagstaff].

Realizing that England could no longer support the costs of war, James I made peace with
Spain. He extended his diplomatic efforts to other countries in Europe, as he wanted to be accepted
by both Catholics and Protestants, but his efforts were ruined by the strength of Protestant opinion
in England and by Spain’s reluctance to form a lasting alliance with him.

39
During his reign, English colonies were established in North America. The English also
colonized Bermuda (1613), Barbados and the West Indies (1627). The Mayflower, the ship in which
the Pilgrim Fathers sailed to America, left England (Plymouth) in 1620.

4.2. Civil War and Republican England

Religious and political crises occurred during the reign of Charles I (1625-49). It was a reign
dominated by the King’s struggle with Parliament, which ultimately culminated in Civil War (1642-
49).
Civil War in England had complex causes, but two issues were fundamental: the religious
and the constitutional.
The constitutional dispute centered on the extent of the royal prerogative, and it was
triggered by the King’s exaggerated financial demands and Parliament’s refusal to vote new taxes.
Parliament was influenced by the gentry, who had become more independent of royal patronage,
had expanded economically and had a majority in the House of Commons. Parliament began to
refuse royal requests for money. It forced Charles to sign the Petition of Rights in 1628, which
further restricted the monarch’s powers and was intended to prevent him from raising taxes without
Parliament’s consent. Charles tried to ignore these political developments, until he was obliged to
summon Parliament for finance.
The religious dispute was equally important. The king opposed the attempts of the Puritans
in Parliament to purge the Anglican Church of what they considered to be Roman-Catholic
tendencies, of elements that they regarded as superstitious or lacking in scriptural authority (they
laid emphasis on moral strictness and abstinence from all pleasure).
The civil strife was a direct result of the religious disputes dating back to the Reformation
period: radical reformers of the Church (Puritans) continued to believe that the Church had to purify
itself further from the authority of the bishops and the authoritarianism of the Stuart kings. These
religious reformers were seen as rebels, both by Catholics, and by moderate Protestants.
The political and religious crises reached their climax when the king and his Archbishops
tried to impose their own brand of High Church Uniformity (which met Puritan resistance), and,
when, in Parliament, Charles I raised taxes and reasserted the idea that kings were God’s agents on
Earth (the claim to the monarch’s divine right). (“Kings are not only God’s lieutenants on Earth, but
even by God himself they are called Gods.”) Tension was heightened by the King’s marriage to a
Roman-Catholic.

40
As a result, many moderate Protestants in Parliament united with the radical Puritans against
the Crown.
The people’s reaction was equivocal. Even if there was a tense relationship between
monarch and law, even if people respected Parliament, few in England actually wanted to overthrow
the king. A monarch was thought to be divinely instituted, and if Charles was a bad king, he was to
be punished by God, therefore rebellion and civil war were unconceivable.
Nevertheless, Charles I dissolved his first Parliament in 1625, after it refused to vote him the
revenue that he needed. A second Parliament was also dissolved after it refused to grant money to
the king.
Charles resolved to rule the country without Parliament - he instituted ‘personal rule’ from
1629 to 1640 (the Eleven Years’ Tyranny). A war with Scotland made him summon a ‘Short
Parliament’ in 1640, which he dissolved. In the same year he summoned the ‘Long Parliament’, but
he could not cooperate with it and open conflict arose in 1642, when he tried to arrest five of its
members. [Ever since that year, the monarch has been forbidden to enter the House of Commons. At
present, the monarch knocks on the door of the House of Commons after it has been closed against
her, and she summons the members of the Commons to the State opening of Parliament – the Black
Rod ceremony].

In 1642, the struggle between Parliament and King (Puritans vs. royalists, country vs. court)
culminated in armed conflict. The Puritans identified with the parliamentary opposition to the
monarchy, and they allied themselves with Scottish Presbyterians in order to resist the bishops.
In August 1642 the war began. The king was captured by the Scots in 1646, and he was handed
over to the Parliamentarians. After secret negotiations with the Scots, Charles agreed to establish
a Presbyterian Church in England and they agreed to support him. When his Scottish supporters
were defeated, Charles was taken to London, tried and beheaded in 1649.
The executive body in Interregnum England became the Council of State. In 1653, Oliver
Cromwell became Lord Protector of England (during the Protectorate – 1653-59 – the executive
consisted of the Protector and the Council of State, comprising 22 members elected for life).
England was declared a Republic, the Commonwealth. The House of Lords was abolished
and Parliament consisted only of the House of Commons, which met every three years. The Church
of England was disestablished, and during the Puritan Interegnum there was strict control, even
censorship, of public morality.

The Republican regime was faced with very difficult governments in Scotland and Ireland
and it could not feel safe until they were overthrown. Both Scotland and Ireland were conquered
(the massacre of Drogheda by the parliamentarians under Cromwell contributed to the anglophobic

41
Irish public myth). The conquest of Ireland resulted in a massive transfer of land from the Irish to
the English, particularly the military, who had to be paid for war.
The Commonwealth also led an aggressive policy towards foreign powers (the first Anglo-
Dutch war was fought in 1652-54).
Cromwell disagreed with Parliament, dissolved it and introduced direct military rule. A
second Parliament offered him the title of King, which he refused. His son, Richard Cromwell, who
succeeded him, soon lost control of the army and resigned.

4.3. The Restoration of the Stuarts

Cromwellian military rule was harsh and increasingly unpopular, so that most people
favored the restoration of the monarchy. In the confusion following Richard Cromwell’s downfall,
General Monck dissolved Parliament and invited the king’s son, Charles II, who had lived in exile,
to return to England.
The Convention Parliament voted for the king’s return, in 1660. With the restoration of the
Stuarts, the monarch might again rule by divine right, but he was to rule thanks to Parliament
(parliamentary monarchy).
Whereas Catholic families had been persecuted under Cromwell, Puritans were excluded
from positions of civil and religious authority under Charles II. Unlike the Puritans, who had closed
down theatres and had imposed fines for dancing and drinking, the aristocracy in the Restoration
period enjoyed and indulged in a new freedom (theaters were reopened and allowed women to
perform on the stage, literature flourished). The country enjoyed more prosperity, as the
development of commerce was accompanied by administrative reforms.

The king had to conform to the policies of Parliament, which worked to strengthen
England’s trading and agricultural industries. In addition to the growing power of Parliament
against the monarch, the 17th century also saw the beginning of more organized political parties.
These derived largely from the ideological and religious conflicts of the Civil War. Two groups
became dominant, and this feature was to characterize British two-party politics in the future. In the
political balance of power there was a shift from the king to the two-party system – the Tories,
associated with a conservative, royalist aristocracy, and the Whigs, identified with the growing,
more liberal, commercial class (generally Protestants from the gentry).

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Charles II was succeeded by his brother, James II (1685-88). As he was a Catholic, there
was alarm at his religious convictions (politicians had made three attempts to exclude him from
succession).
After he became king, James II admitted Catholics to the succession to the throne of
England, by the Declaration of Indulgence in 1687. The anxiety for the future of Protestantism in
England was intensified with the birth of a Catholic heir to the throne.
In 1688, several prominent politicians (Whigs and Tories) invited William of Orange (who
was married to the King’s daughter, Mary) to help them overthrow James II. With Dutch military
help, William arrived in England, and succeeded to the throne, after the king fled to France. Since
no force was involved, this event was called The Glorious Revolution (1688-89). It was the last
successful (but bloodless) invasion of England, a coup in which the monarch was replaced by his
daughter, Mary, and by his nephew and son in law, William, who ruled jointly from 1689 to 1702.
The constitutional outcome of the Glorious Revolution was The Bill of Rights (1689), which
William and Mary accepted. The Bill of Rights condemned James II for attempting to subvert
Protestant religion, for his use of money without Parliament’s consent and for maintaining an army
in peacetime.
Apart from that, it imposed few restrictions on the new monarchs’ power and prerogatives. It
confirmed that sovereignty resided in Parliament, and it laid down the principles of parliamentary
supremacy, requesting free elections, frequent parliaments and freedom of speech within
Parliament. It also excluded any Roman-Catholic from the succession to the throne of England.
[After the Glorious Revolution, Parliament met regularly, even if both Houses were dominated by
the landed gentry until the 19th century.]
The Glorious Revolution weakened monarchy – it gave substance to the notion of
parliamentary monarchy, it abolished the monarch’s claim to ‘divine right’, and real power now
rested in the hands of constitutional assemblies.
Even if it was a political crisis, the Glorious Revolution was to play an important role in the
English public myth, to be seen as a triumph of the liberal and tolerant spirit. In 1690, the English
philosopher John Locke (Two Treatises on Civil Government) devised a political theory that was to
influence the thinkers of the Enlightenment. He advanced the concept of a social contract, in which
sovereignty rests with the people; the people undertake reciprocal obligations with a ruler, who may
be removed if he does not respect his contract.

The Glorious Revolution had profound consequences for the pattern of government in the
British Isles. In Ireland, the poverty caused by the pre-industrial economy was accompanied by
dramatic social and political changes. As Catholic Ireland had supported King James II, William’s

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troops occupied Dublin and other towns. Catholics were disfranchised and debarred from all
political, legal and military offices, as well as from Parliament.

CONCEPTS AND KEYWORDS

1. King James Bible (1611)


2. Union with Scotland – Union Jack
3. Civil War in England
4. Commonwealth and the Protectorate
5. The Stuart Restoration – ‘Parliamentary monarchy’
6. The Bill of Rights

QUESTIONS

1. What were the disputes that brought about Civil War?


2. What happened in England during the Puritan Interregnum?
3. What was thee importance of the Glorious Revolution in terms of civil rights in England?
4. What concept did the English philosopher John Locke advance in relation to people and
monarchy shortly after the Glorious Revolution?

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