CHAPTER 2

(High Voltage breakdown)

Question 1

(a) Discuss the phenomenon of the air gap breakdown with regards to
Townsend’s breakdown theory.

ANSWER:
The electrical breakdown of a gas is brought about by process of ionization.
Ionization is the process by which an electron is removed from an atom,
leaving the atom with a net positive charge these are gas process involving
the collision of electrons, ions and photons with gas molecules and electrode
processes which take place at or near electrode surface. When a pair of
electrodes is immersed in a gas and a voltage applied across them as shown
in Figure (1)(a), the current-voltage characteristics of Figure (1)(b) is
observed.

At low voltage the observed current is due to collection of free charge

carriers in the gap and as the voltage is increased a level is reach at which
the free electrons gain enough energy to ionize. Electrons produced may
cause further ionization so that an electron avalanche is generated. The
probability of ionization due to the electrons will depend on the number of
collisions made per unit distance with coefficient 𝛼 . 𝛼 is referred as the
primary ionization coefficient which is the number of ionizing collisions per
electron per cm travel. With the primary ionization alone the discharged is
not self-sustaining. If the source of initial electrons I removed, the current
(I) fall to zero. This suggests that processes other than the simple 𝛼 -
process are occurring. The additional current is produced by secondary
emission processes. A secondary ionization coefficient, ɣ is defined as the
number of secondary electrons produced at the cathode per electrons
produced in the gap.
 Figure (1)(a)

Breakdown

Self sustaining discharge

I I = Io exp (αd)

Non - Self sustaining discharge

Io1
T0 T1 T2

V Vs

Figure (1)(b) The Current-Voltage Characteristics

(b) Show that the breakdown criterion in gas according to Paschen’s Law is
given by:
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑔( ) {𝑒𝑥𝑝 [𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 ( )] − 1} = 1
𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑑𝑠
Where,
ds – gap distance at spark over voltage
p – pressure
Vs – spark over voltage
f & g – different functions

ANSWER:
By neglecting the attachment, breakdown criterion,

𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1) = 1 -------- 1
Since (Paschen’s Law),
𝛼 𝐸
= 𝑓( )
𝑝 𝑝
𝐸
𝛾 = 𝑔( )
𝑝

Where f and g signify different functions.

At breakdown,
𝐸
𝛼𝑑𝑠 = 𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 ( 𝑝𝑠 ), where Es = Vs/ds

𝑉
= 𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 (𝑝𝑑𝑠 ) ---- 2
𝑠

And,
𝐸
𝛾 = 𝑔 ( 𝑝𝑠 ), where Es = Vs/ds

𝑉
= 𝑔 (𝑝𝑑𝑠 ) ------ 3
𝑠

Substitute equation (2) and (3) into (1) gives,

 𝑉 𝑉
𝑔 (𝑝𝑑𝑠 ) {𝑒𝑥𝑝 [𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 (𝑝𝑑𝑠 )] − 1} = 1 -----proof
𝑠 𝑠

(c) The followings data are given for two parallel plates while the electric field
stress, E is kept constant.
(i) I = 1.2Io when d = 0.5 cm
(ii) I = 1.6Io when d = 1.3 cm
(iii) I = 2.3Io when d = 2.0 cm

Where Io is the initial current and d is the distance between the plates.
Find the values of the Townsend primary and secondary coefficients, 𝛼 and 𝛾.

ANSWER:
Using equation,
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
For d1 = 0.5 cm,
1.2𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 0.5𝛼1
0.5𝛼1 = ln 1.2
𝛼1 = 0.36/𝑐𝑚
For d2 = 1.3 cm,
1.6 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 1.3𝛼2
1.3𝛼2 = ln 1.6
𝛼2 = 0.36/𝑐𝑚
For d3 = 2.0 cm,
2.3𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 2.0𝛼3
2.0𝛼3 = ln 2.3
𝛼3 = 0.42/𝑐𝑚

𝛼3 = 0.42/𝑐𝑚, this suggests that for this gap 𝛾 starts to be active.

The value of 𝛾 can be found from the equation,

𝐼 exp(𝛼𝑑)
=
𝐼𝑜 1 − 𝛾[exp(𝛼𝑑) − 1]
Then,
exp(2 × 0.36)
2.3 =
1 − 𝛾[exp(2 × 0.36) − 1]
𝜸 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏/𝒄𝒎
Question 2
(a)
(i) Define ‘Self-sustaining discharge’ and ‘Non self-sustaining discharge’.

(ii) Discuss (with suitable diagram) the breakdown criterion in gas

according to Paschen’s Law.

ANSWER:

(i)
Self-sustaining discharge- as the voltage continues to increase, the
discharge will continue to burn between electrodes even when the source is
removed.
Non self-sustaining discharge- the current will go to zero when the source is
removed.

(ii)
According to Paschen’s law:
- If fixed spacing is considered, pressure decreases from the point to the
right of the minimum.
- Density will decrease and an electron makes fewer collisions.
- Each collision results in loss energy, therefore, a lower electric stress
suffices to impact to electrons the kinetic energy.
- If the number of collisions is decreased, breakdown can occur only if the
chance of ionizing is increased and this accounts for the increase in the
voltage to the left of the minimum.
- Paschen’s law valid for temperatures below about 1100O C above that
thermal ionization take place.
- At very low pressures, and at very high pressure the fails.
 Typically the voltage minimum is 300 V and occurs at a product or p.d of 5
torr mm, or at a gap of about 0.06 mm

Figure 2a (ii)

(b) Prove that the breakdown criterion in gas according to Townsend’s equation
is given by:
𝐼𝑂 exp(∝ 𝑑)
𝐼=
1 − 𝛾 (𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1)
Where,
I – average current in the gap
Io – initial current at cathode
∝ – Townsend’s Primary coefficient
𝛾– Townsend’s Secondary coefficient
ds –gap distanceat sparkover voltage
ANSWER:
Let
𝑛𝑜′′ = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝑛𝑜′ = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 ′ 𝑠
𝑛𝑜 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑛𝑜′′ = 𝑛𝑜 + 𝑛𝑜′

The total number of new electrons produced,

𝑛(𝑑) = 𝑛𝑜′′ (exp(𝛼𝑑 − 1))

If 𝛾 electrons are produced at the cathode per ionizing collision in the gap, then,

𝑛𝑜′ = 𝛾𝑛𝑜′′ (exp(𝛼𝑑 − 1))

Thus,
𝑛𝑜′′ = 𝑛𝑜′′ + 𝛾𝑛𝑜′′ (exp(𝛼𝑑 − 1))
𝑛
𝑛𝑜′′ = 𝑜⁄[1 − 𝛾(exp(𝛼𝑑 − 1))]

𝑛𝑜 exp(𝛼𝑑)
∴ 𝑛(𝑑) = 𝑛𝑜′′ (exp(𝛼𝑑)) = ⁄[1 − 𝛾(exp(𝛼𝑑 − 1))]

Substitute n to I, therefore,
𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝐼=
1 − 𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1)

(c) In an experiment to determine the breakdown properties of air, the uniform

field electrode is used. The breakdown process occurs in accordance with
Townsend First and Second ionization coefficients, 𝛾 & 𝛼.
At a distance of 30 mm and pressure 220 mm Hg, the breakdown voltage is
found to be 36.3 KV. Determine the breakdown voltage if the secondary
ionization coefficient is doubled. Data for the ratio of electric field and
pressure, E/p and ratio of first ionization coefficient, 𝛼/𝑝 are given in Table
2 (c).
Table 2 (c)
 E/p 𝛼/𝑝
(V/cm mm Hg) (ion pairs/cm mm Hg)
50 0.0185
55 0.0200

ANSWER:

Given that,
𝑑 = 30𝑚𝑚 = 3𝑐𝑚, 𝜌 = 220𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔, 𝑉𝑠 = 36.3 𝑘𝑉

𝐸⁄ = 55 𝑉 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔, 𝛼⁄ = 0.02
𝑝 𝑐𝑚 𝜌

𝐸⁄ = 50 𝑉 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔, 𝛼⁄ = 0.0185
𝑝 𝑐𝑚 𝜌

From the secondary Townsend breakdown process,

𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝐼=
1 − 𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1)

Breakdown criteria when I --∞

1 − 𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1) = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 ) = 1

𝑉𝑠 36.6 𝑘𝑉 𝑽
𝐸= = = 12.1 = 𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑑 3 𝑐𝑚 𝒄𝒎

So 𝐸⁄ = 12100 = 55 𝑉 𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝑔
𝑝 220 𝑐𝑚

From the table,

𝛼⁄ = 0.02 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜌 = 220 → 𝛼 = 0.02 ∗ 220 = 4.4
𝜌

Therefore with 𝑑 = 3𝑐𝑚, 𝛼𝑑 = 4.4 ∗ 3 = 13.2

Since 𝛾 is now double, therefore from the breakdown criteria
𝛾𝑒 𝛼𝑑 = 2𝛾𝑒 𝛼′𝑑 = 1
𝑒 𝛼𝑑
=2
𝑒 𝛼′𝑑
(𝛼 − 𝛼 ′ )𝑑 = 𝑙𝑛2
(4.4 − 𝛼 ′ )3 = 𝑙𝑛2
0.693
(4.4 − 𝛼 ′ ) = = 0.231
3
(4.4 − 𝛼 ′ ) = 0.231
𝛼 ′ = 4.4 − 0.231 = 4.17

𝛼 ′⁄ = 4.17 = 0.01895
𝜌 220

By interpolation,
(𝑦 − 𝑦1) (𝑦2 − 𝑦1)
=
(𝑥 − 𝑥1) (𝑥2 − 𝑥1)

Where y = 0.01895 , y1 = 0.0185, y2 = 0.020 and x = E/p , x1 = 50, x2 = 55

 (0.01895 − 0.0185) (0.020 − 0.0185)
=
(𝐸/𝑝 − 50) (55 − 50)

(0.00045) (0.0015)
=
(𝐸/𝑝 − 50) (5)

(0.00045)5 = (𝐸/𝑝 − 50)(0.0015)

𝐸
( − 50) = ((0.00045)5)/0.0015
𝑝

𝐸
( − 50) = 1.5
𝑝

Therefore
𝐸
= 50 + 1.5 = 51.5 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝑝

Since p = 220

𝐸 = 51.5 ∗ 220 = 𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟑𝟎 𝑽/𝒄𝒎

Therefore the breakdown voltage is,

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐸𝑑 = 11330 ∗ 3 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟗𝟗𝐤𝐕

Question 3

(a) Insulating oil is a highly-refined mineral oil that is stable at high

temperatures and excellent electrical insulating properties. It is used in oil-
filled transformers and some types of high voltage switches and circuit
breakers. Loss of the insulating properties of the oil will lead to the
insulation failure of the above equipment.
(i) List all the breakdown mechanisms in liquid insulator.
(ii) Briefly discuss 3 purification processes in liquid dielectric .

ANSWER:

(i) List all breakdown mechanism in liquid insulation:

- Liquid globules
- Solid particles
- Stressed oil volume
- Gaseous inclusion

(ii) Purification Process

- Removal of dust - small dust particles can become charged and cause local
stresses which can initiate breakdown. Filtration can remove dust particles
greater in size than 1μm. The strength of the liquid then increases and
greater stability is achieved.
- Removal of dissolved gasses - to control the amount of oxygen and CO2
through degassing and distillation.
- Removal of ionic impurities - ionic impurities in the liquid (ex. water) leads
to abnormal conductivity and heating of the liquid. Water can be removed
by drying agents, vacuum drying and by freezing out in low temperature
distillation.
(b) Townsend breakdown mechanism explains breakdown process in gas based
on the generation of successive secondary avalanches to produce
breakdown. Based on the Townsend breakdown mechanism
(i) Prove that the breakdown criterion is given by:
1 − 𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1) = 0
Where 𝛼 =Townsend 1st ionization coefficient and 𝛾 =Townsend 2nd
ionization coefficient.
(ii) State the condition when the discharges in gas become non-self-
sustaining.

ANSWER:

(i)
If no is the number of electrons emitted by cathode per second, then
number of electrons reaching anode per second is given by:
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 1

Consequently, current inside the tube is:

𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 2

Given n+ is the number of electrons released from cathode per second due
to positive ion bombardment. Then from equation (1) the number of
electrons reaching anode per second, n is:
𝑛 = (𝑛𝑜 + 𝑛+ )𝑒 𝛼𝑑 3

After a while, number of electrons released by the positive ion is given by:
𝑛+ = {𝑛 − (𝑛𝑜 − 𝑛+ )}𝛾 4

Substituting (4) into (3):

𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝑛=
1 − 𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1)
The stage of electrical breakdown in small gap happened when I approach
infinity, i.e
1 − 𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1) = 0
(ii)
Since 𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
Therefore, when Io=0, Id=0, the discharge in gas becomes non-self-sustaining.

(c) Measured of breakdown voltage under a uniform field pressurized gas is

shown in Table (c).

Table (c)
Distance Pressure Temperature Breakdown
(cm) (mbar) (°C) Voltage(kV)
2.3 500 21 35
2.9 800 25 60

Assume that the Paschen curve for 𝜌𝑑 >5mm is represent by

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴(𝑝𝑑) + 𝐵√𝜌𝑑
Where,
Vs = Breakdown voltage
p = Pressure (in mbar)
d = Gap distance
A&B = Constant

(i) Determine A and B.

(ii) Calculate the breakdown voltage for 1.5 cm distance when the 250
mbar pressure is corrected to standard temperature of 25°C.

ANSWER:
(i)
p1 = 500 mBar, t1 = 21oC, d1 = 2.3 cm, Vs1 = 35 kV
Corrected pressure,
500 × 293
𝑝1 = = 498.3 𝑚𝐵𝑎𝑟
294
Then,
 1
𝑉𝑠1 = 𝐴(𝑝1 𝑑1 ) + 𝐵(𝑝1 𝑑1 )2
1
35 = 𝐴(498.3 × 2.3) + 𝐵(498.3 × 2.3)2
35 = 1146 𝐴 + 33.85 𝐵

p2 = 800 mBar, t2 = 25oC, d2 = 2.9 cm, Vs2 = 60 kV

Corrected pressure,
800 × 293
𝑝2 = = 786.6 𝑚𝐵𝑎𝑟
298
Then,
1
𝑉𝑠2 = 𝐴(𝑝2 𝑑2 ) + 𝐵(𝑝2 𝑑2 )2
1
60 = 𝐴(786.6 × 2.9) + 𝐵(786.6 × 2.9)2
60 = 2281 𝐴 + 47.8 𝐵
Using matrix,
2281 47.6 𝐴 60
( )( ) = ( )
1146 33.85 𝐵 35
𝐴 0.0159
( )=( )
𝐵 0.494

(ii)
p2 = 250 mBar, t2 = 25oC, d2 = 1.5 cm, Vs2 = ? kV
Corrected pressure,
250 × 293
𝑝3 = = 245.81 𝑚𝐵𝑎𝑟
298

Then,
1
𝑉𝑠2 = 𝐴(𝑝3 𝑑3 ) + 𝐵(𝑝3 𝑑3 )2
1
= 0.0159(245.8 × 1.5) + 0.494(245.8 × 1.5)2
= 15.39 𝑘𝑉
Question 4

(a) With the aid of diagrams, describe briefly the Townsend mechanism of gas
breakdown starting with the ionization process.

ANSWER:

The electrical breakdown of a gas is brought about by process of ionization.

Ionization is the process by which an electron is removed from an atom,
leaving the atom with a net positive charge. For a small electrode distance
and low gas pressure, voltage difference between electrodes will produce
electric field stress. These are gas processes involving the collision of
electrons, ions and photons with gas molecules and electrode processes
which take place at or near the electrode surface. When a pair of electrodes
is immersed in a gas and a voltage applied across them as shown in Figure
(a)(1) below, the current-voltage characteristics of Figure (a)(2) is observed.
At low voltage the observed current is due to collection of free charge
carriers in the gap and as the voltage is increased a level is reach at which
the free electrons gain enough energy to ionize. Electrons produced may
cause further ionization so that an electron avalanche is generated. The
probability of ionization due to the electrons will depend on the number of
collisions made per unit distance with coefficient 𝛼.
 Figure (a)(1)

Breakdown

Self sustaining discharge

I I = Io exp (αd)

Non - Self sustaining discharge

Io1
T0 T1 T2

V Vs

Figure (a)(2)

(b) Figure (b) shows the sets of data obtained while studying the Townsend
discharge in a gas. Compute the values of the Townsend primary and
secondary coefficients, 𝛼 and 𝛾.
 Figure (b)

ANSWER:

At d = 4 mm, log I/Io = 2, or I/Io = 100

At d = 2 mm, log I/Io = 1, or I/Io = 10
ln 100 = 4.6 and ln 10 = 2.3

𝛼 is the slope of the initial part of the curve.

4.6 − 2.3
𝛼= = 11.5/𝑐𝑚
0.4 − 0.2

𝛾 can be found from the following equation.

𝐼𝑜 exp(𝛼𝑑)
𝐼=
1 − 𝛾[exp(𝛼𝑑) − 1]

At d = 9 mm, log I/Io = 7.5. Thus I/Io = 3.16 x 107

Therefore,
exp(11.5 × 0.9 )
3.16 × 107 =
1 − 𝛾[exp(11.5 × 0.9 ) − 1]
 𝛾 = 3.19 × 10−5 /𝑐𝑚

(c) Breakdown voltage measurement of a uniform-field electrode in air is

shown in Table (c).
Table (c)
Gap spacing Pressure Temperature Breakdown Voltage,
(mm) (mBar) (oC) Vs (kV)
20.3 500 20 31.6
28.8 700 25 53.0

Assuming that the Paschen curve can be represented by the equation, 𝑉𝑠 =

𝐴(𝑝𝑑) + 𝐵(𝑝𝑑)1/2, where p is a pressure in mBar and d is a gap spacing in
cm. Determine the breakdown voltage for a distance 15 mm at a pressure
250 mBar and temperature of 25oC.

ANSWER:

p1 = 500 mBar, t1 = 20oC, d1 = 2.03 cm, Vs1 = 31.6 kV

Corrected pressure,
500 × 293
𝑝1 = = 500 𝑚𝐵𝑎𝑟
293
Then,
1
𝑉𝑠1 = 𝐴(𝑝1 𝑑1 ) + 𝐵(𝑝1 𝑑1 )2
1
31.6 = 𝐴(500 × 2.03) + 𝐵(500 × 2.03)2
31.6 = 1015 𝐴 + 31.86 𝐵

p2 = 700 mBar, t2 = 25oC, d2 = 2.88 cm, Vs2 = 53.0 kV

Corrected pressure,
700 × 293
𝑝2 = = 688.26 𝑚𝐵𝑎𝑟
298
Then,
 1
𝑉𝑠2 = 𝐴(𝑝2 𝑑2 ) + 𝐵(𝑝2 𝑑2 )2
1
53.0 = 𝐴(688.26 × 2.88) + 𝐵(688.26 × 2.88)2
31.6 = 1982.19 𝐴 + 44.52 𝐵
Using matrix,
1982.19 44.52 𝐴 53.0
( )( ) = ( )
1015 31.86 𝐵 31.6
𝐴 0.016
( )=( )
𝐵 0.48

p3 = 250 mBar, t3 = 25oC, d3 = 1.5 cm, Vs3 = ? kV

Corrected pressure,
250𝛼 × 293
𝑝3 = = 245.81 𝑚𝐵𝑎𝑟
298
Then,
1
𝑉𝑠3 = 𝐴(𝑝3 𝑑3 ) + 𝐵(𝑝3 𝑑3 )2
1
= 0.016(245.81 × 1.5) + 0.48(245.81 × 1.5)2
= 15.12 𝑘𝑉

Question 5

(a) Describe briefly, with the aid of suitable diagrams, equations and/or
examples, where appropriate, the avalanche process in the breakdown
phenomenon of gaseous dielectrics.

ANSWER:

The avalanche process is one of the processes which occur in the breakdown of
gaseous dielectrics and is based on the generation of successive ionizing
collisions leading to an avalanche. Suppose a free electron exists (caused
by some external effect such as radio-activity or cosmic radiation) in a gas
where an electric field exists. If the field strength is sufficiently high, then
 it is likely to ionize a gas molecule by simple collision resulting in 2 free
electrons and a positive ion. These 2 electrons will be able to cause further
ionization by collision leading in general to 4 electrons and 3 positive ions.
The process is cumulative, and the number of free electrons will go on
increasing as they continue to move under the action of the electric field.
The swarm of electrons and positive ions produced in this way is called an
electron avalanche. In the space of a few millimeters, it may grow until it
contains many millions of electrons.

Figure (a)

(b) Show that the breakdown criterion in gas according to Paschen’s Law is
given by:
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑔( ) {𝑒𝑥𝑝 [𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 ( )] − 1} = 1
𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑑𝑠
Where,
ds – gap distance at sparkover voltage
p – pressure
Vs – sparkover voltage
f & g – different functions

ANSWER:
By neglecting the attachment, breakdown criterion,
𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1) = 1 -------- 1

Since (Paschen’s Law),

 𝛼 𝐸
= 𝑓( )
𝑝 𝑝
𝐸
𝛾 = 𝑔( )
𝑝
Where f and g signify different functions.

At breakdown,
𝐸
𝛼𝑑𝑠 = 𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 ( 𝑝𝑠 )
𝑉𝑠
= 𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 ( ) ----- 2
𝑝𝑑𝑠

And,
𝐸
𝛾 = 𝑔 ( 𝑝𝑠 )
𝑉
= 𝑔 (𝑝𝑑𝑠 ) ----- 3
𝑠

Substitute equation (2) and (3) into (1) gives,

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑔( ) {𝑒𝑥𝑝 [𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 ( )] − 1} = 1
𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑑𝑠

(c) The followings data are given for two parallel plates while the electric field
stress, E is kept constant.
(i) I = 1.2Io when d = 0.5 cm
(ii) I = 1.6Io when d = 1.3 cm
(iii) I = 2.3Io when d = 2.0 cm
Where Io is the initial current and d is the distance between the plates.
Find the values of the Townsend primary and secondary coefficients, 𝛼 and 𝛾.

ANSWER:
Using equation,
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
For d1 = 0.5 cm,
 1.2𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 0.5𝛼1
0.5𝛼1 = ln 1.2
𝛼1 = 0.36/𝑐𝑚

For d2 = 1.3 cm,

1.6 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 1.3𝛼2
1.3𝛼2 = ln 1.6
𝛼2 = 0.36/𝑐𝑚

For d3 = 2.0 cm,

2.3𝐼𝑜 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 2.0𝛼3
2.0𝛼3 = ln 2.3
𝛼3 = 0.42/𝑐𝑚

𝛼3 = 0.42/𝑐𝑚, this suggests that for this gap 𝛾 starts to be active.

The value of 𝛾 can be found from the equation,

𝐼 exp(𝛼𝑑)
=
𝐼𝑜 1 − 𝛾[exp(𝛼𝑑) − 1]
Then,
exp(2 × 0.36)
2.3 =
1 − 𝛾[exp(2 × 0.36) − 1]
𝛾 = 0.101/𝑐𝑚
Question 6

(a) The build-up of high currents in a breakdown is due to the process of

ionization in which electrons and ions are created from neutral atoms or
molecules. Explain how the ionization process occurs prior to gas
breakdown phenomena.

ANSWER:

When a high voltage is applied between the two electrodes immersed in a

gaseous medium, the gas becomes a conductor and an electrical
breakdown occurs. The process that responsible- for the breakdown of a
gas is called ionization. This process initially liberates an electron from a gas
molecule with the positive ion.
The generations of new electrons are from ionization by collision, photo-
ionization and the secondary ionization process. Under high voltage stress,
a few of the electrons produced at the cathode due to the certain process
will produce positive ions and additional electrons The process repeats itself
and hence increases in the electron current.

(b) Figure (b) shows the experimental set-up for studying the Townsend
discharge. The experiment is conducted by measuring the current I at the
different gap distance, d. Table (b) gives the set of observation obtained
when studying the conduction and breakdown in a gas.
(i) Determine the initial current, 4.
(ii) Calculate the values of the Townsend's primary and secondary
ionization coefficients.
 Table (b)
Gap
distan
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16
ce, d
(mm)
Current, I
19 21 26 32 40 45 80 106 152 255 430
(pA)

Figure (b)
ANSWER:
(i)
Gap
distanc
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16
e, d
(mm)
Current, I
19 21 26 32 40 45 80 106 152 255 430
(pA)
ln I 2.94 3.04 3.26 3.47 3.69 3.81 4.38 4.66 5.02 5.54 6.06
 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
Taking ln on both sides,
ln 𝐼 = ln 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 + ln 𝐼𝑜
ln 𝐼 = 𝑎𝑑 + ln 𝐼𝑜 → 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
Plot graph ln I agains d. From the graph, y-intercept gives,
ln 𝐼𝑜 = 2.7 → 𝐼𝑜 = 14.88 𝑝𝐴

n

5 – 3.5 = 1.5
4

3 12 - 4 = 8

2
2.7 ( Io)
1

d(mm)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

(ii)
Gradient of the graph (c) shows the Townsend’s primary ionization coefficient α.
1.5
𝑎= = 0.188 𝑚𝑚−1
8
Townsend's secondary ionization coefficient, ƴ
𝐼𝑜𝑒 𝑎𝑑
𝐼=
1 − 𝛾(𝑒 𝑎𝑑 − 1)
14.88𝑒 (0.188)(16)
430 =
1 − 𝛾(𝑒 (0.188)(16) − 1)
𝛾 = 0.016 𝑚𝑚−1
Question 7

(a) The buildup of high current in gas breakdown is due to pressure of

ionization in which electrons and ions are created from natural atoms or
molecules. Explain how the ionization process occurs prior to gas
breakdown phenomena.

ANSWER:

When a high voltage is applied between two electrodes immersed in a

gaseous medium, the gas becomes a conductor and an electrical
breakdown occurred. The process that responsible for the breakdown of a
gas is called ionization. This process initially liberates an electron from a
gas molecule with the simultaneous production of a positive ion. The
generations of new electrons are from ionization by collision, photo–
ionization and the secondary ionization process. Under high voltage stress,
a few of electrons produces at the cathode due to the certain process will
produce positive ions additional electrons. The process repeats itself and
hence increased in electron current.

(b) In an experiment using a certain gas, it was found that a steady state
current of 600 µA flowed through the plane electrode separated by a
distance of 0.5 cm when a voltage of 10kv is applied. Determine the
Townsend’s first ionization coefficient if a current of 60 µA flows when
distance of separation is reduced to 0.1 cm and the field is kept constant
at the previous value. If the breakdown occurred when a gap distance was
increased to 0.9 cm, what is the value of Townsend’s secondary ionization
coefficient?
ANSWER:

Since the field is kept constant (in Example, if distance of separation is

reduced, the voltage is also reduced by same ratio so that V/d is kept
constant).
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
Substitute two different sets of values.
600 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 0.5𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 60 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 0.1𝛼
Therefore,
10 = 𝑒 0.4𝛼 1
𝛼 = 5.76 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑐𝑚
The breakdown criterion is given by,
1 − 𝛾(𝑒 𝑎𝑑 − 1) = 0
Therefore the Townsend’s secondary ionization for the breakdown to be
occurred at gap distance 0.9cm is,
1
𝛾=
(𝑒 𝑎𝑑 − 1)
1
𝛾=
(𝑒 (5.76)(0.9) − 1)
𝛾 = 5.64 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚−1

(c) In SF6 gas , the effective ionization coefficient is given by:

𝛼 𝐸
= 27.7 − 2460
𝑝 𝑝
Where α is the effective ionization coefficient in cm-1. E is the electric field
strength in KV/cm and P is the pressure (refereed to 20°c) in bar.
𝑑
Breakdown may be predicted using streamer criterion∫0 𝛼. 𝑑𝑥 = 18, where

d is the length of the electrodes gap in cm. Estimate the length of a

uniform–filed gap that will just hold off a steady voltage of 100kV in SF 6 at
4 bars and 60°C.
ANSWER:

𝛼 𝐸
= 27.7 − 2460
𝑝 𝑝
𝛼 = 27.7𝐸 − 2460𝑝
𝛼𝑑 = 27.7𝐸𝑑 − 2460𝑝𝑑
= 27.7𝑉 − 2460𝑝𝑑

Therefore,
27.7𝑉 − 𝛼𝑑
𝑝𝑑 =
2460
Given,
𝑑
∫ 𝛼. 𝑑𝑥 = 18 → 𝛼𝑑 = 18
0 2

The normalized pressure of 4 bars at 60oC is,

4000 293
𝑝= . = 3.47𝑏𝑎𝑟
1013 273 + 60
Finally,
27.7𝑉 − 𝛼𝑑
𝑑=
2460𝑝
27.7(100) − 18
𝑑=
2460(3.47)
= 0.32𝑐𝑚
Question 8

(a) Show that in the process of gas breakdown, the Townsend First Ionization
Coefficient, ∝ is given by,
1 𝐼𝑡
∝= ln ( )
𝑑 𝐼0
Where d – gap distance, 𝐼𝑡 –total current, 𝐼𝑜 – initial current

ANSWER:

Total number of electrons at anode, n (d) = 𝑛0 exp(𝛼𝑑)

At steady state, average current in gap distance x,

𝐼(𝑥) = 𝐼𝑜 exp(𝛼𝑥) And 𝐼+ (𝑥) = 𝐼𝑜 [exp(∝ 𝑑) − exp(𝛼𝑥)]

Total number of current,

𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼(𝑥) + 𝐼+ (𝑥) = 𝐼𝑜 exp(𝛼𝑑)
𝐼𝑡
= exp ( 𝛼𝑑)
𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑡
𝛼𝑑 = ln ( )
𝐼𝑜
Therefore,
1 𝐼𝑡
∝= ln ( )
𝑑 𝐼𝑜

(b) The followings data in Table (b) are given for two parallel plates while the
electric field, E kept constant.

Ratio of current and Initial

Gap distance, d (cm) 𝐼
Current, 𝐼0

0.5 1.2
1.3 1.6
2.0 2.3
Table (b)
Find the values of ∝ and 𝛾.

ANSWER:

Using equation,
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑒 ∝𝑑
For d = 0.5cm, 1.2𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑒 0.5∝
Or ∝1 𝑑1 = ln 1.2 = 0.182, ∴ 𝛼1 = 0.36/𝑐𝑚

For d = 1.3cm, 1.6𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑒 1.3∝

Or ∝2 𝑑2 = ln 1.6 = 0.47, ∴ 𝛼1 = 0.36/𝑐𝑚

For d = 2cm, 2.3𝐼𝑂 = 𝐼𝑂 𝑒 2∝

Or ∝3 𝑑3 = ln 2.3 = 0.83, ∴ 𝛼1 = 0.42/𝑐𝑚
(This suggest that for this gap 𝛾 starts to be active)

The value of 𝛾 can be found from the equation;

𝐼 exp(∝ 𝑑)
=
𝐼𝑂 1 − 𝛾 (𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1)
exp(2 ∗ 0.36)
2.3 =
1 − 𝛾 (𝑒 0.72 − 1)
2.0544
=
1 − 1.0544 𝛾
Therefore,
𝛾 = 0.101/cm

(c) At a distance of 22.8mm and pressure 200 mmHg, the breakdown voltage
of a uniform field electrode in air is found to be 19.15kV. Determine the
breakdown voltage if the secondary ionization coefficient 𝛾 is doubled. The
values for the ratio of electric field and pressure, E/p and the ratio of first
ionization coefficient and pressure, ∝/𝑝 are given in Table (c).
 E/p ∝/𝑝
(V/cm mm Hg) (ion pairs/cm mmHg)
41 0.0196
42 0.0222
Table (c)

ANSWER:

d = 2.28cm, p = 200 mmHg VS=19.15kV

E/p = 42 V/cmmm Hg, 𝛼/p= 0.0222
E/p = 41 V/cmmm Hg, 𝛼/p= 0.0196

Find 𝑉𝑆 when 𝛾 is doubled?

From secondary Townsend Breakdown Process,
𝐼𝑂 exp(∝ 𝑑)
𝐼= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = 𝑉𝑠 /𝑑
1 − 𝛾 (𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1)

Breakdown criteria: 1 − 𝛾 (𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1) = 0 or 𝛾 (𝑒 𝛼𝑑 ) = 1
E = 𝑉𝑠 ⁄𝑑 = 19.15⁄2.28 = 8.40kV/cm = 8400 V/cm
𝐸 ⁄𝑝 = 8400⁄200 = 42 V/cm mm Hg

From table,
𝛼 ⁄𝑝 = 0.0222 ∴ 𝛼 = 0.0222(200) = 4.44
∴ 𝛼𝑑 = 4.44 × 2.28 = 10.12

From breakdown criteria (𝛾 is doubled, 𝛼 → 𝛼 ′ ),

′
∴ 𝛾𝑒 𝛼𝑑 = 2𝛾𝑒 𝛼 𝑑 = 1
𝑒 𝛼𝑑
′ = 2
𝑒𝛼 𝑑
(𝛼 − 𝛼 ′ )𝑑 = ln 2
ln 2
𝛼 − 𝛼′ =
2.28
∴ 𝛼 ′ = 4.14
 𝛼 ′ 4.14
= = 0.02068
𝑝 200

By interpolation;
0.0225
0.022
0.0215
0.021
0.0205
𝛼/𝑝

0.02
0.0195
0.019
0.0185
0.018
41 E/p 42
E/P

(0.02068 − 0.0196)
E/p = 41 + = 41.42
(0.0222 −0.0196)

∴ 𝐸 = 41.42 (200) = 8284 𝑉/𝑐𝑚

∴ 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = 8284 × 2.28 = 18.89 𝑘𝑉
Question 9

(a) Discuss with suitable diagrams the mechanisms which lead to breakdown in
liquid insulation.

ANSWER:

Suspended Particle Mechanisms

1. Impurities present as fibres or dispersed solid particles
2. Electrostatic force acting on impurities
3. Solid impurities – force directed towards maximum stress
4. Gas impurities – force directed towards areas of lower stress
5. Form a stable chain bridging the gap

Cavitation & Bubble Machanisms

(a) Breakdown strength depends on applied hydrostatic pressure
(b) Formation of vapour bubble responsible for breakdown due to;
a. Gas pockets at electrode surface
b. Electrostatic repulsive forces
c. Gases products by electron collision
d. Vapourization of liquid by corons at sharp points and surface irregularities

Thermal Mechanisms
1. Breakdown under pulse condition
2. High density current pulses give rise to localized heating and formed
bubbles
3. Breakdown occurs due to elongation of bubbles to critical size and bridge
the gap
4. Breakdown strength depends on pressure and liquid molecular structure
Stressed Oil Volume Mechanisms
1. Breakdown strength is determined by largest possible impurity or weak link
2. Breakdown strength is inversely proportional to the stressed oil volume
Breakdown strength influenced by gas content in the oil, viscocity and its
presence of impurities

(b) Show that the breakdown criterion in gas according to Paschen’s Law is
given by:
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑔( ) {𝑒𝑥𝑝 [𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 ( )] − 1} = 1
𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑑𝑠
Where,
ds – gap distance at sparkover voltage
p – pressure
Vs – sparkover voltage
f&g – different functions

ANSWER:

By neglecting the attachment, breakdown criterion,

𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1) = 1 ------- 1

Since (Paschen’s Law),

𝛼 𝐸
= 𝑓( )
𝑝 𝑝
𝐸
𝛾 = 𝑔( )
𝑝
Where f and g signify different functions.

At breakdown,
𝐸
𝛼𝑑𝑠 = 𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 ( 𝑝𝑠 )
𝑉
= 𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 (𝑝𝑑𝑠 ) -------- 2
𝑠
And,
𝐸𝑠
𝛾 = 𝑔( )
𝑝
𝑉
= 𝑔 (𝑝𝑑𝑠 ) ------- 3
𝑠

Substitute equation (2) and (3) into (1) gives,

𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑔( ) {𝑒𝑥𝑝 [𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑓 ( )] − 1} = 1
𝑝𝑑𝑠 𝑝𝑑𝑠

(c) Breakdown voltage measurements of a uniform-field gap in air at 293°𝐾

gave the following results shown in Table (c).

Table (c)
pd E/p at breakdown
(bar-cm) (kV 𝑏𝑎𝑟 −1 𝑐𝑚−1
1.0 30.30
9.0 26.00

Determine the breakdown voltage of a 20mm gap at a pressure of 3 bar

and temperature of 300°𝐾.

ANSWER:
1
𝑉𝑠 = A pd + B (pd)2
1
Ed= A pd + B (pd)2
1
E= A p + B (p/d)2
1
∴ E/p = A + B /(pd)2

From the data given;

1
30.3 = A + B/(1) )2
30.3 = A + B ----------(1)
 1
26.0 = A + B/(9) )2
26.0 = A + 0.33B ----------(2)

From (1) and (2); A = 23.88 and B = 6.42.

For the case of atmospheric air;

1
𝑉𝑠 = 23.88(𝜌𝑙𝑑) + 6.42(𝜌𝑙𝑑)2

𝜌 = 3 bar, t = 300K, d = 2cm, 𝑉𝑠 = ?

Corrected pressure to standard temperature of 20℃

3000(293)
P= = 2.89
1013(300)

1
∴ 𝑉𝑠 = 23.88(2)(2.89) + 6.42(2.89 × 2)2 = 153.46Kv
Question 10

(a) Discuss the process that lead to ion-generation in a gas breakdown.

ANSWER:

Process that lead to ion-generation in a gas breakdown are: I. Ionization by

Electron Impact
II. Photoionization
III. Ionization by Interaction With Metastables
IV. Ionization by Nuclear
V. Thermal Ionization
VI. Ionization by Electron Detachment

Ionization by Electron Impact

Most important process for gas discharge. Kinetic energy exchanged during
collision. Gas atom or molecule becomes excited or ionized by the energy
acquired from the incident atom. Portion of kinetic energy prior to impact
converted to potential energy. Atom or molecule may be ionized by a
subsequent collision with another slow-moving electron.

Photoionization
Results of external radiations, e.g. Cosmic rays, x-rays, nuclear radiations.
Continuous process produces ions & electrons. Capable of penetrating most
conventional walls. Easy to produce spark or to ignite combustible mixture
with free electrons. Insulation of high-voltage systems at high attitudes is
subjected to reduce air density and increase in ionization by cosmic rays.

Thermal Ionization
Molecules of a gas dissociated into atoms when heated. Chief source of
ionization in flames and high pressure arc. Possibilities for thermal ionization
 due to high temperature, velocity & kinetic energy. Photoionization resulting
from thermal emission. Thermal ionization process;
A + Wi  A++e-
Electron Detachment
Electron detached from negative ions in the gas. Requires concentration of
negative ions. E.g. Gas discharge under impulse voltages A- + hµ  A+e-

(b) Prove that the breakdown criterion in gas according to Townsend’s equation
is given by:
𝐼𝑂 exp(∝ 𝑑)
𝐼=
1 − 𝛾 (𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1)
Where,
∝ - Townsend’s Primary coefficient
𝛾 - Townsend’s Secondary coefficient
ds – gap distance at sparkover voltage

ANSWER:

If no is the number of electrons emitted by cathode per second, then

number of electrons reaching anode per second is given by:
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 --------- 1

Consequently, current inside the tube is:

𝐼𝑑 = 𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑 ---------- 2

Given n+ is the number of electrons released from cathode per second due
to positive ion bombardment. Then from equation (1) the number of
electrons reaching anode per second, n is:
𝑛 = (𝑛𝑜 + 𝑛+ )𝑒 𝛼𝑑 ---------- 3
After a while, number of electrons released by the positive ion is given by:
𝑛+ = {𝑛 − (𝑛𝑜 − 𝑛+ )}𝛾 --------- 4

Substituting (4) into (3):

𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝑛=
1 − 𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1)
Therefore,
𝐼𝑜 𝑒 𝛼𝑑
𝐼=
1 − 𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1)

(c) In the experiment to determine the breakdown properties of air, the

uniform field electrode is used. The breakdown process occurs in
accordance with Townsend First and Second Ionization coefficients, 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾.
At a distance of 22.8 mm and pressure 200 mm Hg, the breakdown voltage
is found to be 19.5 KV. Determine the breakdown voltage if the secondary
ionization coefficient γ is doubled. Data’s for the ratio of electric field and
pressure, E/p and ratio of first ionization coefficient, α/p are given in Table
(c).

Table (c)
E/𝑝 𝛼/𝑝
( V/cm mm Hg) ( ion pairs/cm mm Hg)
41 0.0196
42 0.0222

ANSWER:

d = 2.28cm, p = 200 mmHg VS=19.15kV

E/p = 42 V/cm mm Hg, 𝛼/p= 0.0222
E/p = 41 V/cm mm Hg, 𝛼/p= 0.0196

Find 𝑉𝑆 when 𝛾 is doubled?

From secondary Townsend Breakdown Process,
𝐼𝑂 exp(∝ 𝑑)
𝐼= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = 𝑉𝑠 /𝑑
1 − 𝛾 (𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1)
Breakdown criteria: 1 − 𝛾 (𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1) = 0 or 𝛾 (𝑒 𝛼𝑑 ) = 1
E = 𝑉𝑠 ⁄𝑑 = 19.15⁄2.28 = 8.40kV/cm = 8400 V/cm
𝐸 ⁄𝑝 = 8400⁄200 = 42 V/cm mm Hg

From table,
𝛼⁄𝑝 = 0.0222 ∴ 𝛼 = 0.0222(200) = 4.44
∴ 𝛼𝑑 = 4.44 × 2.28 = 10.12

From breakdown criteria (𝛾 is doubled, 𝛼 → 𝛼 ′ ),

′𝑑
∴ 𝛾𝑒 𝛼𝑑 = 2𝛾𝑒 𝛼 =1
𝑒 𝛼𝑑
′ = 2
𝑒𝛼 𝑑
(𝛼 − 𝛼 ′ )𝑑 = ln 2
ln 2
𝛼 − 𝛼′ =
2.28
∴ 𝛼 ′ = 4.14
𝛼 ′ 4.14
= = 0.02068
𝑝 200

By interpolation;

0.0225
0.022
0.0215
0.021
0.0205
𝛼/𝑝

0.02
0.0195
0.019
0.0185
0.018
41 E/p 42
E/P
 (0.02068 − 0.0196)
E/p = 41 + = 41.42
(0.0222 −0.0196)

∴ 𝐸 = 41.42 (200) = 8284 𝑉/𝑐𝑚

∴ 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = 8284 × 2.28 = 18.89 𝑘𝑉
Question 11

(a) In an experiment to determine the breakdown voltage in SF6 gas, a non-

uniform field electrode is used. At 1 cm gap distance and pressure of 700
torr, the breakdown voltage is found to be 35 kV. Determine the breakdown
voltage if the gap distance is doubled and the Second Townsend Coefficient
𝛾 is halved at a pressure of 1500 torr. The first Townsend’s Coefficient, 𝛼 is
given by the equation,
−1
𝛼 𝐸
[−250( ) ]
= 6.50𝑒 𝑝 𝑐𝑚−1 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 −1
𝑝
Where,
E – electric field strength in V cm-1
p – pressure in torr

ANSWER:

d=1 cm, p=700 torr, Vb/d=35 kV

E/p = Vs/pd = (35x103)/(700x1) = 50 V cm-1 torr-1

𝛼 −1
= 6.50𝑒 [−250(50) ] = 6.50𝑒 −5.00
𝑝

Breakdown criterion,
𝛾(𝑒 𝛼𝑑 − 1) = 1
𝛼
𝛼𝑑 = ( ) (𝑝𝑑)
𝑝
= (6.50𝑒 −5.00 )(700)
= 30.66
and,
𝛾(𝑒 30.66 − 1) = 1
𝛾 = 4.83 × 10−14
At p=1500 torr, d2=2d1=2 cm, 𝛾2 = 0.5𝛾
 pd=1500x2=3000 torr
0.5 𝛾=0.5(4.83x10-14)=2.42x10-14

From breakdown criteria,

1 1
𝑒 𝛼𝑑 = = = 4.13 × 1013
𝛾 2.42 × 10−14
Then,
𝛼𝑑 = ln(4.13 × 1013 ) = 31.35
𝛼 𝛼𝑑 31.35
= = = 0.0105
𝑝 𝑝𝑑 3000
From the equation,
−1
𝛼 𝐸
[−250( ) ]
= 6.50𝑒 𝑝
𝑝
𝐸 −1
[−250( ) ]
0.0105 = 6.50𝑒 𝑝

𝐸
= 38.88 𝑉𝑐𝑚−1 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 −1
𝑝
But,
𝐸 𝑉𝑠
=
𝑝 𝑝𝑑
Therefore,
𝐸
𝑉𝑠 = ( ) (𝑝𝑑)
𝑝
= 38.88 × 3000
= 116.64 𝑘𝑉