Thermophysics and Aeromechanics, 2009, Vol. 16, No.

Exergy analysis of ramjet

A.F. Latypov

Khristianovich Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics SB RAS,

Novosibirsk, Russia

E-mail: latypov@itam.nsc.ru

(Received December 4, 2008)

An exergy analysis of possible regimes of energy supply to the air flow in the ramjet duct is carried out.
A condition for the supply of a given heat amount to supersonic flow and a condition of the passage across the
sound velocity are obtained for a duct with variable cross-sectional area. An analysis of the flow in a model
ramjet duct at a pulsed-periodic energy supply is carried out. For a clear demonstration of possible schemes of
heat supply in such a duct, a diagram in the temperature-exergy coordinates is proposed. A duct configuration in
which the heat supply to supersonic flow is realized with regard for the limitation of the gas static tempera-
ture is proposed.

Key words: exergy, diagram, ramjet, heat supply condition, pulsed-periodic energy supply.

INTRODUCTION

The exergy is a thermodynamic function determining the maximum of a specific

work, which can be done by the gas [1]. For a gas flow, the exergy determines the
maximum velocity of exhaustion into the ambient medium. Therefore, the use of this
function is advisable for the analysis of the thermodynamic cycle of aviation engines and
for the computation of their characteristics.
The methods used for computation of characteristics of the ramjets necessitate the
specification of some set of determining quantities depending on the gas-dynamic and
geometric parameters (see, for example, [2, 3]). These methods are little applicable at a
functional modelling when there is no constructive scheme of the modelled object. It
appears that the exergy method is the most suitable tool because it is based on the esti-
mation of the losses of the gas performance in the engine elements due to the irreversi-
bility of the processes independently of their nature [4−7]. The entropy increment in
some element of the engine may be specified on the basis of the estimate for the upper
and sample values. To obtain the upper estimate it is necessary to know the conditions
under satisfaction of which it is possible to supply a given amount of energy to the flow.
It is also required to know the maximum allowed value of the energy dissipation. If one
constructs some basic process then one can calculate on its basis the sample estimate.
The working value of the entropy increment in the element is specified as a weighted
sum of these estimates (it can be specified also in the presence of only the upper esti-
mate). Their functional dependences on the input and external conditions give the
grounds for the hypothesis on a weak dependence of the weight coefficients on the

© A.F. Latypov, 2009

303
regime of the engine work. The exergy method enables the minimization of the number
of determining parameters and the construction of the hierarchical structure of mathe-
matical models for the computation of their values.
There are no trustworthy experimental results pointing to the preservation of super-
sonic flow in the duct at a fuel combustion with the equivalent coefficient of air excess
α ≅ 1, including the case of the limitation of the static temperature of combustion prod-
ucts. This condition is important at hypersonic flight Mach numbers and is related to the
limitation of the dissociation of combustion products because the dissociation reduces
the gas flow exergy. It is necessary to determine the conditions under which it would be
possible to organize the heat supply with regard to the above factors.

∗
THE EXERGY OF A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

Let the amount m1 of some substance with parameters p1 , T1 enter a thermody-

namic system per unit time, and let the same amount escape from it with parameters
p2 , T2 (p is the pressure, T is the temperature). The compositions of the entering and
escaping substances may be different. The external medium parameters are p∞ , T∞ . The
heat amount Q is supplied to the system, and the system does the work A. Denote by h
the enthalpy, by S the entropy, hi = h ( pi , Ti ) , Si = S ( pi , Ti ) , i = 1, 2,
hi∞ = hi ( p∞ , T∞ ) , Si∞ = Si ( p∞ , T∞ ) . By the definition, the specific exergy of the enter-
ing substance is equal to

( ) (
e2 ( p2 , T2 ) = h2 − h2∞ − T∞ S2 − S2∞ . ) (1)

Using the energy conservation law

h2 = h1 + Q − A
expression (1) takes the form
e2 ( p2 , T2 ) = e1 ( p1 , T1 ) + Q − A − T∞ ΔS − δ e,
( ) ( )
(2)
ΔS = S2 − S1 , δ e = h2∞ − h1∞ − T∞ S2∞ − S1∞ .

The entropy increment ΔS is due to the irreversible processes in the system and
may be computed at a specification of their physical models. The exergy defect δ e is
related to the difference in the compositions of the input and output substances. For the
working gases in a ramjet, this quantity is negligibly small.

ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY FLOW

Consider a one-dimensional steady flow in a duct with variable cross-

sectional area F ( x ) under a heat supply as well as in the presence of the energy
dissipation processes. The values of flow parameters (the Mach number M ∞ , the pressure
p∞ , and the temperature T∞ ) are given in the inlet section F0 . We will consider the
flows only with a supersonic velocity in the inlet section because we are interested in the
conditions for the formation of flows in the ramjet duct. We also specify the function
Q ( x ) determining the heat amount supplied between the inlet section F0 and the
section F ( x ) , and the force per unit mass of the substance j ( x ) corresponding to
the energy dissipation process.

∗
This small but important section was presented in the work [8]. It is repeated here for the presentation
integrity.

304
 ENTROPY MAXIMUM

Let a variation of the Mach number M be realized in some section F ( x )

because of the variation of the energy dissipation processes occurring before the
identified cross section. The total enthalpy of the gas and its flow rate are conserved. Let
us find the entropy variation. It follows from the equation

δT
+
(γ − 1) M 2 δ M = 0,
T 1 + 0.5 ( γ − 1) M 2 M
δp δT δM
− 0.5 + = 0,
p T M
δS γ δT δp
δS = = −
R γ −1 T p

(γ is the adiabatic exponent, R is the gas constant, c p is the specific heat under constant
pressure) that
1 − M2 δM
δS = . (3)
1 + 0.5 ( γ − 1) M 2 M

The entropy reaches its maximum value at the Mach number M = 1.

CONDITIONS FOR A PASSAGE ACROSS THE SOUND VELOCITY

Let us write the conservation laws for the elementary volume dx:

T′ V ′ Q′ ( x )
+ ( γ − 1) M 2 = ,
T V cP T
p′ T ′ V ′ F ′( x)
− + =− , (4)
p T V F ( x)
p′ V′ H ′( x)
+ γ M2 =− ,
p V RT

where V is the flow velocity, H ( x ) is the energy dissipation function, H ′ ( x ) = j ( x ) ,

the prime denotes the differentiation with respect to x. The determinant of this system of
equations is

0 1 (γ − 1) M 2
Δ0 = 1 −1 1 = 1 − M2 ,
1 0 γ M2

and it vanishes at M = 1. For a possibility of a continuous solution prolongation at point

x = x* , at which M ( x* ) = 1, it is necessary that the determinant obtained by
substituting the column vector of the right-hand side of equations into the determinant
Δ0 be also equal to zero. The resulting condition has the form (the third column is
replaced)

Q′ ( x* ) H ′ ( x* ) F ′ ( x* )
+ − = 0. (5)
cP T RT F ( x* )

305
 SUPPLIED HEAT AMOUNT

Let us determine the conditions under satisfaction of which it is possible to supply

to the flow a given amount of heat Q between the inlet section F0 and section F ( x ) .
We also denote by ρ the density and by a∞ the freestream sound velocity. The
subscripts of the parameters: ∞ refers to the ambient medium and the free stream,
0 refers to stagnation, ∗∞ refers to the flow in critical section computed for M ∞ at
Q = 0.
The relative quantities:

p = p p∞ , ρ = ρ ρ∞ , T = T T∞ ,

ΔS = ΔS R, Q = Q a∞2 ,

F = F F0 , f = F F∗∞ .

Using the relative quantities and the equation of state p = ρ T , let us write the
equations of energy, continuity, and entropy increment:

⎛ γ −1 2 ⎞
T0∞ + ( γ − 1) Q = T ⎜ 1 + M ⎟,
⎝ 2 ⎠
pMf F∗ ∞
= 1, (6)
T M∞
γ

(
p = T γ −1 exp −ΔS . )
The first and second equations imply at the value Q = 0:
1 γ +1
F∗∞ −
2
= T∗ ∞2 γ − 2 , T∗ ∞ = T0∞ . (7)
M∞ γ +1

Let us substitute the quantities into (6) from the first and third equations into the second
one and use (7). We obtain:
1 γ +1
(1 + θ ) 2 γ −1 ( )
f φ ( M ) = exp ΔS , θ = ( γ − 1)
Q
T0∞
,

1 γ +1 (8)
−
⎛ 2 + ( γ − 1) M 2 ⎞ 2 γ −1
φ (M) = M ⎜ ⎟ .
⎜ γ +1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

In equation (8), the function φ ( M ) has the maximum value at the Mach number M = 1,
and it is equal to φ (1) = 1 because the relative variation of the function φ ( M ) , as can
easily be verified, is also determined by expression (3). But the higher the value of
function φ ( M ) , the higher the admissible value of the entropy increment at a given
amount of the supplied heat. Setting M = 1 we obtain the maximum admissible entropy
increment at a supply of the heat amount Q ( x ) between the inlet section F0 and the
section F ( x )

306
 1 γ +1
ΔSmax = ln (1 + θ ) + ln f . (9)
2 γ −1
The following cases are possible:
1) ΔS = ΔS max . The steady flow is unique, the Mach number in section M = 1;
2) ΔS < ΔS max . Two steady solutions are possible. Depending on the flow
prehistory, a flow realizes with a subsonic or supersonic velocity;
3) ΔS > ΔS max . There is no steady solution. But such a flow restructuring is
possible that the first case realizes. The reduction of the integral entropy increment for a
given value of θ can be reached by increasing the mean temperature of the heat supply,
that is by a heat supply completely or partially to the subsonic flow. A normal shock
arises. Its location is determined by the condition ΔS ( xs ) = ΔS max (θ , f ) , where xs is
the shock coordinate because condition (5) must also be satisfied for the realization of
the supersonic flow velocity in the duct outlet section. For the diverging duct, the value
ΔS ( xs ) is presumably minimum because under the variation of xs , two opposite
factors act. With increasing xs , the entropy increment increases in the shock (the Mach
number is higher ahead of the shock), but the entropy increment decreases at a heat
supply (the mean temperature is higher at a heat supply). With decreasing xs , the effect
of the factors is opposite.

EXERGY VARIATION

The exergy value in section F ( x ) is equal according to (2) to

e = e∞ + Q − T∞ ΔS .

(
In terms of the relative quantities, the expression for the exergy has the form e = e a∞2 )
T0∞ ΔS
e = e∞ + θ− .
γ −1 γ
Differentiating the function e with respect to θ, we obtain

∂e 1 ⎛ γ +1 1 ⎞
= ⎜ T0∞ − ⎟ > 0.
∂θ γ − 1 ⎝ 2γ 1 + θ ⎠

The exergy increases at a heat supply provided that ΔS = ΔS max .

QUASI-ONE-DIMENSIONAL UNSTEADY FLOW

In this section, we present the results of numerical modelling of the unsteady flow
in a duct modelling the ramjet element consisting of the intervals with constant and
diverging sections. The duct configuration is shown in Fig. 1 ( x1 , x2 , x3 , β are the
varied parameters). In the classical scheme, the energy is supplied to the combustion
chamber at the expense of fuel combustion in some polytropic process. In the given case,
the energy is supplied to the gas flow in a pulsed-periodic regime. Elimination of mixing
processes from the consideration enabled us to determine the direct influence of the
supplied energy parameters (the power, the frequency of pulses, the distribution of
sources along the duct length) on flow characteristics. The Mach number of the flow in
the duct inlet section was varied in the range of values M 0 = 2.4 − 4.0. The
corresponding flight Mach number M ∞ = 6 − 12.

307
 Fig. 1. Duct configuration.
xc = 0.8 is the cylindrical part length, x3 is the total
duct length, x1 ÷ x2 is the energy supply zone, β is
the duct opening angle.

The maximum power of the energy released at the hydrogen combustion in air
q [ J/kg ] is accepted as the measure of the power of the supplied energy. The energy
during the time period Δt is supplied to the duct uniformly along the x axis in the
given range

Q′ ( x ) = k
(
γM 0 q a02 ) Δt, x ∈ [ x1 , x2 ] ,
( x2 − x1 )
where k ≤ 1 is the specified parameter. The parameters of the flows were computed on
the basis of the unsteady quasi-one-dimensional Euler equations. The relative
temperature increase at a single energy supply at a constant volume is equal to

η ( x) =
ΔT ( x )
= γ (γ − 1)
( )
k q a02 u ( x )
, Sh =
Δx
,
T* ( x ) ShT* ( x ) u0 Δt

where u ( x ) = u ( x ) / u0 , T* ( x ) = T* ( x ) T0 are the distributions of the gas velocity and

temperature in the zone [ x1 , x2 ] , Sh is the Strouhal number. At Sh >> 1 the gas was
heated up in small portions (η ( x ) << 1) , the pressure pulses are also small, respectively.
Otherwise at the formation of the shocks generated by large pressure pulses, additional
exergy losses will occur in shocks. The computations were done here at the Strouhal
number Sh ≈ 200. At a pulsed-periodic energy supply to the initial supersonic flow, a
periodic flow regime with small amplitudes of the oscillations of flow parameters sets in
after the transitional process termination because Sh >> 1. Some computational results
are presented below.
At the value of energy supplied to the flow (the initial value of the Mach number
M 0 = 2.4 ) in a narrow zone in the duct cylindrical part, which corresponds to the value
k = 0.3, the supersonic flow is preserved everywhere. The pressure and temperature
increase in the energy supply zone (Fig. 2, curves 1). A similar flow character is
observed at the supply of the same energy in a wide region of the duct diverging part
(curves 2) and is preserved up to the value k = 0.39. At the value k = 0.4 , condition (9)
is violated, and a shock forms in the duct cylindrical part. Behind this shock, the flow is
subsonic (curves 3). The shock performs oscillatory small-amplitude motions with the
frequency equal to the energy supply frequency. A steady flow with the shock lying in
the duct cylindrical part cannot be realized because of its instability.
Two facts typical of steady flows are to be noted. At the energy supply in
supersonic flow the gas pressure increases, and in subsonic flow it decreases. The flow
structure in variant 3 is similar to the flow structure at a steady detonation, only the sizes
of characteristic zones are different.
Curves 4 (see Fig. 2) correspond to the flow in the duct with a large opening angle
(β = 45°), whose peculiarity is the presence of a shock inside the energy supply zone.
The flow velocity is subsonic behind this shock, the Mach number M = 1 at the zone end.
This variant is presented to show that such flows are possible. The opening angle of the
ramjet combustion chamber is small. At a small opening angle (β = 2°), such a flow does
not realize.

308
Fig. 2. Distributions of the Mach number (а),
pressure (b), and temperature (c) along
the duct length.
М0 = 2.4, x3 = 2, k = 0.3 (1, 2), 0.4 (3), 0.5 (4),
x1 = 0.50 (1), 1.0 (2−4), x2 = 0.52 (1), 1.4 (2−4),
β = 2° (1−3), 45° (4).

Figure 3 shows the computational

results at a supply of the energy being
maximum in the chosen measure k = 1 .
In this case, a shock also forms, but this
occurs in the duct diverging part. The
energy is supplied to subsonic flow. The
Mach number in a small vicinity of the
right boundary of the energy supply zone
is also equal to unity. The flow further
has a supersonic velocity.
Figure 4 shows the distributions of
parameters along the duct length for the
Mach number value at the duct inlet
M 0 = 3 and for the values k = 0.75
(curve 1), k = 0.80 (curve 2). At k =
= 0.75 the flow velocity is supersonic
everywhere. At k = 0.80, the energy is

supplied to subsonic flow. The shock lies

in the duct cylindrical part. Figure 4, c
shows the influence of the Strouhal
number reduction (Sh = 4) on the distri-
bution of flow parameters (only the
dependence T(x) is presented, curve 1′),
the dependences M(x), p(x), and ρ(x) are
similar. Since the supplied energy is the
same, then at a single effect, the
temperature increment is much higher
in this case. Therefore, considerable
oscillations of flow parameters are
observed.

Fig. 3. Distribution of the Mach number (а),

pressure (b), and temperature (с) over the duct
length.
М0 = 2.4, k = 1, β = 6°, x3 = 10, x1 = 5.0, x2 = 5.4.

309
Fig. 4. Distribution of the Mach number (а),
Fig. 5. Distribution of the Mach number (а),
pressure (b), and temperature (c) over the duct
pressure (b), and temperature (c) over the duct
length. length at an energy supply within a narrow
М0 = 3.0, β = 2°, x3 = 2, x1 = 1.0, x2 = 1.6, zone.
k = 0.75 (1, 1′), 0.80 (2), Sh = 200 (1, 2), 4 (1′).
М0 = 3, k = 1.0, β = 2°, x3 = 10, x1 = 5.00, x2 = 5.04.

An increase in the duct length ( x3 = 10 ) and in the opening angle (β = 6°) enables
the supply of a larger energy amount (k = 0,85) under the preservation of the flow
supersonic velocity. The distribution of parameters M, p, T along the duct length is
qualitatively the same as in variant 1, to which curves 1 correspond in Fig. 4. At the supply
of the maximum energy (k = 1) in a narrow zone in the duct of the length x3 = 10 and
the opening angle β = 2°, a flow with a subsonic interval forms. The shock lies in the
duct diverging part (Fig. 5).
At the supply of the maximum energy to the flow with the initial Mach number
M 0 = 3.6, 4.0 , the supersonic flow velocity is preserved everywhere (Fig. 6).
Relations (5) and (9) determine the structure of forming periodic flows at high
Strouhal numbers. In the present paper, H ′ ( x ) = 0 behind the shock, and since
F ′ ( x ) > 0 in the diverging part, the section F ( x* ) always lies inside the energy supply
zone (as a rule, x* = x2 − ε , ε ~ 0). The flow behind it may be both supersonic and
subsonic and depends on the flow prehistory. It follows from expressions (4) and (5) that

310
 M′ Δ − 0,5ΔT
= lim V ,
M M →1 Δ0
(10)
⎡ 4 ( γ − 1) ⎤
2 − γ Q′ ⎢ ⎥.
M′ = 1± 1+
4 c pT ⎢
⎣ ( 2 − γ ) ⎦
2 ⎥

The plus sign corresponds to supersonic flow, and the minus sign corresponds to
subsonic flow. A supersonic flow realizes here.

T, e DIAGRAM

The T0 , e diagram (Fig. 7) presents possible schemes of the heat supply process in
the ramjet combustion chamber ( T0 , e are the total temperature and the exergy
normalized by the stagnation temperature T0∞ and the freestream exergy e∞ ,
respectively). The isobars of the full pressure p0 = p0 p0∞ and the isotherms of static
temperature T = T T0∞ are determined by the differential relations
−1
∂T0 ⎛ τ ⎞
= (1 − τ ∞ ) ⎜ 1 − ∞ ⎟ ,
∂e p0 ⎝ T0 ⎠
−1
∂T0 ⎛ τ ⎞ T
= (1 − τ ∞ ) ⎜1 − ∞ ⎟ , τ ∞ = ∞ .
∂e T ⎝ T ⎠ T0∞
The process s1 corresponds to supersonic flow, and d corresponds to subsonic
flow. In these variants, the temperature at the end of heat supply is below Tmax . They
correspond to relatively low flight Mach numbers M ∞ = 3 − 7. It is assumed that the
Mach number equals unity at the end of the heat supply because in this case, the maxi-
mum entropy increment is allowed at a given amount of the supplied energy. Variant d
illustrates the pseudo-shock regime of the energy supply. In this variant, the mean tem-
perature of the heat supply is higher than in variant s1. Therefore, reaching a higher ex-
ergy value is possible for the same amount of the supplied energy. This effect is due to
the fact that the flow deceleration in the pseudo-shock regime occurs in the system of
oblique shocks and in a weak closing normal shock. And the line d in the diagram shifts
to the left from line s1. The duct cross-sectional area in variant s1 is higher than in variant
d, at the Mach number M = 1 in the section.
The presented results of numerical modelling show that high values of gas tem-
perature are observed for hypersonic flight velocities even when the supersonic flow
velocity is ensured in the energy supply zone. At the flight Mach numbers M ∞ ≥ 8 it is
necessary to control the maximum value of the gas temperature Tmax . As was noted
above, this condition is related to the limitation of the dissociation of combustion prod-
ucts. The distribution of energy supply along the duct length must be done with regard
for this limitation. Variant s2 illustrates this case. Upon reaching the maximum allowed
static temperature the heat supply occurs at T = const. To satisfy the condition T ≤ Tmax
it is necessary to change the duct configuration so that the energy is supplied in several
separate zones (sections) separated by diverging sections, and the supersonic flow veloc-
ity must be preserved everywhere. A possible configuration of the duct is shown in Fig.
8. The diverging duct configuration must be determined from the condition of an at-
tached flow at the maximum admissible value of the opening angle to reduce the total

311
 Fig. 6. Distributions of the Mach number (а) and temperature (b) along the duct length.
k = 1.0, β = 2°, x3 = 2, x1 = 1.0, x2 = 1.6, М0 = 3.6 (1), 4.0 (2).

duct length. In the first approximation, the distribution of the amount of supplied energy
over the sections may be determined from steady equations, which are convenient to
write in the differential form (the equations of energy, continuity, and entropy incre-
ment)

⎛ γ −1 2 ⎞ T ′ M′ Q′ ( x )
⎜1 + M ⎟ + ( γ − 1) M 2 = ,
⎝ 2 ⎠T M cP T

p′ T ′ M′ F ′( x)
− 0.5 + =− ,
p T M F ( x)

S′ γ T ′ p′ Q′ ( x ) + H ′ ( x )
= − = .
R γ −1 T p RT

The prime denotes the differentiation with respect to x. The values of gas parame-
ters in the initial duct section are specified. The integration is carried out until the condi-
tion T ( x ) = Tmax will be satisfied or the entire specified energy will be supplied. Under
the satisfaction of condition T ( x ) = Tmax there occurs an isentropic expansion and a
passage to the next section of the energy supply. The degree of the divergence of the
sections without the energy supply is either specified or determined from the specified

Fig. 7. T, e diagram.

312
Fig. 8. Possible configuration of the duct in the
case of energy supply in several local zones.

temperature or specified Mach number at

the end of the diverging section.
The line v = const, v is the gas vol-
ume, illustrates the energy supply regime
at a constant volume. The highest exergy value is then ensured.

CONCLUSIONS

The expression was obtained for the exergy flux in a thermodynamic system.
For a duct with variable cross-sectional area, the condition for the supply of a
given energy amount to supersonic flow and the condition for the passage across the
sound velocity were obtained.
An analysis of the flow in a model ramjet duct was carried out at a pulsed-periodic
energy supply. It was obtained that at high values of the Strouhal number, a periodic
flow regime with small amplitudes of the oscillations of parameters sets in. The structure
of flows is determined by the relation between the entropy of the process and its maxi-
mum admissible value. Such an energy supply ensures the maximum exergy value. At
the fuel injection into the flow the exergy will reduce because of the entropy increment
both at the mixing of flows and because of the energy supply at a lower temperature in
some polytropic process.
The T, e diagram was proposed for a clear presentation of possible schemes of heat
supply in the ramjet duct.
A duct configuration, in which the heat supply to supersonic flow is realized with
regard for the limitation of the gas static temperature, was proposed.

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