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rectify the AC line current to provide a Table 1. Performance and Interface Comparisons for Medium-Frequency Melt Furnaces
DC source of energy. This DC is then
Characteristics Current-Fed Inverter Voltage-Fed Inverter
inverted at a frequency to obtain the
desired induction from the furnace Controllability of Melt Poor Excellent
resonant circuit. The two main types of
solid-state power supplies are the current- Efficiency of Melt 70-80% 75-85%
fed power supply (parallel furnace Power-Line Interface Phase-Controlled Rectifier Diode Rectifier
resonant circuit) and the voltage-fed power
supply (series furnace resonant circuit), DC-Energy Storage Inductive, Dynamic Capacitive, Static
both of which are used in medium-
frequency induction melting systems.
These different power supply designs have
different impacts on the furnace
performance, as indicated in Table 1.
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Common Power Quality Table 2. Power Quality Comparisons (Single-Rectifier-Bridge Configuration)
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Table 4. The greater the number of pulses and so on. For example, a 12-pulse IEC standards in flicker prediction,
the greater the expected power factor. rectifier feeding a furnace operating at measurement, and assessment can be a big
Compared to the full-wave rectifier in 123 Hz may have inter-harmonics at 186 help in dealing with light flicker caused by
voltage-fed power supplies, the phase- and 306 Hz, 432 and 552 Hz, and so on. the operation of induction furnaces (see
controlled rectifier in current-fed power These frequencies are not characteristic of “Standards for Assessment of Voltage
supplies uses a delay in turning on the 12-pulse rectifier and are fed back into Fluctuations and Lamp Flicker”).
switches to control power levels and to the power system from the current of the
regulate the DC bus voltage. It should furnace’s resonant circuit. Solutions to Induction
be noted that the power level and power
When inter-harmonics combine with the
Furnace Power Quality
factor in a phase-controlled rectifier drops Problems
fundamental voltage, modulations of the
rapidly with the increase of delay angle.
power system voltage may interact with When an induction furnace is causing
At a delay angle of 30°, the maximum is
other equipment. Light flicker is probably power quality problems, other customers
0.95, at 90° it is less than 0.7, and at 120°
the most common interaction problem. are often involved. Both end user and
it drops to 0.46. Therefore, if the power
Many utilities have dealt with electric arc power provider want to consider all
supply is current-fed, low power factors
furnaces as a large-scale cause of flickering practical solutions. Tools for avoiding
can be expected when the power supply
lights. Induction melting can also cause and resolving typical problems include
reduces power to the furnace.
annoying lamp flicker. However, the measurement and assessment methods,
mechanism is related to voltage application of standards, changes in the
Table 4. Expected Power Factor for
Full-Wave Rectifiers
fluctuations resulting from inter-harmonic furnace or utility power supply, special
currents rather than from arcing currents. operating procedures, and power
Number Power Figure 8 shows the fundamental 60-Hz conditioning. Pre-installation planning
of Pulses Factor voltage with amplitude modulation of and post-installation problem-solving for a
approximately 6 Hz, resulting from a
6 0.955 186 Hz inter-harmonic. This voltage
12 0.988 causes a strong light flicker in most lamps.
24 0.997 The interaction level depends on the
relative size of the furnace, its operating
frequency, and loading. Also, the effect
might be aggravated by resonance in the
Voltage Fluctuations Caused by the
system, which causes amplification of the
Furnace Circuit inter-harmonic frequencies at certain Figure 8. System Voltage Modulated by
In addition to the harmonics that are points in the power system. New IEEE/ 186-Hz Components
normally expected from different pulse
rectifiers large furnaces operating at a few
hundred hertz can generate significant
Inter-Harmonics in Power Systems
non-characteristic harmonics. These
harmonics, which fluctuate with the Inter-harmonic is a relatively new classification of power system distortion. Its effect
frequency of the furnace resonant circuit, on the power system is unique, as are the methods for measuring inter-harmonics and
mitigating its effects. Inter-harmonics can be thought of as voltage or current
are usually not multiples of the supply
components that are not related to fundamental frequency or to integer-harmonic
frequency, making them difficult to filter. components of the system. As furnace power supplies become more sophisticated, the
This phenomenon, known as inter- frequencies of the current they draw are less likely to be limited to harmonics of the
harmonics, can overload power system fundamental.
capacitors, introduce noise into
The equipment that causes inter-harmonics includes induction furnaces, static-frequency
transformers, cause lights to flicker,
converters, cycloconverters, induction motors that drive shakers, and DC arc furnaces.
instigate UPS alarms, and trip adjustable- Generally, any equipment that draws a load current that pulsates asynchronously with
speed drives (see “Inter-Harmonics in the fundamental power system frequency generates inter-harmonics. In the case of
Power Systems”). induction melting, the variable frequency of the furnace is likely to cause inter-
harmonics in the power system. The typical impacts on other equipment are flickering
The typical scenario for the generation
lights or computer screens, tripping of certain power electronic equipment, and heating
of inter-harmonics is a relatively large in the power system similar to the heating caused by harmonic currents.
furnace with a current-fed power supply
operating between 100 and 500 Hz on Standards are still emerging on this subject. IEEE 519-1992 indirectly addresses inter-
a distribution feeder. When the power harmonics in the discussion on cycloconverters. A future IEEE standard is expected to
provide general technical descriptions of the phenomenon, methods of measurement,
supply inverter is operating at frequency
and guidelines for limits.The IEC 61000-2-1 currently defines the inter-harmonic
f0, the frequency reflected back to the environment, and IEC 61000-4-7 describes a measurement technique. Even with these
rectifier is two times f0. This frequency standards, agreement among popular harmonic monitors does not exist. If a monitor
combines with the line frequency (60 Hz), can detect inter-harmonics, the most common result is an under-registration of the
resulting in line currents containing inter-harmonic levels.
harmonics of two times f0 ±60, 4f0 ±60,
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specific foundry case will demand distortion (TDD)
demonstrate options for preventing and individual harmonic
and resolving power quality distortion. In most practical
problems. cases, these individual
harmonic limits are the most
Pre-installation planning usually
restrictive.
starts with an assessment of the
relative size of the end user For example, assuming there
compared to the utility power are no power-factor-
source. Consider the installation of correction capacitor banks at
a 2-MW furnace in a foundry on a the foundry, all the harmonic
12-kV distribution feeder. Concerns currents from the furnace are
are harmonic generation, light likely to flow into the utility
flicker, and interaction with other distribution system. At the
equipment at the foundry. The first point of common coupling
step is to establish a point of (PCC), given a short circuit
common coupling and calculate a ratio of 25.8, the total
short-circuit ratio (SCR) of available Figure 9. Induction Furnace Point of Common Coupling demand distortion limit in
short-circuit power (SSC) divided Showing Relative Size with Power System IEEE 519 is 8%, and the
(Max. DemandAVE =3.1 MVA, SCR = 80/3.1 = 25.8)
by average maximum demand individual single harmonic
power. Figure 9 illustrates this limit will depend on the
calculation for a foundry that has an SCR for both end-user current and power- rectifier type. With this information,
of 25.8 at the point of common coupling supplier voltage. The current limits the following procedure can be used to
with the distribution system. depend on the relative size of the plant determine the maximum furnace size at
or its SCR. Current limits in 519 are the location:
Options to Control Furnace calibrated for the harmonic spectrum of 1. Identify the harmonic spectrum of the
Harmonics and Power Factor a six-pulse-rectifier. These current limits particular furnace to be connected.
IEEE Standard 519 provides will relax if the rectifier is a higher pulse This will depend primarily on the
recommended harmonic distortion limits number. Limits are given for both total furnace rectifier type and the supply
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strength. The furnace manufacturer This method demonstrates that for even when voltage fluctuations are caused
should have a good estimate. For this practical cases, the allowed furnace size by inter-harmonics. By comparing the
example, use the spectrum given in increases as the pulse number of the power flicker levels with the furnace operating
Table 3. supply increases. Figure 10 illustrates the mode, useful correlations may be
2. Determine the IEEE 519 individual IEEE 519 recommended limit for the obtained. When attempting to reduce
harmonic distortion limit that will relative size of the furnace based on flicker levels, the meter will provide quick
apply to this furnace configuration. For individual harmonic levels from Table 3. feedback following changes in the power
a basic six-pulse rectifier, the 5th is the Another rule of thumb sometimes used is system configuration, the furnace
largest individual harmonic, and the that furnaces greater than 2 MW should operation, or the PCC. Measurements
IEEE limit for the 5th is 7%. When be 12-pulse, and furnaces greater than before and after furnace installation are
multi-bridge furnace rectifiers such as 10 MW should be 24-pulse. usually helpful in diagnosing and
12- or 24-pulse are used, the largest correcting flicker problems.
Sometimes the actual furnace harmonics
single harmonic will change from the are higher than predicted because of Several standard assessment methods are
5th to 11th and 23rd. In these cases, insufficient series reactance, unbalance available for use prior to furnace
the limits in IEEE 519 need to be loading, or resonance with other power installation. Use a short-circuit ratio test
multiplied by the square root of the system filters and equipment. When IEEE for initial screening where flicker problems
pulse number and then divided by 6. limits are violated, some form of series- are not expected. This assessment is simply
For example, if the rectifier is 12-pulse, balancing reactor or parallel-tuned filter based on the ratio of the power change,
then the limiting harmonic is the 11th may be required. Consult the furnace ∆S, divided by the available short circuit
and the IEEE limit for an SCR of 25.8 manufacturer to determine if changes to power, SSC, at the PCC. The limits to be
is 3.5% times √12/6 or √2. So the limit the furnace are practical. If harmonic applied for “automatic acceptance” of the
11th is 3.5% x 1.41 = 4.9%. frequencies are changing during furnace fluctuating furnace load also depend on
3. Compare estimated percent distortion operation, an on-site filter may be very frequency of load changes, Cf, as shown in
with the IEEE allowed distortion difficult to apply. In nearly every case, a Table 5. Note that this simple method is
percent for the limiting individual study is needed to select the best solution not effective in cases where either ∆S or Cf
harmonic. The relative size of the for the application. are not predictable. Inter-harmonics
furnace allowed is a simple ratio of the introduced into the power system from the
allowed percent distortion divided by Options to Control Furnace- furnace resonant circuit may be one of
the expected percent. Assuming an Related Light Flicker these unpredictable cases.
ideal square wave, where the 5th is Predicting Flicker Complaints
1/N or 20%, the maximum furnace The first step in assessing furnace-related Table 5. Maximum Permissible Load
size from Table 3 is 0.07/0.2 or 35%. light flicker is to monitor furnace operation Changes (Adapted from IEC 61000-3-7)
In the more practical case, the 5th is and voltage fluctuations simultaneously. Cf (Changes/Minute) ∆S/SSC (%)
expected to be 17.5% and the Flickermeters calibrated for 120-V lamps
maximum furnace size is 0.07/0.175 are available. Measurements can be quite >200 0.1
or 40% of 3.1 MW. effective in predicting flicker complaints,
10 to 200 0.2
<10 0.4
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Table 6. Methods for Predicting Load-Related Flicker Complaints (Pst or Plt)
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