COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
Assembly modelling - interferences of positions and
orientation - tolerance analysis - mass property calculations -
mechanism simulation and interference checking
Assembly modelling
 An assembly modeling (assembly) is a collection of
independent parts.
 In an assembly, the important is to understand the nature
and the structure of dependencies between parts. Because
it can be able to model the assembly properly.
 In order to determine, for example, whether a part can be
moved and which other parts will move with it.
 The assembly model must include
 the spatial positions
 hierarchical relationships among the parts,
 the assembly relationships between parts.
 Assembly modeling raises two modeling issues
1. Hierarchy
2. Mating
 These two issues distinguish assembly modeling from part
modeling.
 Figure shows how an assembly model can be created using
a CAD system.
 Designers first create the individual parts. They can also
analyze the parts separately. Once the parts design is
complete, designers can proceed to create the assembly
and analyze it.
 Creating the assembly from its parts requires specifying
the spatial and mating relationships between the parts.
 Assembly analysis may include interference checking,
ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI
UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
mass properties, kinematic and dynamic analysis, and
finite element analysis.
 CAD systems establish a link between an assembly and its
individual parts such that designers need only change
individual parts for design modification, and the system
updates the assembly model automatically.
Assembly Modeling Approaches
The following three approaches used in assembly
modeling.
1. Bottom-Up approach
2. Top-Down approach
3. Combination of both
1. Bottom-Up approach
Bottom-up approach is a logical, traditional and most
common approach. The individual parts are created
independently inserted into the assembly and located and
oriented (using the mating conditions) as required by the
design. The first part inserted is known as base and it is
fixed. The important features of this approach are as follows.
Page | 1
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
 It allows the designer to use part drawings that already
exist (off the shelf)
 It provides the designer with more control over individual
parts
 The mMultiple copies (instances) of parts can be inserted
into the assembly
 Any changes in the original part are reflected on all
instances in the assembly.
2. Top-Down approach
In this approach, the assembly file is created first with
an assembly layout sketch. The parts are made in the
assembly file or the concept drawing of parts are inserted
and finalized in the assembly file. In other words, the filial
geometry of the parts has not been defmed before bringing
them into the assembly file. The important features of this
approach are as follows.
 It lends itself well to the conceptual design phase.
 The approach is ideal for large assemblies consisting of
thousands of parts.
 The approach is used to deal with large designs including
multiple design teams.
Hierarchy
 Individual parts and subassemblies must be assembled in
°
the right hierarchy (sequence), which is captured (stored)
in an assembly tree for each assembly or product.
 The assembly tree may not be unique, as there may be
more than one sequence to create the same assembly.
ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI
UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
Mating
 Mating conditions are used to determine the mating
(spatial relationships and orientations) between the
assembly parts.
 For example, the axes of a shaft and a hole may have to be
lined up, in which case a concentric mating condition
is required.
 Two faces may have to be planar, in which case a planar
(coplanar) condition is used.
Mating Conditions
 Individual parts of an assembly are usually created
separately using a CAD/CAM system and then merged
(assembled) together, using a merge or insert command, to
form the assembly.
 Each part has its own database with its own MCS.
Typically, the user selects one of the parts as a base part
(host) and merges the other parts into it.
 Alternatively, the user can begin with a blank part as the
base part (host).
 The MCS of the host becomes the global coordinate
system, that is, the MCS of the assembly. A part MCS
becomes a local coordinate system for this part.
 The final correct position of each part in the assembly is
obtained by locating and orienting its MCS properly with
respect to the global coordinate system of the assembly.
 Figure shows an example. The XYZ is the global
coordinate system of the database of the assembly model.
Its origin is the (0, 0, 0) point.
 The X1Y1Z1, X2Y2Z2, X3Y3Z3 and X4Y4Z4 are local
coordinate systems of four parts that make the assembly.
Page | 2
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
 Their origins O1, O2, O3, and O4 are located properly
relative to the assembly origin 0, and their orientations
relative to the XYZ coordinate system reflect the proper
orientations of the parts in their assembly.
 Mating conditions specify the spatial relationships
among the parts.
 It can be provided interactively with ease because they
use simple geometric entities such as faces and
centerlines.
 The most common mating conditions are
1. Coincident mating condition,
2. Concentric mating condition,
3. Tangent mating condition,
4. coplanar mating condition
 Some CAD systems may use these names, different
names, and/or additional mating conditions. CAD users
should consult with their respective systems.
ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI
UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
1. Coincident mating condition
 The coincident mating condition is applied between two
planar faces, or between a planar face and a cylindrical
face (shaft).
 This condition is illustrated in Figure. Part1 and Part2
have the MCSs X1Y1Z1 and X2Y2Z2, respectively. The
hatched faces are the faces to be mated.
 The planar faces of Part1 and Part2 are specified by the
unit normal n1, n2 and by the point P1, P2 with respect to
corresponding MCSs.
 The coincident condition is satisfied by forcing n1 and
n2 to be opposite each other, and the two faces touch
each other such that P1 and P2 are coincident.
2. Concentric mating condition
 The concentric mating condition holds between two
cylindrical faces: a shaft cylindrical face and a hole
cylindrical face, as shown in Figure.
 The concentric mating condition is achieved by forcing the
Page | 3
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

shaft and hole axes to be collinear. 4. coplanar mating condition

 The coplanar mating condition holds between two
planar faces when they lie in the same plane. This
condition is illustrated in Figure.

3. Tangent mating condition

 The tangent mating condition is applicable between two
planar/cylindrical or cylindrical/cylindrical faces.
 Figure shows the tangent mating between cylindrical and
planar faces.

 It is similar -to the coincident condition except that the

points P1 and P2 are chosen to lie on the two edges to
mate.
 The coplanar condition is the complement (opposite) of
the coindent condition and is satisfied by forcing the two
normals n1 and n2 to be in the same direction

Inference of Position and Orientation

 The inference of the position (location) and orientation
 The tangent mating condition is achieved by forcing a
of a part in an assembly from mating conditions requires
cylindrical face to be tangent to a planar (flat) face.
computing its 4 x 4 homogeneous transformation matrix
 The difference between the tangent and coincident
from these conditions.
mating conditions is that the former uses at least one
 This matrix relates the part's local coordinate system
cylindrical face, while the latter uses two planar (flat)
(part MCS) to the assembly's global coordinate system
faces
(assembly MCS).

ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI Page | 4

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

 The transformation matrix can be written as

 This matrix has 12 variables (nine rotational and three

translation elements) that must be determined from the
mating conditions.
 For an assembly of N parts, and choosing one of them as a
host, N-1 transformation matrices have to be computed.
 Therefore, the variables to solve for simultaneously are the
12(N-1) elements of these matrices.

WCS Method
 The simplest method for specifying the location and
orientation of each part in an assembly is to provide the
4x4 homogeneous transformation matrix directly.
 This method provides us with a good understanding of the
basics. The matrix transforms the coordinates of the
geometric entities of the part from its MCS to the
assembly MCS.

ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI Page | 5

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

Tolerance Analysis Limits of size:

 Tolerance is defined as an allowance for a specific  Limits of size are the maximum and minimum
variation in the size and geometry of part. permissible sizes of the part.
 The tolerancing of machine parts is a necessary design  Maximum limit is the maximum permissible size of the
function due to the variability of all manufacturing part.
methods.  Minimum limit is the minimum permissible size of the
 Tolerance is the difference between maximum limit part.
and minimum limit.
Maximum material condition:
Unilateral & Bilateral tolerance:  Maximum material condition refers to the condition
 When tolerance is specified on one side of the basic of dimensions when there will be maximum material
size (either positive or negative), it is called unilateral left in the part.
tolerance.  For a shaft, it corresponds to the maximum size and
 If tolerance is specified on both the sides, it is called for a hole, this is the minimum hole size.
bilateral tolerance.

Deviation:
Tolerance Zone:  Deviation is the algebraic difference between a size
 The region between the maximum and minimum limit and corresponding basic size.
size is called tolerance zone.  Upper deviation is the algebraic difference between
Basic size: the maximum limit and the basic size.
 Basic (or) nominal size is the standard size for the part  Lower deviation is the algebraic difference between
and it is same both for hole and shaft. the minimum limit and the basic size.
Actual size:  Actual deviation is the algebraic difference between
 Actual size is the dimension which is measured actually the actual size and its corresponding basic size.
on a part.

ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI Page | 6

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

Zero line:  Main use of these fits IS to ensure a proper location of

 Zero line is a straight line to which the deviations are mating parts which are often disassembled.
referred. It is a tine of zero deviation and it represents the
basic size.
 Positive and negative deviations are shown above and
below the zero line.
Fits and Types of fits:
 The degree of tightness or looseness between mating parts
is known as 'fit'. There are three types of fits as follows

Clearance fits:
 In clearance fits, the shaft is always smaller than the hole.
Geometric Tolerances
 A positive allowance exists between the largest possible
shaft and the lowest possible hole, i.e. at the maximum
material condition.
 In this type of fit, the tolerance zone of shaft is always
below the hole

Interference fits:
 In interference fit, the shaft is always larger than hole.
 The tolerance zone of the shaft is entirely above that of the
hole. Types of interference fits are as follows.
(i) Shrink fit
(ii) Heavy drive fit
(iii) Light drive fit.
 Interference fits are used in fixed permanent joints.

Transition fits:
 Transition fits are midway between clearance and
interference fits.

ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI Page | 7

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI Page | 8

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
Mass property calculation
 Mass property calculation was one of the first engineering
applications to be implemented in CAD/CAM systems.
 This is perhaps due to the strong dependence of these
calculations on the geometry and topology of objects.
 These calculations typically involve masses, centroids
(centers of gravity), and inertial properties (moments of
inertia).
 They form the basis for the study and analysis of both
rigid and deformable body mechanics (statics and
dynamics).
 For various objects, one can create their geometric models
first, and then use them to calculate their mass properties,
which can later be used for analysis.
 Mass property algorithms that utilize these methods are
fully automatic and require no additional input except
mass attributes, such as the density of the model.
Geometric Properties
 Develop the equations needed to calculate geometric
properties, specifically length, area, surface area, and
volume.
 These properties form the basis for mass property
calculations which are formulated as single, double, and
triple integrals, respectively.
Mass Properties
 The mass properties of an object are a set of useful
properties used in various engineering applications.
ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI
UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
 These properties include mass, centroid, first moments,
and second moments of inertia.
 The main difference between mass and geometric
properties is the inclusion of the density of the object
material in the former.
 Formally, an object can have a centroid (of its volume), a
center of mass (of its mass), and a center of gravity (of its
weight) that may differ from each other if the acceleration
of gravity g and/or the density  of the object material is
not constant.
 In mass property calculation, we assume that g and  are
constants.
 Therefore the three centers (of volume, of mass, and of
weight) coincide and equal the centroid (of the volume) of
the object.
 This assumption implies that objects of interest are
homogeneous and are always close to the surface of the
earth.
Mass
 Mass is the amount of matter contained in an object. It
depends on its volume (V) and density () of the material
of the object.
 Here, the mass of an object is calculated initially by
considering a small element and it is then expanded to
whole object.
 If a small element of the object has got volume (dV) and
density (), the small mass (dm) is the product of density
and volume. i.e.,
Page | 9
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
Integrating the above equation over the distributed mass of the
object,
Assuming the density p as uniform due to homogeneous
material, the above equation can be rewritten as
where dx, dy and dz are the length, width, and depth of the
small element considered as shown in Figure
Centroid or Center of Gravity
 The centroid can be thought of as the location on an
object.
 The centroid of area for a symmetrical object such as a
square or circle is located at the centre of the object.
 However, it is not necessarily the case for more complex
objects. Centre of gravity is defined by its centriod.
ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI
UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
 It is defined as the centre where the total mass of the body
can be assumed to be concentrated. A point is termed as
centre of gravity if the locator of a vector rc is such that
Substituting the value of dm and m from mass formulation in
the above equation
If the density and volume are uniformly distributed, then the
centre of volume and centre of gravity are coincident
First Moment of Inertia
 The first moment of inertia is defined as the moment of
area, volume or mass with respect to a given plane.
 It is the moment about a line or edge.
Page | 10
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

 In general, these planes or axes are the standard three  It is defined by the following equations.
planes (XY, XZ, and YZ) or axis (X, Y, and Z).
 For a lumped mass, the first moment of the mass about a
given plane is equal to the product of the mass and its
perpendicular distance from the plane.
 The first moments of a distributed mass of an object along
these planes are given by
Mechanism Simulation
 A mechanism is a mechanical device which transfers
motion and/or force from a source to an output.
 A mechanism consists of links (bodies). The links are
connected by joints or connections such as a revolute joint.

Second Moment of Inertia and Products of Inertia

 The second moment of inertia about a given axis is equal
to the product of the mass and the square of the
perpendicular distance between the mass and the axis.
 It is defined by the following equations

 In general, there are two types of problems to be solved

 It represents the resistance of the object to any rotation
about the axis.
 Similar to the second moment of inertia, the product of
inertia is also used in mass property calculations.
mechanism analysis and design:
1. Kinematic
2. Dynamic
 Kinematics is the study of motion without regard for
forces which cause the motion.
 Dynamics is the study of motion in response to externally
applied loads. The dynamic behaviour of a mechanism is
governed by Newton's laws of motion.

ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI Page | 11

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
Before getting into the discussion, a few basic terminologies
are mentioned .
 An assembly may be thought of as a set of risistant
bodies connected by joints
 A risistant body can be a single part or a subassembly,
these are called links.
 An assembly of links and joints creates a kinematic
chain. The links in the kinematic chain are
interconnected in a way to provide a desired output
motion in response to an input motion.
 A mechanism is a kinematic chain in which at least
one link has been fixed to the frame or structure.
Kinematic Modeling of Mechanisms
 This approach is to position the mating part with respect to
the base part. In such a way that the given mating
constraints are satisfied.
 It is also capable of regenerating the assembly model after
a design change is made. However, this method requires
that an assembly does not contain any under-constrained
states.
 Thus, it requires that the mating part be positioned
with respect to the base part whose position is previously
determined.
Two issues that are commonly encountered in product design
involving assemblies:
1. When a design change takes place, the location and
orientation of the individual parts are to be
determined.
 The transformation matrices can be calculated
for individual parts in the assembly.
ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI
UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
2. If the assembly is under-constrained (when a part in
the assembly is moved), parts in the assembly must be
repositioned according to how the parts are
assembled.
The topic deals with
 How to extract the kinematic information from the
mating constraints,
 Construct kinematic model and
 Carry out kinematic analysis
Mapping Mating Constraints to Kinematic Joints
 Joint constraints express certain restrictions on the way,
the components can be assembled and also on the way
they move relative to one another.
 Each of the joint constraints is related to the rigid motion
of a mating part and it has the degree of freedoms (DOFs)
associated with it.
 Using the mating geometric features and independent
principal vectors(IPVs), it is possible to determine the
DOFs for a pair of mating parts.
Number of IPVs Rotational DOF
0 R3
1 R1
2 or more R0
For a bearing and crank example shown in Figure, two
mating constraints are imposed.
 Concentric between the hole of the bearing and the
cylindrical surface of the lower shaft of the crank, and
 A coincident-mate between the two opposite faces of
the two components.
Page | 12
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

 The mapping between mating constraints and kinematic

joints is provided in the Table.
No. of
Joint DOF IMGs Mating constraints
IPVs
Two coincident-mates,
two coincident-aligned,
These two mating constraints form two principal vectors, coincident-mate and
Prismatic T1R0 2 Line coincident-aligned, or
therefore, one rotational DOF. coincident-mate (or align)
and concentric
 Using the intersection mating geometry (IMG) of Coincident-mate and
mating components, it is possible to compute the Revolute T0R1 1 Point concentric or coincident
aligned and concentric
translational DOF as shown in Table. Coincident-mate or
Planar T2R1 1 Plane coincident-aligned
Intersection mating Translational Cylindrical T1R1 1 Line Concentric
geometry (IMG) DOF
Spherical T0R3 0 Point Point coincident
Plane T2
Line T1
Point T0

For example, IMG illustrated in Figure, shows a prismatic

joint applying two coincident-aligned constraints.

(2).Revolute Joint

(1). Line IMG of Prismatic Joint

 Counting the number of IPVs and types of intersections of
the IMG, it is possible to determine the DOFs for a pair of
(3).Planner Joint
mating parts.

ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI Page | 13

COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
(4).Cylindrical Joint
(5).Spherical Joint
Denavit-Hartenberg (D-H) Representation
 After converting mating constraints to kinematic joints,
the next step is to mathematically construct a kinematic
model.
 It is commonly assumed that all joints have only a single
DOF. This assumption does not involve any real loss of
generality because joints with multiple DOFs.
 With this assumption, the action of each joint can be
described by a single real number. (i.e., the angle of
rotation in the case of a revolute joint or the displacement
in the case of a prismatic joint)
 The objective of the kinematic analysis is to determine
the cumulative effects of the entire set of joint variables.
 An open-loop mechanism with n joints has n + 1 links as
shown in Figure in which each joint connects two links.
ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI
UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
 The joints are numbered from 1 to n and the links are
numbered from 0 to n, starting from the ground link 0.
Open looped mechanism
 By this convention, joint i connects link i-1 to link i. The
location of joint i is considered as fixed with respect to
link i-1.
 For example, the joint 2 is fixed to Link 1 in Figure. When
the joint i is actuated, link i moves. Again, link 0 (the first
link) is fixed and does not move when the joints are
actuated.
 In general, link n is not connected back to the base link 0
which is called open-loop.
 In a closed-loop mechanism, in which link n connects
back to any link between 0 and n- 2.
 To construct a kinematic model, a coordinate system is
rigidly attached to each link at the joint.
 In particular, Xi-Yi-Zi to link i with an origin Oi at joint
i+1. This coordinate system is called Ci, defined by its
origin Oi with three axes Xi-Yi-Zi.
 It means that whatever the motion on the joint imposes,
the location of each point on link i is constant when
expressed in ith coordinate frame.
Page | 14
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
 Furthermore, when joint i is actuated, link i and its
attached frame Ci experience a resulting motion.
 The frame C0 which is attached to the ground link is
referred as the inertial frame. On of link n (or end link) in
which the axes Xn-Yn-Zn of the coordinate system Cn are
attached is usually located at a point of interest in design.
 The transformation matrix can be express the location
and orientation of individual links.
 For example, matrix Tii-1 defines the location and
orientation of link i with respect to link i-1or
relating coordinate system of Ci with respect to Ci-1.
Interference Checking
 Interference checking is the process of checking if any
parts of an assembly to get each other or not.
 Designers and manufacturers should check jointly that a
provided product can be assembled, without interference
between parts, before the product to be manufactured.
 The assembly planners apply feature-mating or
interference free techniques to find assembly part
interference interaction.
 In both feature-mating and interference-free
techniques focused upon the basic geometrical data
and restriction for the designed product.
For complete automation of the procedure of creating
professional assembly plan the following tasks to be
performed:
ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI
UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS
 Geometrical information for CAD models should
be automatically taken from CAD files,
 It is analyzed for interference relationships between
components in the assembly, and
 It is designed for utilized the assembly analysis
tools.
 Most of the assembly sequence planners do not have
the potencial to complete the three tasks.
 They need users to manually input part attributes or
interference data, which is so time- consuming.
Determining Interference Relationships between Parts
 In automated assembly schemes, most parts are
assembled along with the principal axis.
 Hence, to find interference between parts while
assembly, the projected technique referred six assembly
directions along with the principal assembly axis: +x, -
x, -t-y, -y, +z, and -z.
 The projected system uses projection of part coordinates
onto planes in three principal axis (x, y ,z) to find the
obstruction between parts sliding along some of the
six assembly directions.
 Vertex coordinates for overlapped projections are
evaluated to find if real collisions would happen between
parts.
 The planned process stores the determined interference
data for allocated assembly direction in a group of
interference free matrices, for compatibility with previous
planners of assembly.
 The swept volume interference and the multiple
interference detection systems are appropriate for three-
Page | 15
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN UNIT 4 – ASSEMBLY OF PARTS

dimensional interference determination between B-REP

entities.
 But, both techniques were developed for real-time
interference detection between two moving parts in a
simulation environment.
 As a result, these two techniques are expensive in
computationally.
 An efficient computational technique is required for
finding if two parts will collide, when they are assembled
in a specified order along anyone of the six principle
assembly axis.

Interference-free Matrix
 An interference-free matrix shows interference between
two components, when one component is moved, in a
given assembly direction, into an assembled location,
with another component already in an assembled
location.
 Assembly actions that result in interferences are denoted
as '0' in the matrix, and assembly actions that do not
result in interferences are denoted as '1' in the matrix.
 The interference-free matrix of an assembly having three
parts, for assembly movement sliding from infinity of
negative toward infinity of positive along the +x direction
is as follows:

ANJALAI AMMAL MAHALINGAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, KOVILVENNI Page | 16