Comprehensive Psychiatry

O f f i c i a l J o u r n a l of t h e A m e r i c a n P s y c h o p a t h o l o g i c a l Association
V O L . 3, N O . 4 AUGUST, 1962

T h e C o n c e p t i o n o f M a n in N a t u r a l S c i e n c e
and Daseinsanalysis
BIj ~IEDAI/D 13OSS, I~I.D.

HE SCIENCES f r o n a w h i c h t h e m o s t t h o r o u g h - g o i n g e l u c i d a t i o n of t h e
T n a t u r e o f m a n is e x p e c t e d a r e m e d i c i n e , b i o l o g y a n d p h y s i o l o g y . H a v e
t h e s e s c i e n c e s , h o w e v e r , b e e n c a p a b l e of a t t e n d i n g f u n d a m e n t a l l y a n d in a
s u f f i c i e n t l y a p p r o p r i a t e w a y to t h e i r p r o p e r b u s i n e s s , w h i c h is to f u r n i s h us
with the intellectual equipment for a genuine understanding of man? Obvious-
ly n o t , f o r o t h e r w i s e t h e k n o w l e d g e a m a s s e d b y t h e m w o u l d n o t o n l y h a v e
e n a b l e d us to w o r k in e v e r m o r e s u b t l e w a y s w i t h t h e h u m a n b o d y a n d t h e
h u m a n m i n d , a n d to g e t e v e r m o r e e f f i c i e n t p e r f o r m a n c e o u t o f t h e m , b u t
w o u l d h a v e a l s o a s s i s t e d us in u n d e r s t a n d i n g man's states of health and of
illness as s u c h , a n d t h a t in a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s e n s e . H o w e v e r , a n e v e r i n c r e a s -
i n g n u m b e r o f s c i e n t i s t s h a v e to a d m i t t h a t t h e m o d e r n p h y s i c i a n , w i t h all t h e
e t i o l o g i c a l a n d t h e r a p e u t i c k n o w l e d g e a b s o r b e d f r o m his m e d i c a l t r a i n i n g a n d
f r o m t h e o r d i n a r y t e x t b o o k s , p r o c e e d s w i t h s o m e d e g r e e o f r e a l a s s u r a n c e in
o n l y a b a r e t h i r d o f his p a t i e n t s . D u r i n g t h e r e s t of h i s . t i m e h e h a s to c o p e w i t h
sick p e o p l e w h o s e c o m p l a i n t s he u n d e r s t a n d s o n l y v e r y i n a d e q u a t e l y . But has
not psychology,~ila the meantime, established itself more and more vigorously
a n d v i c t o r i o u s l y as a t h i r d s c i e n t i f i c s o u r c e of f i m d a m e n t a l k n o w l e d g e a b o u t
m a n ' s e x i s t e n c e ? H a s n o t this s c i e n c e , in d o i n g so, b e e n a b l e to c o m e to t h e
r e s c u e of b i o l o g y a n d p h y s i o l o g y w h e r e t h e y f a i l e d ? C e r t a i n l y n o t , if n o less
a f i g u r e t h a n S i g m u n d F r e u d h i m s e l f c o n f e s s e d in all c a n d o r t h a t h e w a s n o t
a b l e to c o m p r e h e n d "even t h e s i m p l e s t h y s t e r i c a l b o d i l y s y m p t o m . T h e s t a t e -
m e n t h e a c t u a l l y m a k e s in his w r i t i n g s is t h a t h y s t e r i c a l " c o n v e r s i o n " w i t h its
l e a p , as it w e r e , its a b r u p t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f p s y c h i c e n e r g y i n t o b o d i l y s y m p -
t o m s , r e m a i n s a p e r m a n e n t e n i g m a to h i m . ~
Why, however, hav6 the traditional and fundamental sciences dealing with
m a n , b i o l o g y , t h e s c i e n c e of life; p h y s i o l o g y , t h e s c i e n c e of m a n ' s p h y s i c a l
n a t u r e ; p s y c h o l o g y , t h e s c i e n c e of t h e h u m a n m i n d ; a n d m e d i c i n e , t h e s c i e n c e
o f h e a l i n g , b e e n So m a n i f e s t l y i n c a p a b l e of o p e n i n g o u r v i s i o n to t h e d e g r e e
n e c e s s a r y f o r a n a d e q u a t e g r a s p of t h e p r o b l e m s b o u n d u p w i t h h u m a n exis-
t e n c e in g e n e r a l a n d its i l l n e s s e s in p a r t i c u l a r ? Is t h e r e a s o n f o r this, o n e m i g h t
s u p p o s e , t h a t all t h e s e s c i e n c e s r e s t on i n t e ! l e c t u a l p r e m i s e s w h i c h a r e as in-
a d e q u a t e as t h e y a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t l y m e d i t a t e d u p o n b y t h e s c i e n t i s t s ?
W e m i g h t b e s t l o o k f o r t h e a n s w e r s to s u c h q u e s t i o n s b y e x a m i n i n g t h e

T r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e G e r m a n bu H. A. Fre!l, Zuericlr.
193
., VoL. 3, No. 4 (AuGuST), 190P,
CO~,IPIIEI-IENSINelg]:*S3"CI-I[ATIU~"
 194 ~ I EDAItD BOSS

d r a m a t i c h i s t o r y of \ Y e s t e r n m e t a p h y s i c s , for, n a t u r a l l y , t h e w a y of t h i n k i n g in-
h e r e n t i n all t h e s c i e n c e s d e a l i n g w i t h m a n h a s b e e n also s u b j e c t to t h i s d e -
v e l o p m e n t , w h e t h e r t h e s c i e n t i s t s w e r e a w a r e of t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r e m i s e s
u n d e r l y i n g t h e i r r e s e a r c h e s dr not. I n c o n s e q u e n c e , it is o n l y i n f a c e of t h e
b a c k g r o u n d o f t h i s h i s t o r y t h a t w e a r e a b l e to u n d e r s t a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s
as w e l l a s t h e l i l n i t s of o u r m o d e r n s c i e n c e s . ~'Ve k n o w t h a t to a n c i e n t m a n
o b j e c t s , p l a n t s , a n i m a l s , a n d h u m a n b e i n g s still a p p e a r e d as t h a t w h i c h
e m e r g e d f r o m c o n c e a l m e n t i n t o a s t a t e of d i s c l o s u r e . F o r this r e a s o n t h e
a n c i e n t G r e e k s u n d e r s t o o d e v e r y t h i n g t h a t is as a " p h e n o m e n o n " as t h a t w l i i c h
appears ("phainesthai") H o w e v e r , as e a r l y as t h e transmission of \ ' V e s t e r n
c u l t u r e b y t h e G r e e k s to t h e lZtomans, a n d i n d e e d , p r o b a b l y e v e n a l i t t l e e a r l i e r ,
q u i t e a n o t h e r a p p r o a c h c a m e to p r e v a i l : t h e a p p r o a c h t h a t w a s to f o r c e m a n
i n t o t h i n k i n g in t e r m s of t e c h n i c s . T o t h e a n c i e n t s , it w a s still t h e o b j e c t s
t h e m s e l v e s t h a t f r o m t h e i r o w n p r o f o u n d a u t o n o m o u s s o u r c e s of b e i n g re-
v e a l e d to m a n t h e i r t r u e a p p e a r a n c e a n d m e a n i n g . T h e i r a p p e a r a n c e in all
t h e i r r e f e r e n t i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w a s still w h o l l y a n e v e n t , a g e s t u r e , as it w e r e ,
of t h e o b j e c t s t h e m s e l v e s , i n c r e a s i n g l y , h o w e v e r , t h e i r m e a n i n g c a m e to b e
t h o u g h t of as a r i s i n g f r o m m a n ' s p o w e r to b r i n g o b j e c t s f o r t h in his i m a g i n a t i o n .
i ~ i n a l l y , m a n i m a g i n e d t h a t it w a s h e w h o , o u t of t h e r e s o u r c e s of h i s o w n
p o w e r of f o r m i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e m w i t h i n his consciousness, a l l o t t e d
to t h e m t h e i r e s s e n t i a l c o n t e n t a n d so i n v e s t e d t h e r e a l w o r l d w i t h a l l its
m e a n i n g f u l n e s s . O n l y t h e n d i d the p a r t i c u l a r b e i n g s of our w o r l d b e c o m e
r e a l " ' o b j e c t s " , i.e., s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is t h r o w n a g a i n s t a s u b j e c t ' s c o n s c i o u s -
ness. I n e v i t a b l y , t h o u g h p a r a d o x i c a l l y , t h e r e s u l t of t h i s w a s t h a t t h e " o b j e c -
t i v e " e x t e r n a l w o r l d b e c a m e t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y s u b j e c t i v e a f f a i r of a h u m a n
activity, namely, the highly subjective product of man's mental representations
a n d i m a g i n a t i o n s . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of m o d e r n t i m e s t h i s s n b j e c t i v i s m c u h n i -
n a t e d i n t h e C a r t e s i a n n o t i o n of t h e "'res cogitans.'" T h i s t h i n k i n g s u b s t a n c e or
s u b j e c t w a s d e f i n e d b y D e s c a r t e s as t h e o n l y b e i n g w h o s e e x i s t e n c e is b e y o n d
a n y d o u b t a n d w h o is t h e r e f o r e t h e o n l y r e a l b e i n g . " T h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f r e a l i t y
as t h a t w h i c h c a n b e a s c e r t a i n e d b e y o n d d o u b t i n h e r e n t i n D e s c a r t e s " f u n d a -
m e n t a l d o c t r i n e w a s to b e c o m e t h e d e c i s i v e p h i l o s o p h y of m o d e r n t i m e s i n
s p i t e of t h e g r a v e f a l l a c y W h i c h D e s c a r t e s " d o g m a t i c a s s e r t i o n c a r r i e s w i t h i n
itself. \,Vhy s h o u l d it b e t a k e n for g r a n t e d f r o m t h e o u t s e t a n d w i t h o u t a n y
a p p a r e n t j u s t i f i c a t i o n t h a t o n l y t h a t is r e a l a b o u t w h i c h m a n c a n b e c o m p l e t e -
ly c e r t a i n ? \,Vhy s h o u l d t h e r e b e n o p o s s i b i l i t y of r e a l t h i n g s w h o s e n a t u r e m a n
c a n n e v e r p e r c e i v e w i t h a c o m p l e t e d e g r e e of c e r t a i n t y ?
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e res cogital~s of D e s c a r t e s in t h e f o r m o f t h e h u m a n m i n d
e s t a b l i s l i e d i t s e l f e v e r m o r e r a d i c a l l y as t h e sole s o v e r e i g n o v e r a u n i v e r s e o f
objects located in space. A universe which possessed spatial extension which
w a s t h e r e to b e r e p r e s e n t e d i n s o m e w a y or o t h e r i n t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s of t h e
res cogitans. R e p r e s e n t i n g to h i m s e l f t h e o b j e c t s of his w o r l d to s u c h a n e x t e n t
as h i s o b j e c t s , m a n i n his o m n i p o t e n c e set s t h e m f o r t h b e f o r e h i m s e l f o n l y i n
o r d e r to f a s h i o n s o m e t h i n g , a n d to e x t r a c t m o r e a n d m o r e e n e r g y o u t of t h e m
for h i s o w n s a k e . H e t h e r e w i t h m a d e t h e m i n t o e v e r m o r e l e v e l e d - d o w n a n d
i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e c o m p o n e n t s of h i s cogita:re, his t h i n k i n g a n d h i s co-agitate,
his a c t i n g a n d p r o d u c i n g , a
I~IAN IN NATUltAL SCIENCE AND DASEINSANALYSIS 195

I n c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e h u m a n o u t l o o k no l o n g e r c o m p r e h e n d e d a t h i n g as a
p h e n o m e n o n s t a n d i n g t h e r e in its p e r f e c t i o n b y itself. It no l o n g e r s i m p l y ap-
p e a r e d i n its f u l l r a n g e of s i g n i f i c a t i o n as t h e G r e e k s w e r e still c a p a b l e of
g r a s p i n g it at t h e t i m e of t h e i r c u l t u r a l z e n i t h w h e n t h e y e m p l o y e d t h e w o r d
ergon.. T h e I t o m a n s w e r e a l r e a d y t r a n s l a t i n g e r g o n b y opus, a n d t h e r e w i t h
b e t r a y e d t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y w e r e h e n c e f o r t h c a p a b l e c f c o n c e i v i n g of an o b j e c t
o n l y as s o m e t h i n g p r o d u c e d a n d f a s h i o n e d b y a l a b o r i o u s o p e r a t i o n a n d an
a p p l i c a t i o n of force. B e c a u s e h u m a n b e i n g s a c c o m p l i s h n o t h i n g e x c e p t by t h e
s w e a t of t h e i r b r o w , t h e W e s t e r n i n t e l l e c t f r o m t h a t p o i n t on c o n c e p t u a l i z e d
t h a t an a p p l i c a t i o n of force h a d n e c e s s a r i l y to b e t h e b a s i s of all "'natural p h e -
n o m e n a . " It w a s t h e n on t h e for c e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m s u c h a n a n t h r o p o n m r p h i z a -
tion of "'nature'" t h a t t h e i n t e r e s t s of m a n c o n c e n t r a t e d e v e r m o r e e x c l u s i v e l y
on s u c h forces i n t e r p r e t e d as t h e c a l c u l a b l e u n i t s n e c e s s a r y to t h e f a s h i o n i n g
of real objects. O f t h e argon, as o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d , t h e n , n o t h i n g m u c h re-
m a i n e d in f a c t d u e to t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t t h e B n m a n s r e a d t h e i r v e r s i o n of
opus b a c k into t h e G r e e k w o r d ergon. T h u s , t h e G r e e k t e r m for ergol~;s
o n t o l o g i c a l e s s e n c e : el~,ergia, w a s r e d u c e d to t h e c o n c e p t of " e n e r g y " a n d h a s
n o w b e c o m e a c e n t r a l c o n c e p t in all of the m o d e r n n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s a concept
which m e a n s n o t h i n g more than a n o n y m o u s force a n d efficiency w h i c h does
n o t h a v e t h e l e a s t c o n n e c t i o n w i t h its a n c i e n t origin.
C a n , h o w e v e r , t h e r e s t r i c t i o n of t h o u g h t to an a b s t r a c t i o n , to a i n e r e l y
a s s u m e d c o n d i t i o n of r e a l i t y c a n t h e l e a v i n g olJt o f t h e i m m e d i a t e l y dis-
c l o s e d p l e n i t u d e of t h e i n h e r e n t e s s e n t i a l c o n t e n t of tl!e p h e n o m e n a in f a v o r
of a m e r e c o n c e p t of force, a n d e c o n o m y of forces, h a v e as its c o n s e q u e n c e s
a n y t h i n g o t h e r t h a n an e m p t y i n g a n d , as it w e r e , a d e - r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e
w o r l d ? A n d y e t s u c h a r e d u c t i v e w a y of t h i n k i n g is t h e f o u n d a t i o n on w h i c h
are e r e c t e d all t h e m o d e r n t e c h n o l o g i e a l l y o r i e n t e d s c i e n c e s i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e
n a t u r e of m a n .
I n a b i o l o g y c o n c e i v e d of in t h e s e t e r m s all l i v i n < b e i n g s , too, a r e n a t u r a l l y
p r e d e s t i n e d to b e t h o u g h t of a n d u n d e r s t o o d o n l y f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of fitness
a n d e f f i c i e n cy. S u c h a p o i n t of v i e w is, o s t e n s i b l y , no l o n g e r to b e t h o u g h t of
as e x t r a o r d i n a r y a n d is to b e a c c e p t e d w i t h o u t a u e s t i o n . F i n a l l y , in t h e w a k e
of D e s c a r t e s , t h e r e set in t h e c l a s s i c a l m a c h i n e a g e of m e d i c i n e .
T e c h n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d b i o l o g y no l o n g e r r e c o g n i z e d a n y f u n d a m e n t a l dis-
t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n "life'" a n d "'dead" m a t t e r . T h e lif e p r o c e s s b e c a m e in this
theory a mere complex physieo-ehemical process and organisms became
m a c h i n e s of e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l s t r u c t u r e j u s t as a n y p h y s i c a l s y s t e m w i t h
e x t e n s i o n in s p a c e . B i o l o g y e a r n e s t l y set i t s e l f t h e t a s k of i n t e r p r e t i n g o r g a n i c
l i fe b y m e a n s of t h e m e t h o d s of m a t h e m a t i c s a n d p h y s i c s . E v e n L e i b n i z w a s
u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e of D e s c a i ' t e s to s u c h a d e g r e e t h a t h e too at first h e l d t h a t
organisms were nothing more than endlessly complicated machines composed
of p a r t s in w h i c h t h e p h e n o m e n a of life o c c u r r e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h m e t h a n e
ical laws.
In t h e s e c o n d h a l f of the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , to b e s u r e , this m e c h a n i s t i c
biology was r e p l a c e d by a so-called vitalism. This vitalistic theory, w h i c h
a t t a i n e d its f u l l e s t e x p r e s s i o n in t h e w r i t i n g s of I3roussais a n d B i c h a t , n o w
m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e p h e n o m e n a of lif e c o u l d not b e a n a l y s e d into d i s c r e t e l y
196 ~l EI)AIII) BOSS

a r t i c u l a t e d events a m e n a b l e to stud), b y the m e t h o d s of m a t h e m a t i c s a n d

p h y s i c s . R a t h e r , t h e living o r g a n i s m h a d at its disposal forces a n d s t r u c t u r e s
w h i c h in p r i n c i p l e w e r e n o t r e d u c i b l e to m e c h a n i c a l terms. T h e first vitalistic
ideas h a d a l r e a d y e m e r g e d in Glisson's work, T r a c t a t u s d e I i a c h i t i d e , w h i c h
a p p e a r e d in 1682. H o w e v e r , Glisson still r e g a r d e d living m a t t e r as a ,s'ubstanti~l
e ~ e r g e t i c a wllich b o r e the life p r i n c i p l e w i t h i n itself. In this he w a s in agl~e-
m e n t w i t h van H e l m o n t , w h o at the s a m e t i m e similarly w r o t e of a vital force
d i r e c t l y i n h e r i n g in the living s u b s t a n c e . Only, in line w i t h a l c h e m i c a l notions,
h e h a d g i v e n it t h e n a m e Arcl~iitts. Stahl, on the o t h e r h a n d , at the b e g i n n i n g
of t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y d i s t i n g u i s h e d this vital force from b o d i l y m a t t e r .
In a classically vitalistic .fashion he t h o u g h t of the b o d y itself as an inert
m e c h a n i s m w h i c h is a c t i v a t e d f r o m w i t h o u t b y an "'anima." Similar views w e r e
also r e p r e s e n t e d b y Rivinus, H o f f m a n n , a n d Barthez, w h o called their vital
forces, r e s p e c t i v e l y , " p r i n c i p e vital, . . . . s p i r i t u s , .... ether.'" O n l y H a l l e r h a d m e a n -
w h i l e / a g a i n spoken, like Glisson a c e n t u r y before, of a "'vis vitally insita.'" T h e
d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e n e w l y d i s c o v e r e d vital force w e r e just as m u l t i f a r i o u s as
t h e i r n a m e s . G a r d i n e r d e f i n e d it, a n d t h e s e arc his exact w o r d s , as: "'Vital
force, or living principle, is t h e nam.e w e give to t h a t force w h i c h is effective in
the w h o l e a n i m a l a n d is t h e cause of sensation, of m o t i o n , and of life. It
m a i n t a i n s t h e b o d y , p r e v e n t s its dissolution a n d d e s t r u c t i o n a n d can c o n t i n u e
f0r a f i r e d w i t h o u t a n y o u t w a r d m a n i f e s t a t i o n of its a c t l w t y .
T h e Vitalistic c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e s i n g u l a r i t y o£ the vital force w h i c h h a d
r e p l a c e d t h e first, p h y s i c a l i s t p h a s e of m o d e r n , t e c h n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d biology,
s u r v i v e d into t h e first t h i r d of the n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e n it m e r g e d w i t h
the idealistic n a t u r a l p h i l 0 s o p h y , falsely t e r m e d r o m a n t i c , a n d was h e r e en-
r i c h e d b y a b s o r b i n g theories of evolution, b r o a d e n e d , a n d at t h e s a m e tina~
Consolidated i n t o t h e s h a p e of s p e c u l a t i v e systems. W h e r e a s H a l l e r still
s t r e s s e d t h e : h y p o t h e t i c a l l c h a r a c t e r of his vital force, t h e s p e c u l a t i o n s of t h e
n a t u r a l i s t s O k e n a n d S c h e l h n g w e r e t a k e n p r a c t i c a l l y as realities.
As a r e a c t i o n t o this h-end t h e r e a p p e a r e d t o w a r d s the m i d d l e of t h e last
c e n t u r y t h e t h i r d p e r i o d in m o d e r n b i o l o g y i n s p i r e d b y philosophical m a t e -
rialism t h e n in its n a s c e n t stage; this t h i r d p e r i o d is o n c e a g a i n "essentially
m e c h a n i s t i c a n d o u t s p o k e n l y materialistic. I t w a s g i v e n its special c h a r a c t e r
b y s u c h i n v e s t i g a t o r s a s H e l m h o l t z , F e c h n e r , C o m t e , Mill, Spencer, N a e g e l i ,
V i r c h o w , D a r w i n , H a e c k e ] a n d Roux. O n c e a g a i n i t w a s a c c e p t e d as a t r u t h
t h a t t h e e n t i r e World w a s c o n s t r u c t e d s o l e l y o f m a t t e r a n d m a t t e r in motion.
T h e Zoologist Vogt, t h e m e d i c a l m a n B i i c h n e r a n d t h e ph)}siologist M o l e s c h o t t
w e n t So f a r as to b e l i e v e in all earnestn'ess t h a t e v e n our n o b l e s t feelings and
our m o s t inta'icate t h o u g h t s are m e r e p r o d u c t s of secretion of o u r b r a i n cells
i n e x a c t l y t h e s a m e w a y , a s u r i n e i s t h e secretion of t h e k i d n e y s , Also, the t h e o r y
o f , e v o l u t i o n p r e v a i l i n g at tlie e n d of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y was essentially
a m e c h a n i ctalll e o r y . , I t r e c o g n i z e d only q u a n t i t a t i v e differences a m o n g the
species, a n d i t a t t r i b u t e d all q u a l i t a t i v e differences to g e n e t i c causes, to n a t u r a l
selection, a n d to t h e s t r u g g l e for existence, t l o u x as well strove expressly
to establish n o t h i n g less t h a n a real mecl~zt, n i c s of evolution. It was his aim to
ascertain the causes of the evolution of t h e b o d i l y m e c h a n i s m on an e x p e r i -
~IAN IN NATUI:IAL SCIENCI"_, AND DASEINSANAL3_'SIS 197

m e l a t a l b a s i s . T h i s n e w m e c h a n i s t i c a p p r o a c h in _~iology h a d s o o n g r o w n to
b e such an a l m i g h t y intellectual u s u r p e r that D u b o i s - R e y m o n d c o u l d declare:
"'Those, . . . w h o p r e a c h t h e f a l s e d o c t r i n e of t h e v i t a l f o r c e , in no m a t t e r w h a t
f o r m a n d b e h i n d n o m a t t e r w h a t d e c e p t i v e d i s g u i s e , a r e t h e k i n d of p e o p l e ,
a n d t h e y n l a y b e a s s u r e d of this, w h o h a v e n e v e r a t a n y t i m e c a r r i e d t h e i r
r e a s o n i n g o u t to its e x t r e m e l o g i c a l l n m t s . '
O n c e m o r e , h o w e v e r , a r o u n d t h e t u r n of t h e c e n t u r y t h e r e w a s a n i n c r e a s e
of w r i t i n g s l i k e t h a t o f D a m e r t , let us say, w h i c h b o r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c title
'From the Death-bed of Da.rwinism. (1903). N o w t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e m e c h a -
n i s t i c t h e o r y o f l i f e w a s c o n t e s t e d a n e w . H o w e v e r , D r i e s c h w a s t h e first to p r o -
c l a i m its u n t e n a b i l i t y a n d to do so n o t o n l y t h e o r e t i c a l l y , b u t to b e a b l e to
p r o v e it e x p e r i m e n t a l l y . H e w a s t h e first, i n his f a m o u s e x p e r i m e n t w i t h sea
u r c h i n ' s e g g s , to s h c w t h a t w e c a n h a l v e s u c h a n e g g in an earl), s t a g e of d e -
v e ] o p m e n t a n d n e v e r t h e l e s s o b t a i n t w o c o m p l e t e s e a u r c h i n s , e v e n if s o m e -
w h a t r e d u c e d in size. H o w e v e r , h e a s k e d , h o w , i f w e d i v i d e a m a c h i n e , s h o u l d
it b e p o s s i b l e for a w h o l e n e w u n i t of l i k e s t r u c t u r e to a r i s e f r o m t h e p a r t s ?
T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e total t : n i t y of a s e a u r c h i n ' s e g g is n o m a c h i n e . N o r c a n t h e
i n d i v i d u a l c e l l s of a n o r g a n i s m b e m a c h i n e s , for t h e y too all e m e r g e f r o m a
s e r i e s of d i v i s i o n s . If, h o w e v e r , w e d i v i d e a m a c h i n e , it d o e s n o t r e m a i n t h e
s a m e c o m p l e t e o b j e c t . ~ E v e n R o u x 7 a n d S c h a x e l s h a d , in t h e f a c e of t h i s crit-
i c i s m , to a d m i t t h a t a m e c h a n i s t i c t h e o r y of o n t o g e n e t i c e v o l u t i o n w a s r e f u t e d
b y t h e p r o c e s s e s of r e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , of re- a n d p o s t - g e n e r a t i o n c l e a r l y e s t a b -
lished by Drieseh.
Driesch, however, by no means contented himself with the mere an-
n i h i l a t i o n of m e c h a n i s t i c b i o l o g y . It w a s D r i e s c h w h o m a d e b i o l o g y i n t o a
so-called holistic science. Long before Gestalt theory, formulated only com-
p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t l y , D r i e s c h p r o c l a i m e d t h a t t h e t o t a l i t y of a n o r g a n i s m w a s
a l w a y s m o r e t h a n a m e r e s u m t o t a l of p a r t s , a n d m o r e t h a n a m e r e a g g r e g a t e
of cells. T h e o r g a n i s m , h e d e c l a r e d , w a s n o t c o m p o s e d of t h e i n d i v i d u a l cells;
r a t h e r it, as o n e w h o l e u n i t y , m a d e u s e of t l l o s e p a r t i c u l a r cells. A n d D r i e s c h
a s c r i b e s to t h e o r g a n i s m , as t h e eftqcient c a u s e of t h i s t o t a l i t y , a n o r i g i n a l
" u n i f y i n g c a p a c i t y of i t s o w n , "a f o r m a t w e p o w e r or a n enteleclay. In an-
o t h e r p l a c e h e also s p e a k s of a s p e c i a l uitala.gens, w h i c h e n s u r e s " ' h a r m o n y ' "
withil~ l i v i n g b e i n g s . I n t h i s w a y D r i e s c h h a d a g a i n m a d e a c o m p l e t e r e t u r n
to t h e p o s i t i o n of v i t a l i s m , a n d h e d i d n o t e v e n h e s i t a t e to c a l l h i s d o c t r i n e a
neo-vltahsm.
His neo-vitalism, however, immediately encountered very decided opposi-
t i o n f r o m h i s c o l l e a g u e s i n t h e field of b i o l o g y . O n e of t h e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
a n a o n g t h e m , t h e b i o l o g i s t B e r t a l a n f f y , c o n c e d e d , to b e s u r e , t h a t D r i e s c h w a s
r i g h t in so f a r as it is n o t s u f f i c i e n t for a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p h e -
n o m e n a of l i f e to m e r e l y a s c e r t a i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s a n d p r o c e s s e s . B u t ,
as h e s t r e s s e d in o p p o s i t i o n to D r i e s c h , it w o u l d n o t do, ha c l a r i f y i n g t h e m y s t e -
r i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n of l i v i n g t h i n g s , to f a l l b a c k on t h e still m o r e m y s t e r i o u s
e n t i t y of a m e t a p h y s i c a l " ' e n t e l e c h y . " A l o n g w i t h all o t h e r p r o g r e s s i v e b i o l o g i s t s
a n d p h y s i o l o g i s t s , B e r t a l a n f f y w a n t e d to c l i n g e x c l u s i v e l y to t h a t p a r t of t h e
o r g a n i c wh.ieh is a c c e s s i b l e to t h e s e n s e s . H e r e g a r d e d as t h e m o s t r e p r e s e n t a -
 198 ~EDAI~D ]BOSS

rive of this t l m t w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e s living m a t t e r fa'om all i n e r t m a t t e r : tlm

w o n d e r f u l o r d e r in whicla tim p r o c e s s e s of life u n f o l d w i t h i n a n i n d i v i d u a l i z e d
totality, As B e r t a l a n f f y states in his w o r k , The Articulation of Life, "'an in m a e n s e
n u m b e r of p h y s i c a l a n d c h e m i c a l e v e n t s o c c u r ~ v e n in o n e single .eel]. a° \Ve
a r e a b l e to d e s c r i b e tlaem all m o r e or less e x a c t l y as i n d i v i d u a l p r o c e s s e s b y
m a k i n g use of p h y s i c o c l a e m i c a l n o t i o n s a n d to b u i l d a m o d e l of t h e m in t h e
f o r m of a lifeless s y s t e m . T h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of life, t h e r e f o r e ,
does n o t consist in a n y p e c u l i a r i t y of t h e p a r t i c u l a r p r o c e s s e s b u t r a t h e r in t h e
specific a n d a s t o n i s h i n g ,ordering of all t h e s e p r o c e s s e s anaong o n e a n o t h e r , in
t h e o r d e r e d sequ.ences in w h i c h t h e y s u c c e e d o n e a n o t h e r in t h e o r g a n i c
s y s t e m a n d c o n d u c i v e to its p r e s e r v a t i o n ( o r e v o l u t i o n a n d p r o p a g a t i o n ).'" T h i s
o r g a n i z a t i o n , h e m a i n t a i n e d , " c o n s t i t u t e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e living
o r g a n i s m a n d t h e d e a d b o d y , for e v e n in t h e l a t t e r t h e r e o c c u r a l a r g e n u m b e r
of r e a c t i o n s w h i c h , h o w e v e r , in this case e , , ! m i n a t e in a s w i f t a n d irresistible
destruction.'" T h e n B e r t a l a n f f y c o n c l u d e s t h a t "'whereas f o r m e r l y w e a t t r i b u t e d
t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of o r g a n i c p r o c e s s e s to fixed m a c h i n e - l i k e s t r u c t u r e s , w e
w o u l d n o w h a v e to a s s u m e q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t k i n d of o r g a n i z a t i o n as t h e p r i m a r y
f a c t in t h e o r g a n i c r e a l m . T h i s n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e o r g a n i s m n o t tied to
fixed m e c h a n i c a l c o n d i t i o n s was," h e said, " s i m p l y a g i v e n f a c t to b e f o u n d in
t h e i n t e r p l a y of forces c o n t a i n e d in t h e dynamic system itself.'" B e r t a l a n f f y
c a l l e d h i s v i e w t h e "'org#nismic'" a p p r o a c h ) 1
B e r t a l a n f f y a t t e m p t s t o v i v i f y t h e r e o r i e n t a t i o n of b i o l o g i c a l t h i n k i n g a w a y
f r o m t h e m e c h a n i s t i c t h e o r y of l i v i n g t h i n g s t o w a r d t h e o r g a n i s m i c a p p r o a c h
b y m e a n s of a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n a l o g y . Aristotle, h e w r i t e s , h a d still b e l i e v e d
t h a t t h e o r d e r of t h e p l a n e t a r y m o v e m e n t s c o u l d o n l y b e a c c o u n t e d for b y
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p l a n e t s w e r e d r i v e n b y a m i g h t y s y s t e m of m a c h i n e r y c a l l e d
t h e "'crystalline s p h e r e s ; " N o w , h o w e v e r , w e k n o w t h a t no s u e h ~ . m a c h i n e r y of
s p h e r e s is n e c e s s a r y to e x p l a i n t h e m o v e m e n t of t h e p l a n e t s b u t t h a t t h e i r
o r d e r arises f r o m t h e d y n a m i c r e c i p r o c a l action of t h e h e a v e n l y b o d i e s t h e m -
selves; t h e s e b o d i e s a t t r a c t o n e a n o t h e r m u t u a l l y . I n a q u i t e a n a l o g o u s f a s h i o n
t h e e a r l i e r b i o l o g y h a d t h o u g h t of t h e o r g a n i s m as c r a m m e d w i t h m a c h i n e r y
w h i c h w o u l d l i a v e h a d to g u a r a n t e e t h e o r d e r l i n e s s of all processes." T o d a y , on
t h e o t h e r h a n d , it is k n o w n t h a t t h e o r g a n i s m is t o b e r e g a r d e d primarily o n l y
as a s y s t e m r e a c t i n g as a dynamic unity. O n a s e c o n d a r y level, to b e sure,
this u n i f i e d System of d v n a l n i c e q u i l i b r i u m suffers a r e s t r i c t i o n t h r o u K h a p r o -
g r e s s i v e m e c ] a a n i z a t i ~ n ' o f indiviclual p r o c e s s e s in it. O r g a n i s m s , Be~-talanffy
c o n c l u d e s , are not p r i m a r i l y m a c h i n e s , e v e n if on a s e c o n d a r y level i n d i v i d u a l
o r g a n s m i g h t to a c e r t a i n e x t e n t become m a c h i n e s ; m i g h t c o n g e a l , as it w e r e ,
into tile state o f r i g i d i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of m a c h i n e s . -
T h e ~"organismic" t h e o r y of l i v i n g m a t t e r r e c e i v e d its m o s t s u b t l e d e v e l o p -
m e n t in t h e i n s p i r e d c o n c e p t i o n of t h e Z u r i c h p h y s i o l o g i s t , W . R. H e s s ; a n d
t h a t is w h y t h i s c o n c e p t i o n , for e x a m p l e , also a n t i c i p a t e s all t h e essential
f e a t u r e s of Selye's s t r e s s - a n d - a d a p t a t i o n t h e o r y , ~a w h i c h h a s v e r y r e c e n t l y
c a u s e d s u c h a g r e a t stir:
A n d y e t m o d e r n b i o l o g y a n d p h y s i o l o g y as a w h o l e t h r o u g h o u t all t h e
v i c i s s i t u d e s of t h e i r t h r e e - h u n d r e d - y e a r h i s t o r y h a v e n e v e r in t h e s l i g h t e s t for-
/~IAN I N NA'I;UI1AL S C I E N C E A N D i , ) A S E I N S A N A L Y S I S 199

feited a n y l h i n g of their characteristically technological standpoint. Even if

'vitalism, b o u n d e d in time by the two old, purely mechanistic theories, con-
ceded to its agens, which creates organisms a.1~d maintains them in existence,
:a peculiarity c o m p l e t e l y differe~at ha character from that of physical energy,
there still remained, nevertheless, in the b a c k g r o u n d of its conceptual imagery
a "force" ~o which it sought to attribute the rise of living beings. Also, the neo-
vitalism of Driesch persisted in this very same reduction of the world to the
idea of force and elfieient performance. No m a t t e r how much Driesch might
appeal to the ancient notions of " h a r m o n y " and "'enteleehy," his e n t a n g l e m e n t
in the modern oriented w a y of thinking was b e t r a y e d all the more clearly by
this reversion to the technological m o d e of thought. To the extent Driesch
fused his concept of a h a r m o n i z i n g "entelechy" with the notions of a s p e ~ a l
"formative force" and a vitahlgens, he subjected the Aristote]ian enteleclly to
a misinterpretation quite analogous to that which the technical spirit at its
very first a p p e a r a n c e h a d inflicted upon the Greek notion of " e r g o n and "en-
ergeia." The m o d e r n "'organismic" view, finally, can at first glance only arouse
the hope t h a t in it not only m e c h a n i s m but also vitalism have been s u r m o u n t e d .
Even Bertalanffy's comparison of the d e v e l o p m e n t of biological t h o u g h t w i t h
the transformation of astronomical views suffers from t h e short life span be-
setting scientific " t r u t h s " .... as a consequence of which the l a w of p l a n e t a r y
gravitation has already been shaken by the notion of curved s p a c e . A b o v e
all, however, the characterization of the organism as an o r d e r e d "interplay o f
the forces c o n t a i n e d in the d y n a m i c system itself" illustrated by this example,
reveals that in reality this "organismic" a p p r o a c h also ends up entirely within
the f r a m e of reference of the mechanistic philosophy, even if thLs be, as it
were, a higher kind of d y n a m i c mechanism. This appears in an especially im-
pressive way, d u e to its completeness and perfection, in the theory of ~V. It.
Hess. Hess regards both m e n and animals as organisms whose sole and ex-
clusive function consists in p e r f o r m a n c e and a c h i e v e m e n t of some kind or
other w h i c h takes place within the body, or which concerns the external
world, and which is split into two d i f f e r e n t categories of activity. Organisms,
he says, consist of the vegetative-trophotropic category of activity a n d the
animal-ergotropic category of activity. Correctly, then, the p r o p o n e n t s of this
view p r o u d l y call it a physiology of elficiency. ~4
If, however, biology and p h y s i o l o g y had been trapped, mad thus r e m a i n e d
within the historical process of teehnicalization, the result was b o u n d to be
t h a t of the question of w h a t living beings i n general and h u m a n beings in
particular actually were in and for themselves; it is the question, that i s to
say, which lapsed into complete oblivion -.the organism's veritable being, in
which alone, in fact, all its adtivities take their origin.
LI~'IITS OF UNDERSTANDI_NG IN BIOLOGY AND PI:IYSIOLOGY

M o d e r n biology and physiology soon e n o u g h forced u p o n the scientists the

realization that a great deal which is essential is w i t h h e l d f r o m the investigator
who approaches reality in a solely technical spirit. Like the very simplest of
the so-called expressive manifestations of inner states and of "'bodily Symptoms
"900 ~ [ E D A I ~ D ]30SS

a c c o m p a n y i n g emotions," ,everyday m i m i c r y a n d g e s t u r e in the v e r y b r o a d e s t

sense of the w o r d v e r y e a r l y p r o v e d to be p h e n o m e n a e x c e e d i n g t h e possibilities
of scientific u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e s e p h e n o m e n a b r o u g h t the t e c h n o l o g i c a l - m a t e -
rialistic m o d e of e x p l a n a t i o n u p a g a i n s t its u l t i m a t e a n d i n s u p e r a b l e limits.
A c o n c e p t i o n of living m a t t e r w h i c h was r e s t r i c t e d to notions of p e r f o r m a n c e
a n d efficiency, to ideas of d y n a m i c s a n d e c o n o m y , s u c h o b v i o u s l y ineffectual,
useless a n d u n e c o n o m i c p h e n o m e n a as m i m e t i c "expressions" a n d g e s t u r e s can-
n o t a p p e a r o t h e r w i s e t h a n incomprehensibI.e; in fact, e v e n as p a r a d o x i c a l .
YVhat, a f t e r all, does an a n i m a l gain f r o m its m i m i c r y ? I n p a r t i c u l a r , h o w does
m a n profit b y his e x c e e d i n g l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d b e h a v i o r , let us say, his f r o w n -
ing w h e n a n g r y , his b l u s h i n g w h e n a s h a m e d , his ] a u g h t e r a n d tears in joy
a n d sorrow, a n d his loosening of the b o w e l s w h e n f r i g h t e n e d ?
T h e th'eless e n d e a v o r s o f b i o l o g i s t a n d p h y s i o l o g i s t t h i n k i n g in t e c h n o l o g i c a l
terms a n d falling b a c k on the b o l d e s t h y p o t h e s e s a n d m o s t a u d a c i o u s spec-
ulations to confine e v e n s u c h p h e n o m e n a w i t h i n the horizons so n a r r o w l y
d e l i m i t e d b y the c o n c e p t s o f efficiency a n d d y n a m i c s a r e i n d e e d d i s t u r b i n g .
In fact, it is t h e i r v e r y fruitlessness t h a t p r o v i d e s t h e m o s t i m p r e s s i v e e v i d e n c e
of the i n e x o r a b l e p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d b y t e c h n o l o g y on t h e t h i n k i n g of m o d e r n
man.
D a r w i n , for e x a m p l e , s o u g h t to r e s c u e t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y o r i e n t e d b i o l o g y b y
a s s u m i n g t h a t wherever_ t h e r e does n o t exist a n y p u r p o s e , as is so o b v i o u s l y
the case w i t h m a n y m i m e t i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n s , t h e r e m u s t at least o n c e have
bee~ a p u r p o s e there. H e r e s o r t e d to t h e tlieory t h a t e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l carries
w i t h h i m t h r o u g h o u t life vestiges of his r a c i a l h i s t o r y a n d tl'aces of his e n t i r e
e v o l u t i o n a r y d e v e l o p m e n t e v e n if t h e s e h a v e l o n g since b e c o m e d e v o i d of
£unction in a c h a n g e d e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e v e r m i f o r m a p p e n d i x can b e t a k e n
as t h e m o s t obvious e x a m p l e of this t h e o r y . I t states t h a t w h e n m a n ' s d i e t w a s
q u i t e different f r o m w h a t it is now, it h a d a v e r y i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n . N o w ,
to b e sure, it has d e c l i n e d to the status of an i r k s o m e a p p e n d a g e , lu N o w ac-
c o r d i n g to D a r w i n the m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of e m o t i o n s r e p r e s e n t r u d i m e n t s anal-
ogous to s u c h a n a t o l n i c a l vestiges. As an e x a m p l e of this h e w r i t e s : w n o e v e r
d e r i d e s t h e v i e w t h a t the s h a p e of his o w n c a n i n e t e e t h a n d t h e i r o c c a s i o n a l l y
p r o n o n n c e d d e v e l o p m e n t in o t h e r p e o p l e is t h e c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e c i r c u m -
s t a n c e t h a t our p r i m e v a l ancestors w e r e f u r n i s h e d w i t h t h e s e f e a r f u l w e a p o n s
will m o r e likely t h a n not, in the v e r y a c t of v e n t i n g his scorn, r e v e a l his
descent, for a l t h o u g h he is no l o n g e r i n c l i n e d to e m p l o y t h e s e t e e t h as w e a p o n s
a n d does not even h a v e t h e s t r e n g t h to do so, he will n e v e r t h e l e s s u n c o n s c i o u s l y
c o n t r a c t w h a t Sir C. Bell calls his "snarl" m u s c l e s a n d in so d o i n g b a r e t h o s e
t e e t h for a c t i o n just like a d o g t h a t is p r e p a r e d to fight. ''~6
E v e n b e f o r e D a r w i n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g r a c i a l descent, P i d e r i t
h a d e l a b o r a t e d a t h e o r y of expressive ,ma~zifestations of it~ner states w h i c h
is no less d e p e n d e n t on the teclmologicaI notion of cause a n d effect c o n n e c -
tions. This is t r u e even if P i d e r i t conceives of the expressive g e s t u r e f r o m t h e
o u t s e t as an action w i t h a m e r e l y fictitious object. In his "'Second F u n d a m e n t a l
Proposition of M i m i c r y , " w h i c h he exalts as t h e "'key to t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
all m i m e t i c m u s c u l a r m o v e m e n t s , " h e states: "'The m i m e t f c m u s c u l a r m o v e -
hIAN IN NATUltAL SCIENCE AND DASEINSANALYSIS ~001

m e n t s c a u s e d b y m e n t a l s t a t e s t h e r e f o r e r e f e r in p a r t to i m a g i n a r y objects,
in p a r t to i m a g i n a r y s e n s o r y i m p r e s s i o n s . T h e e x p e d i e n c y of t h e m i m e t i c
m u s c u l a r m o v e m e n t s is i n d i c a t e d b y t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t t h e l a t t e r a r e
m a n i f e s t e d m a i n l y in t h e n u m e r o u s a n d m o b i l e m u s c l e s in t h e f a c e a n d w o u l d
s e r v e t h e p u r p o s e of s u p p o r t i n g t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e sense o r g a n s . Besides, w e
c o u l d s a y t h a t t h e " t e a r g l a n d s are, so to s p e a k , s a f e t y v e n t s for excessive
e x c i t a t i o n s of t h e b r a i n . I n s u c h states t h e b r a i n seems, as it w e r e , o v e r c h a r g e d
like an e l e c t r i c a l a p p a r a t u s , a n d it d i s c h a r g e s itself b y w a y of its a c t i o n on
t h e t e a r g l a n d . "'.7
E v e n in t h e t h e o r y of t h e s t u b b o r n l y i n d e p e n d e n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h i n k e r ,
L u d w i g Klages, m i m i c r y a n d g e s t u r e s r e m a i n a c t i o n s t h a t a r e g o a l - d i r e c t e d a n d
i m p e l l e d b y forces, for K l a g e s too r e f e r s all "'expressive m a n i f e s t a t i o n s " b a c k
to "'impulses," to d r i v e s w h i c h , to b e sure, h e a s s m n e s to b e d i r e c t l y i n h e r e n t
in f e e l i n g s a n d e m o t i o n s . J u s t as d r i v e s a n d v o l u n t a r y i m p u l s e s c o u l d d i s c h a r g e
t h e i r p e n t - u p e n e r g y in a m o r e or less s u c c e s s f u l t r a n s a c t i o n d i r e c t e d t o w a r d
specific e x t e r n a l goals, t h e s e a f f e c t e d i m p u l s e s w o u l d b e " ' c o n v e r t e d " into ex-
pressive movements. Mimicry and gestures would be distinguished from
ordinary impulsive and voluntary actions only by the fact that they would
c a r r y t h e i r g o a l w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s , or t h a t t h e i r g o a l w o u l d b e on a l e v e l of
f a r g r e a t e r a b s t r a c t n e s s a n d g e n e r a l i t y . A m a n i f e s t a t i o n of a n i n n e r s t a t e c o u l d
t h e r e f o r e also b e c a l l e d a s y m b o l o r a p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of an i m p u l s i v e
action. T h u s it m a y v e r y w e l l b e t h a t in K l a g e s ' t h e o r y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f i_nner
states a r e no l o n g e r m e r e offshoots or d e r i v a t i v e s of an a c t i o n b e c a u s e t h e y ,
like o r d i n a r y p u r p o s i v e a c t i o n s , a r e r e g a r d e d as e q u a l l y o r i g i n a l a n d a u t o c h '
t h o n o u s c o n v e r s i o n s of drives. It is just h e r e , h o w e v e r , t h a t K l a g e s b e t r a y s all
t h e m o r e c l e a r l y t h e f a c t t h a t his d o c t r i n e as w e l l steins f r o m t h e u n i v e r s e of
t e c h n o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t s . ~s
A f i n a l a t t e m p t to t a k e t h e p r i n c i p l e of e f f i c i e n c y a n d b u i l d it, a s it w e r e ,
into t h e p u r p o s e l e s s n e s s of e x p r e s s i v e p h e n o m e n a , seeks to k n o w t h e s e p h e -
n o m e n a as m e a n s of m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g p r e m i s i n g s o m e m e a s u r e of suc-
cess. T h e r e is no d o u b t t h a t c e r t a i n m i m e t i c exp~:essions a r e u n d e r s t o o d b y
fellow individuals, and understood immediately and directly, without prior
l e a r n i n g . H o w e v e r , this p o s s i b i l i t y of i m m e d i a t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m i m i c r y , as
h a s a l r e a d y b e e n s h o w n b y P. H~iberlin 19 in his i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e c h a m o i s ,
m e r e l y o p e n s u p an e n o r m o u s n e w set of p h i l o s o p h i c a l P r o b l e m s w h i c h s i m p l y
c a n n o t b e c o p e d w i t h b y d r a w i n g on t h e intellectual, r e s o u r c e s at t h e d i s p o s a l
of t e c h n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d b i o l o g y . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g o f a s o - c a l l e d e x p r e s s i v e p h e n o m e n o n c a n n o t b e at all: essential;
t h e r e are, a f t e r all, a g r e a t n u m b e r of i n t e r n a l b o d i l y p h e n o m e n a a c c o m p a n y i n g
e m o t i o n s s u c h as, t h e w a y t h e h e a r t b e a t s for joy, or i n a n a l a r m r e a c t i o n ,
w h i c h a n o b s e r v e r is u n a b l e to p e r c e i v e a t - a l l . T h e s e k i n d s of e x p r e s s i v e p h e -
n o m e n a , a r e e s p e c i a l l y difficult to fit into a s y s t e m g e a r e d to t h e p r i n c i p l e of
t e c h n i c a l efficiency. Since n o t e v e n t h e f u n c t i o n of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d m u t u a l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g can a n y l o n g e r b e a s c r i b e d to t h e m , w h o l l y u n a s c e r t a i n a b l e
i n t e n t i o n s h a v e to b e r e a d into t h e m b y biologists t h i n k i n g a l o n g t e c h n i c a l
lines. A dog, for e x a m p l e , w h i c h s t o p s s h o r t in a s t a t e of t e n s e a l e r t n e s s a l w a y s
 002 NIEI)AI~D 13OSS

h o l d s its b r e a t h . ' r h e f u n c t i o n of a n d t h e i n t e n t i o n b e h i n d this h o l d i n g of t h e

b r e a t h , so t h e b i o l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g goes, consists in t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d o g does
n o t w a n t its a t t e n t i o n d i s t r a c t e d b y its o w n b r e a t h i n g . Still g r a v e r d a m a g e is
inflicted b y t h e l a b o r a t o r v r a b b i t on t h e t e c h n i c a l c o n c e p t i o n of t h e w o r l d
h e l d b y i n o d e r n biologists. It is p o s s i b l e , w i t h o u t h a r m i n g t h e a n i m a l to
t h r u s t into t h e h e a r t w a l l of a s l i g h t l y - d r u g g e d r a b b i t a t i n y flagstaff of t h i n
wire. T h e a c t i o n of t h e a n i m a l ' s h e a r t is c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d b y t h e m o v e m e n t s
of t h e little flag. If, n o w , a h a r m f u l o l f a c t o r y a g e n t is b r o u g h t u n d e r t h e n o s e
of t h e a n i m a l , it n o t o n l y i m m e d i a t e l y h o l d s its b r e a t h b u t w i t h e q u a l p r o m p t -
ness its h e a r t stops b e a t i n g for a c e r t a i n time. I t does so, h o w e v e r , in a w a y
t h a t is e x t r e m e l y p o i n t l e s s a n d c o n t r a r y to a n y p r i n c i p l e of f u n c t i o n . T h i s p h e -
n o m e n o n of h e a r t s t o p p a g e lies so c o m p l e t e l y o u t s i d e t h e f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e
of t h e t e c h n i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d w a y of u n d e r s t a n d i n g r e a l i t y t h a t it is r u t h l e s s l y
i g n o r e d b y t h e o r g a n i s m i c biologists. T h i s h e a r t s t o p p a g e is d e m o t e d to t h e
s t a t u s of a m e a n i n g l e s s s y m p t o m b e c a u s e it s t u b b o r n l y r e f u s e s to b e i n t e g r a t e d
into t h e o r d e r e d s e q u e n c e of f u n c t i o n a l , v e g e t a t i v e p h e n o m e n a of o r g a n i c r e g u -
lation. I t is d e m o t e d to a m e r e "'irradiation of v e g e t a t i v e e x c i t e m e n t " a n d is
h e n c e f o r t h r e g a r d e d o n l y as a sign beta'aying t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s a n d t h e limits
of t h e o r g a n i c s t r u c t u r e .
TRADITIONAL THINKING IN M E D I C I N E AND P S Y C H O L O G Y
i f it h a d b e e n o n l y tile e x p r e s s i v e p h e n o m e n a or t h e b o d i l y s y m p t o m s ac-
c o m p a n y i n g e m o t i o n w h i c h c o u l d n o t b'e m a d e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e f r o m t h e
t e c l m i c a l p o i n t of view, t h e n p h y s i c i a n s w o u l d still h a v e b e e n a b l e to i g n o r e
t h e m as t h o u g h t h e y w e r e i n e x p l i c a b l e n o n - p a t h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s or w e r e
p u r e l y t h e o r e t i c a l difficulties. H o w e v e r , e v e n w i t h i n t h e i r o w n p r a c t i c e t h e y
e n c o u n t e r e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g f r e q u e n c y e v e n t s t h e n a t u r e of w h i c h t h e y w e r e
no l o n g e r a b l e to g r a s p a d e q u a t e l y . T h e f a c t is t h a t t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l i n s t r u m e n t
for m e d i c i n e possessed, as a g e n e r a l e t i o l o g i c a l s c h e m e , t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m o n l y :
a d i s t u r b e d a n a t o m i c a l s t r u c t u r e in an o r g a n w a s t h e c a u s e of a p a t h o l o g i c a l
f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e organ. T h i s d i s t u r b e d f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e o r g a n w o u l d i n d u c e
t h e s y m p t o m s of an o r g a n i c illness.
S u c h a t h e o r e t i c s c h e m e a t o n c e b e t r a y s its p u r e d e s c e n t f r o m t h e t e c h n i c a l
v i e w b y t h e fact t h a t it p r o v i d e s r o o m o n l y for a l i m i t e d n u m b e r of s h a r p l y
defined, m u t u a l l y i n t e r a c t i v e m a t t e r s . E v e r y t h i n g is in this c o n c e p t i o n of r e a l i t y
a n d t e c h n i c a l f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a n o b j e c t t h a t at o n c e acts
a n d is a c t e d u p o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , r e a l i t y is r e s t r i c t e d , to t h e t o t a l i t y of s e n s u o u s -
ly visible, t a n g i b l e , m e a s u r a b l e , c a l c u l a b l e , a n d " m a t e r i a l " objects. I n a m e d i c a l
s c i e n c e d o m i n a t e d b y this a t t i t u d e t h e r e was, to b e sure, a v e r y g r e a t d a n g e r
that henceforth medical men would be concerned only with reestablishing
m a x i m u m h e a l t h as fast as p o s s i b l e as t h e m o s t efficient s t a t e of t h e o r g a n i s m ,
or p o s s i b l y w i t h a c h i e v i n g of m a x i m u m f r e e d o m f r o m p a i n , b e c a u s e p a i n c a n
d i s r u p t t h e e c o n o m i c efficiency of t h e h u m a n c a p a c i t y to p e r f o r m w o r k . H o w -
e v e r , t h e a c t u a l u n d e r l y i n g n a t u r e of h u m a n illness, a n d t h e h u m a n d e p t h s
t h a t e v e r y k i n d of p a i n discloses, w e r e b o u n d e n t i r e l y to e l u d e t h e g r a s p of
this w a y of t h i n k i n g .
3,IAN IN NATUI1AL SCIENCE AND DASEINSANAL¥SIS -003

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , n e i t h e r c o u l d it in t h e long r u n r e m a i n h i d d e n t h a t in
spite of t h e m o s t m e t i c u l o u s a t t e n t i v e n e s s in t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of countless b o d i l y
a i h n e n t s , no p r i m a r y lesion of a b o d i l y o r g a n can be e s t a b l i s h e d as s o m e t h i n g
in a n y w a y causal. O f this t y p e of a i h n e n t t h e first q u i c k l y r e c o g n i z e d w e r e
t h e obvious h y s t e r i c a l b o d i l y illnesses. F a r too long, in fact, has the c r a v i n g for
c o m f o r t a n d security, w h i c h is so d e e p l y i n g r a i n e d in h u m a n n a t u r e , i n d u c e d
us to resist the r e c o g n i t i o n of h y s t e r i c a l p h e n o m e n a ol)jectively as factors
t h r e a t e n i n g to e x p l o d e the t r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c a l c o n c e p t i o n of r e a l i t y t h a t h a d
s e e m i n g l y b e e n so solid. Some c o n s o l e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h visions of the f u t u r e
w h e r e ever m o r e p r e c i s e i n s t r u m e n t s a n d e v e r m o r e refined m e t h o d s of in-
v e s t i g a t i o n w o u l d some d a y elicit t h e causal o r g a n i c d i s t m ' b a n c e s . O t h e r s dis-
m i s s e d t h e m as m e r e f i g m e n t s a n d simulations, a n d d e c l a r e d t h e m to be, in
reality, non-existent. Yet this consolation a n d this d e n i a l c o u l d not long a p p e a s e
t h e m e d i c a l m a n ' s p r o f e s s i o n a l conscience, for it b e c a m e m o r e a n d m o r e un-
d e n i a b l e t h a t m a n y h y s t e r i c a l illnesses e n t a i l e d m o r e suffering t h a n m a n y of
t h e so-called o r g a n i c d i s t u r b a n c e s . T h e r e u p o n hy]?othetical b r a i n d e f e c t s w e r e
installed, as it were, in the p a t i e n t in o r d e r for t h e p h y s i c i a n to feel secure. It
was felt t h a t t h e justification for this m e t h o d lay in certain similarities be-
t w e e n h y s t e r i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e s a n d certab~ s y m p t o m s of o r g a n i c b r a i n afflic-
tions. In p a r t i c u l a r , t h e d e f e c t s s e q u e n t to sleeping-sickness w i t h its centers
of i n f l a m m a t i o n a n d s c a r f o r m a t i o n s on t h e g a n g l i o n s of t h e b r a i n stem pro-
v i d e d a w e l c o m e b o d y of c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l . T h e superficial s i m i l a r i t y of
c e r t a i n h y s t e r i c a l a n d p o s t - e n c e p h a l i t i e or o t h e r " o r g a n i c " s y m p t o m s , h o w -
ever, is far from e s t a b l i s h i n g an i d e n t i t y of "'feel of origin" o r an i d e n t i t y of
essence for all these d i s t u r b a n c e s . To p u t t h e m on t h e s a m e f o o t i n g is e q u i v a -
lent to n o t d i s t i n g u i s h i n g a fatal a c c i d e n t c a u s e d b y a tile falling f r o m a r o o f
a f t e r its nail h a d r u s t e d t h r o u g h f r o m a m u r d e r in w h i c h t h e m u r d e r e r lay
in w a i t for his victim on t h e s a m e roof a n d s t r u c k h i m on the h e a d w i t h an
i d e n t i c a l tile. W h o , h o w e v e r , w o u l d at this p o i n t even m e r e l y c o n s i d e r the
i n h e r e n t i d e n t i t y of the two ~events, even if on b o t h occasions the i d e n t i c a l
visible result, t h e d e a t h of a h u m a n being, was d u e to t h e s a m e "'cause": a
f a l l i n g t i l e o b e y i n g in b o t h cases t h e s a m e laws of g r a v i t y ? -~°
T h e classic d i s t u r b a n c e s of h y s t e r i a were, o w i n g to t h e i r obvious s y m p t o m s ,
the first a n d m o s t c h a l l e n g i n g p h e n o m e n a s u g g e s t i n g t h e limitations of tech-
n i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d m e d i c i n e . H o w e v e r , t h e y r e m a i n e d n e i t h e r the sole nor
e v e n t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s t u m b l i n g - b l o c k . I t a t h e r , j u s t w h e n such m e d i c i n e
was b e g i n n i n g to a c h i e v e a d m i r a b l e t h e r a p e u t i c s u c c e s s e s w i t h c e r t a i n cir-
c u m s c r i b e d p a t h o l o g i c a l events, p h y s i c i a n s w e r e o b l i g e d to look on helplessly
as v a r i e d a n d e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g a i l m e n t s m a d e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e . In the f a c e of
t h e s e n e w d i s t u r b a n c e s t h e t r a d i t i o n a l etiological s c h e m e b r o k e d o w n just as
m u c h as it did in t h e case of hysteria, and t h e s e n e w d i s t u r b a n c e s w e r e t h e n
e q u a l l y i n t r a c t a b l e w h e n it c a m e to a p p l y i n g the usual k i n d o f practical ther-
a p y to them. Statistics s h o w t h a t the illnesses w h i c h as late as fifty years ago
w e r e p r i n c i p a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e for all h u m a n deaths, t y p h o i d f e v e r a n d d i p h t h e r i a ,
for e x a m p l e , at the p r e s e n t t i m e no l o n g e r figure a m o n g the ten l e a d i n g causes
of d e a t h . On the o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e has b e e n an i n c a l c u l a b l e i n c r e a s e in t h e
 204 :~IEDAI~D 13OSS

n u m b e r of t h e s o - c a l l e d o r g a n - n e u r o s e s a n d o f t h e s o - c a l l e d i d i o p a t h i c a n d
e s s e n t i a l b o d i l y :afflictions, In a p u r e l y q u a n t i t a t i v e sense, a t a n y rate, t h e y
n o w f a r o v e r s h a d o w all i n f e c t i o u s diseases, all m a l i g n a n t swellings, a n d in
f a c t all illnesses c o m b i n e d w h i c h :are a m e n a b l e to scientific a n a l y s i s in r e s p e c t
of t h e i r a v a i l a b i l i t y to t h e r a p y . How.ever, e v e n in t h e i r case, d e s p i t e tile g r e a t -
est c a r e o n tile p a r t of i n v e s t i g a t o r s , s t r u c t u r a l lesions c a n n o t b e f o u n d a n y
m o r e t h a n in t h e case of t h e h y s t e r i c a l d i s t u r b a n c e s . -
C a u g h t in s u c h a q u a n d a r y , p h y s i c i a n s at first s o u g h t s i m p l y to t u r n t h e
traditionally a c c e p t e d etiological scheme upside down without moving even
o n e s t e p a w a y f r o m t h e i r o l d f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e . E v e n a t e c h n i c a l l y - o r i e n t e d
etiological s c h e m e w i t h a re.versed c h a i n of causes a n d effects r e m a i n s , n e v e r t h e -
less, a t e c h n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d c o n s t r u c t of t h o u g h t . N o w , t h e p r i m a r y c a u s e w a s
t h o u g h t to b e a f u n c t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e in t h e v e g e t a t i v e , r e g u l a t o r y c e n t e r s of
t h e b r a i n stem. T h i s w a s t h e n s u p p o s e d to b r i n g a b o u t , at first, a f u n c t i o n a l ill-
ness in one or a n o t h e r organ. If it c o n t i n u e d sufficiently long, s u c h a f u n c t i o n a l
" o r g a n - n e u r o s i s " w a s finally s u p p o s e d to c a u s e an o r g a n i c lesion a n d , t h e r e -
fore, a b o d i l y illness. A t first g l a n c e it s e e m e d t h a t this n e w , r e v i s e d f o r m u l a
v e g e t a t i v e d y s t o n y -->- f u n c t i o n a l o r g a n - n e u r o s i s --~ o r g a n i c s t r u c t u r a l lesion
o r g a n i c i l l n e s s - - - s u p p l i e d a u s e f u l k e y to th.e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of all p r e v i o u s l y
inconceivable, p a t h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s in t h e h u m a n o r g a n i s m .
T h e o n l y e l e m e n t r e m a i n i n g to b e c l e a r e d u p w a s to w h a t t h e v e g e t a t i v e
f u n c t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e , t h e so-called v e g e t a t i v e d y s t o n y , w a s to b e a t t r i b u t e d .
T h i s f u n d a m e n t a l a n d c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n w a s i n e v i t a b l y left u n a n s w e r e d , or at
l e a s t Only p a r t i a l l y a n s w e r e d , e v e n in t e r m s of t h e r e v i s e d , t e c h n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d
etiological s c h e m e . At first t h e r e w a s s p r e a d o u t .just b e h i n d t h e n e w c o n c e p -
tion o f a p r i m a r y "'v.egetative d y s t o n y " t h e veil, as it w e r e , of t h e s o , c a l l e d
c o n s t i t u t i o n or d i s p o s i t i o n . - T h e n , h o w e v e r , it b e c a m e e v e r m o r e - . o b v i o u s t h a t
file p s y c h i c f a c t o r h a d s o m e t h i n g to do w i t h t h e v e g e t a t i v e d i s o r d e r .
At this j u n c t u r e it w a s F r e u d w h o c a m e f o r w a r d w i t h o n e final a n d magnifi-
c e n t a t t e m p t to r e s c u e t h e scientific c o n c e p t i o n of m a n . H e s u c c e e d e d , t h a n k s
to his b r i l l i a n t Observations, in e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e efficacy a n d thus, also, t h e reali-
t y of t h e " p s y c h i c , " w h i c h u p to his t i m e h a d b e e n a l m o s t t o t a l l y i ~ n o r e d b y
m e d i c a l ~ s c i e i a c e . : H e d i d this b y d i s c l o s i n g its p r e s e n c e in a t h o u s a n d a n d o n e
e v e r y d a y i n c i d e n t s as w e l l as in p a t h o l o g i c a l s y m p t o m s . H o w e v e r , F r e u d h a d
as his m e a n s for c o p i n g w i t h this n e w r e a l i t y n o t h i n g else b u t t h e p r e c o n -
c e i v e d ideas a n d t h e q u e r i e s of t h e old t e c h n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of
reality.: F r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l p r e m i s e s w h i c h he took
o v e r u n h e s i t a t i n g l y , t h e p s y c h i c p h e n o m e n a w e r e b o u n d to b e a t t r i b u t e d to an
o b j e c t : e x a c t l y as t h e c o r p o r e a l n a t u r e of m a n c o u l d f o r m e r l y a p p e a r to biolo-
gists to b e m e r e l y an o r g a n i s m or an a p p a r a t u s . F r e u d ' s scientific i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of tlie p s y c h i c p h e n o m e n a cOUld o n l y c u l m i n a t e in ~tile d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t t h e y
to0 w e r e o n l y p a r t s : o f a d y n a m i c - e c o n o m i c " l i b i d i n o u s " s y s t e m of e q u i l i b r i u m
f f i n c t i o n i n g in a c c o r d a n c e With t h e p e r f o r m a n c e p r i n c i p l e . T h i s o b j e c t i v e m a t -
ter s u p p o s e d to u n d e r l i e m e n t a l p h e n o m e n a h e c a l l e d t h e "'psychic a p p a r a -
tusi" I t soon b e c a m e a p p a r e n t t h a t F r e u d , b y tlais c o n c e p t , ] l a d p r o v i d e d r e e d
ical science in t h e field of p s y c h o n e u r o t i c a n d o r g a n - n e u r o t i c p h e n o m e n a w i t h
MAN IN NATUI1AL :SCIENCE AND DASEINSANALYSIS 0,03

a p r a c t i c a l t h e r a p e u t i c m e t h o d t h a t p r o v e d to be e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y successful:
the t h e r a p e u t i c t e c h n i q u e o f psy.choanalysis.
H o w e v e r , a successful a b i l i t y to m a n i p u l a t e a n o b j e c t b y no m e a n s sig~,ai;fies
t h a t t h e intrinsic r e a l i t y of t h e l a t t e r has beer~ g r a s p e d , N o w w e w e r e s i m p l y
f a c e d b y y e t a n o t h e r object. Beside t h o s e f o r m e r l y r e c o g n i z e d as possessing
sole validity, the b o d i l y struct~lres, w e n o w h a d t h e c o n c e p t of a "'pysehie
a p p a r a t u s . " Or, as yon ~Z.eizs~icker e7 later p u t it, t h e "'subject" .was r e i n t r o d u c e d
into m e d i c i n e , w i t h o u t von V~Zeizsiicker or his s u b j e e t i v i s t i c followers ever clari-
f y i n g t h e basic c o n s t i t u t i o n of such a "'subject," or even h a v i n g called it in
question. X~Zith the a p p e a r a n c e o f the o b j e c t "'psyche'" or the "'subject" the causal
chain of t h e t e c h n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d etiological s c h e m e c o u l d n o w h a v e a n o t h e r
c a u s a l link a d d e d to it a n d the f o r m u l a c o u l d b e e x t e n d e d to r e a d : P s y c h e
( s u b j e c t ) -~ v e g e t a t i v e d y s t o n y ->~ f u n c t i o n a l o r g a n - n e m , osis ->~ o r g a n i c struc-
tural lesion -~ o r g a n i c illness.
In s u c h a form, w h i c h goes b a c k to F r e u d , this etiological s c h e m e still c o n -
stitutes the basis of scientific t h i n k i n g a b o u t m a n at the p r e s e n t time. F r o m
it p s y c h o - s o m a t i c m e d i c i n e , for instance, derives n o t only its h y p h e n a t e d n a m e ;
it also e w e s to it its w e l l - k n o w n e m p h a s i s on t h e " ' p s y c h o d y n a m i c " c h a r a c t e r
of its c o n c e p t i o n of illness. H o w e v e r , this p s y c h o s o m a t i c m e d i c i n e has n e v e r
seriously reflected on e i t h e r t h e c o n c e p t of an e t i o l o g y or on the n a t u r e of the
d y n a m i c . F o r this r e a s o n it does not even k n o w w h a t it is saying, a n d w h e t h e r
it is s a y i n g a n y t h i n g at all, w h e n it speaks of p s y c h o d y n a m i c cause a n d effect
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s . If, w h e n it talks, let us say, of a p s y c h o d ) n a m i c causation
of b o d i l y s y m p t o m s b y m e n t a l excitations or of p s y c h i c effects i n d u c e d b y b o d -
ily causes, it e n t e r t a i n s the n o t i o n t h a t one is in p o i n t of fact elicited b y the
o t h e r a n d c r e a t e d o u t of it. It misuses, at a n y rate, t h e aitfa, the root of m o d e r n
etiology, as w e l l as t h e d y n a m i s in a w a y t h a t is w h o l l y alien to these a n c i e n t
concepts.
To be sure, the t r a d i t i o n a l scientific spirit is not f u n d a m e n t a l l y c o n c e r n e d at
all w i t h a p r o f o u n d a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the real n a t u r e of
things, w h i c h w o u l d d e m a n d a c a r e f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n of first principles. It
strives o n l y for t h e p o s i t i v e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a s y s t e m of l a w u n d e r l y i n g all
e v e n t s in the w o r l d , this s y s t e m b e i n g p r e d i c t a b l e and b y its p r e d i c t a b i l i t y
a m e n a b l e to control a n d efficiency. I t i s so c o n c e r n e d w i t h a s s u r a n c e a g a i n s t
e v e r y t h i n g u n f o r e s e e n t h a t ; s i g n i f i c a n t l y e n o u g h , t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g of t h e
m o d e r n scientific a g e also p r o d u c e d t h e i d e a of life i n s u r a n c e , w h i c h o r i g i n a t e d
w i t h t h e p h i l o s o p h e r Leibniz, w h o was b o r n in 1646. D e d i c a t e d to this goal,
t e c h n i c a l t h o u g h t p a i d i n c r e a s i n g l y less h e e d to t h e i n n e r m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s of
its ideas of causation. N o t even in the case of s u c h a m a s s i v e b o d i l y e v e n t as,
let us say, t h e p a r t i a l d e s t r u c t i o n of the b r a i n as a c o n s e q u e n c e of a b u l l e t
w o u n d , can w e s p e a k of a causal r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e w o u n d in the b r a i n
a n d t h e c o n s e c u t i v e t r a u m a t i c d e m e n t i a . T h e exeel?tion t o this w o u l d b e i f b y
"'causation'" t h e r e is n o t m e a n t a p r o d u c t i o n o f one b y t h e o t h e r in ttie sense
of a ca.usa e~.ficiena, a n d t h e c o n c e p t of cause is r e d u c e d to n o t h i n g b u t a m e r e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of r e g u l a r t e m p o r a l s e q u e n c e s of specific events. An actual
causal d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e d e m e n t e d c o n t e n t s of the m i n d b y an alteration
20~ X~EDABD BOSS

in the s u b s t a n c e of t h e brain, m e r e l y in t h e sense in w h i c h w a t e r is a b l e to

p r o d u c e w a t e r v a p o r b y its o w n e v a p o r a t i o n , c a n n o t b e f a c t u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d
n o r is it e v e n at all c o n c e i v a b l e . -~3
Also, t h e r e v e r s e process of t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a n y k i n d of b o d i l y m e t a b o l i c
d i s t u r b a n c e , for e x a m p l e , b y a p s y c h i c e v e n t is just as f u n d a m e n t a l l y impos-
sible as t h e above. N e i t h e r a t h o u g h t h o r a f a n t a s y nor an e m o t i o n can c a u s e
s u c h - a b o d i l y m o d i f i c a t i o n . W e can, for e x a m p l e , w h e n a p e r s o n b e c o m e s
anxious n o t e t h a t o n l y in a p u r e l y t e m p o r a l sense d u r i n g tile t i m e of s u c h
e m o t i o n his b l o o d p r e s s u r e rises, t h e m o t o r a c t i v i t y of his intestines b e c o m e s
m o r e p r o n o u n c e d , his s u g a r b a l a n c e alters, etc. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t r a d i t i o n a l psy-
c h o s o m a t i c m e d i c i n e n e v e r h e s i t a t e d to force t h e s e p h e n o m e n a into c a u s a l i t y
in the sense of a causa e ~ c i e n s , t h e sole f o r m u l a a c c e p t a b l e to t h e t e c h n i c a l
outlook. W i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g use of t h e w o r d "qgeeause," it a s s e r t e d t h a t
b l o o d p r e s s u r e rises, intestines b e c o m e m o r e active a n d tile s u g a r b a l a n c e
alters, b e c a u s e a n x i e t y is p r e s e n t . P r o c e e d i n g thus, it d i d n o t even h e e d t h e
w i s d o m of t h e l a n g u a g e i n v o l v e d ( G e r m a n ) , w h i c h r e t a i n s in the w,,~rd w e l l
( b e c a u s e ) the old w o r d a l l d i e w e i l (all t h e w h i l e ) , a n d t h u s in s u b s t a n c e says
o n l y t h a t d u r i n g t h e p r e s e n c e of one p h e n o m e n o n a n o t h e r occurs. J u s t as tile
l a n g u a g e itself w i t h its " b e c a u s e " ( w h i l e , or d u r i n g ) o r i g i n a l l y p r o c l a i m s no
sort of c o n n e c t i o n b e t ~ - e n c a u s e a n d effect, all o u r scientific e x p e r i m e n t s do
n o t e n t i t l e us in t h e slightest to claim such causal connections.
THE DASEINSANALYTIC CONCEPTION
If w e r e c o g n i z e t h a t u p to t h e p r e s e n t o u r scientific t h i n k i n g has n o t b e e n
a b l e to do justice to t h e p h e n o m e n o n of h u m a n existence, it is h i g h t i m e w e
u n d e r t o o k a r a d i c a l r e a p p r a i s a l of t h e n a t u r e of m a n . In d o i n g so w e shall
w i t h a d v a n t a g e h a v e o u r n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m a n ' s existence b e g i n on t h e
basis of m o s t i m m e d i a t e a n d e v e r y d a y experience. F o r t h a t r e a s o n let us sup-
pose t h a t on a w a l k in t h e e a r l y m o r n i n g in t h e a u t u m n w e b e c o m e a w a r e of
an a p p l e tree in its a u t u m n f o l i a g e l o o m i n g u p some d i s t a n c e a h e a d of us. To
p e r c e i v e it as t h a t w h i c h it is a n d h u n g r y as w e are so e a r l y in the m o r n i n g m
to b e in o u r f a n c y , next to it a n d its juicy apples, w i t h o u r a p p e t i t e a r o u s e d ,
a m o u n t s to one a n d t h e s a m e thing. P r e s u m a b l y in t h e next m o m e n t o u r feet
will t a k e us to it also. O u r a r m s will hoist us l a b o r i o u s l y into t h e b r a n c h e s of
t h e tree. O u r t e e t h Will b i t e into one of t h e a p p l e s a n d our s t o m a c h will
secrete t h e g a s t r i c juices n e c e s s a r y to its final i n c o r p o r a t i o n a n d assimilation
into our s y s t e m .
Brief a n d s i m p l e t h o u g h this e v e n t is, it still p r o v i d e s us w i t h m o r e t h a n
e n o u g h f u n d a m e n t a l d a t a to w o r k w i t h . W i t h w h a t real a n d c o n c r e t e s t a t e of
affairs d i d o u r s t o r y b e g i n , not to m e n t i o n its l a t e r c o u r s e ? T r a d i t i o n a l bio-
logical science w o u l d t e a c h us first t h a t a h u m a n s u b j e c t w i t h a b o d y w a s
p r e s e n t a n d t h a t an a p p l e t r e e stood there. O r r a t h e r , at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g
t h e r e w a s n o t e v e n an a p p l e treet F o r in t h e v e r y first m o m e n t w e w o u l d n o t
h a v e k n o w n , a biologist w o u l d say, t h a t this w a s an a p p l e tree. R a t h e r , he
w o u l d m a i n t a i n t h a t o n l y an u n d e t e r m i n e d , u n k n o w n S o m e t h i n g w o u l d h a v e
e m i t t e d light rays, w h i c h w o u l d t h e n h a v e a r o u s e d c o r r e s p o n d i n g n e r v o u s
MAN IN NATURAL SCIENCE AND DASEINSANALYSIS 207

excitations in t h e r e t i n a of t h e observer. F r o m t h e r e t i n a these e x c i t a t i o n s

w o u l d be c o n d u c t e d to t h e u p p e r regions of t h e b r a i n w h e r e t h e y w o u l d
b e p e r c e i v e d as s e n s o r y p e r c e p t i o n s . A f t e r that, t h e scientist w o u l d c o n t i n u e ,
t h e excitations w o u l d r e a c h t h e cortex w h e r e t h e y w o u l d b e c o r r e c t l y p u t to-
g e t h e r on t h e basis of m e m o r y traces p r o d u c e d b y e a r l i e r a n d similar s e n s o r y
stimuli w h i c h in s o m e w a y w o u l d still reside in t h e o r g a n i c " s u b s t r a t u m " of
t h e b r a i n cells. This final a s s e m b l y in t h e cortex w o u l d m a k e it possible to
r e c o g n i z e t h e p e r c e i v e d t h i n g as "'apple tree." It will, however~ f o r e v e r r e m a i n
b e y o n d c o m p r e h e n s i o n in w h a t w a y a n d b y w h a t m i r a c l e n e r v o u s excitations
can be c h a n g e d into p e r c e p t i o n of m e a n i n g f u l i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n s . No m a t t e r
h o w far r e s e a r c h into r e t i n a l a n d b r a i n processes is p u s h e d f o r w a r d , no m a t -
ter h o w m u c h m o r e w e u n d e r s t a n d a b o u t t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l functions, i n v o l v e d ,
t h e m a g i c b y w h i c h such a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is a c c o m p l i s h e d r e m a i n s a puzzle.
H o w e v e r , e v e n later in t h e process w e n e v e r c o m e u p o n a m y s t e r i o u s "'psy-
chic a p p a r a t u s " w h i c h w o u l d , t h a n k s to a still m o r e m y s t e r i o u s visual function,
h a v e t a k e n n o t e of the a p p l e t r e e a n d w o u l d h a v e m o v e d t o w a r d it, nor h a v e
w e d e t e r m i n e d t h e existence of a consciousness in t h e h u m a n s u b j e c t w h i c h
w a s c a p a b l e of c l i m b i n g o u t of itself a n d over to t h e object. In fact, it w o u l d
be h a r d to i m a g i n e h o w a s u b j e c t w o u l d h a v e to b e c o n s t i t u t e d in o r d e r to
possess a consciousness c a p a b l e of c l i m b i n g o v e r a n d o u t of itself, a n d h o w
a consciousness w o u l d h a v e to be c o n s t i t u t e d in o r d e r to b e c a p a b l e of Such
"transcending?"
N o t h i n g of all this r e a l l y took p l a c e w h e n w e c a m e u p o n t h e a p p l e tree.
R a t h e r our e x p e r i e n c e t e a c h e s us t h a t first of all it is a l w a y s "'merely" o u r
m e e t i n g w i t h t h e a p p l e tree, i.e., our i m m e d i a t e s e e i n g a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
t h e a p p l e t r e e as a p p l e t r e e w i t h e d i b l e f r u i t t h a t is s i m p l y there. H o w is s u c h
an i m m e d i a t e seeing a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of a t h i n g w h i c h w e c h a n c e to c o m e
u p o n p o s s i b l e at all unless o u r existence is a l r e a d y of a k i n d of m e n t a l b r i g h t -
ness in w h i c h a thing as t h e thing it is can m a k e its a p p e a r a n c e a n d r e v e a l it-
self in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h its m e a n i n g f u l c o n t e n t s ? A t a n y rate, in t h e case of
our m e e t i n g w i t h t h e a p p l e tree, t h e r e w a s at the v e r y o u t s e t n o t h i n g m o r e
t h a n our h u n g r y a n d p a s s i o n a t e l y d e s i r o u s d i s c o v e r i n g of this tree w i t h its
a t t r a c t i v e fruit. O u r e n t i r e n a t u r e as a h u m a n b e i n g was at t h a t m o m e n t con-
c e n t r a t e d u p o n t h e p e r c e p t i o n of t h e a p p l e tree. O u r existence, s t r o n g l y at-
t u n e d to h u n g e r and, t h e r e f o r e , o p e n o n l y to t h e p e r c e p t i o n of s o m e t h i n g
e d i b l e w a s in its t o t a l i t y m e r g e d in t h e " s e e i n g " a n d t h e "'desiring" of t h e
apples. D i d not o u r little story also m e n t i o n a r m s a n d legs w h i c h a l l o w e d us
to p i t ourselves a g a i n s t t h e a p p l e tree a n d c l i m b u p into it? J u s t w h e r e d i d w e
s u d d e n l y c o n j u r e up a c o r p o r e a l o r g a n i s m or a b o d y ? W e w e r e n o t p r a c t i s i n g
m a g i c ; w e w e r e s i m p l y t h i n k i n g too m u c h w h e n w e r e c o u n t e d t h e e v e n t a f t e r
t h e fact. It is only reflection a f t e r t h e fact, p u t t i n g a c o n s t r u c t i o n on the e v e n t
f r o m t h e outside, a n d c o n c r e t i z i n g t h e e v e n t a n d i n t r o d u c i n g artificial divi-
sions, tlmt i n d u c e s us to r e g a r d ourselves as e q u i p p e d w i t h s e p a r a t e a p p e n d a g e s
a n d organs. In t h e u n m e d i a t e d , c o n c r e t e r e a l i t y of o u r h a s t e n i n g to t h e t r e e
a n d c l i m b i n g it we k n e w n o t h i n g of a b o d y or o r g a n i s m . T h e r e w a s p r e s e n t
n e i t h e r o n e nor the o t h e r as a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y . E v e n in our w a l k i n g a n d c l i m b -
208 MEDAlqD BOSS

i n g t h e r e w a s a l w a y s p r e s e n t o n l y o u r s e l v e s as w e h a d b e e n f r o m t h e v e r y b e -
g i n n i n g , exisiting in o u r u n d i v i d e d w h o l e n e s s - - - w i t h o u r f e e t a n d a r m s in-
cluded in o u r p e r c e i v i n g a n d a c t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p t o w a r d s t h e a p p l e s . W h a t
h a p p e n e d h e r e w a s o n l y this: t h a t t h e e x i s t e n t i a l c l o s e n e s s to t h e a p p l e s
w h i c h at first h a d o c c u r r e d as t h e " ' p e r c e i v i n g " of t h 6 m , t h e "'thinking" of
t h e m a n d t h e " d e s i r i n g " of t h e m n o w w a s also fulfilled w i t h i n t h e b o d i l y r e a l m
of this e x i s t e n c e . W h a t o c c u r r e d w a s t h e b o d i l y f u l f i l l m e n t a n d c o m p l e t i o n or
t h e c o r p o r e a l e n g u l f i n g a n d c o n s u m m a t i o n of o u r p e r c e p t u a l , e m o t i o n a l a n d
" i n t e l l e c t u a l " r e l a t i o n s h i p to this t h i n g ; it, h o w e v e r , h a v i n g e x i s t e d e v e n f r o m
t h e b e g i n n i n g of o u r e n c o u n t e r as just this r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d no o t h e r .
W e a r e n e v e r m e r e l y s o m e k i n d of i n d e p e n d e n t l y e x i s t i n g e x t e r n a l c a r a p a c e
on t h e i n s i d e of t h e b o d y of a b i o l o g i c a l o r g a n i s m e n c a p s u l e d w i t h i n its
e p i d e r m i s , w h i c h o r g a n i s m w o u l d t h e n a t s o m e t i m e or o t h e r e x t e n d s o m e
k i n d of a n t e n n a e or p s e u d o p o d s to a n e x t e r n a l w o r l d in o r d e r to d i s c e r n it
a n d to g r a s p it. O u r e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e a p p l e t r e e i l l u s t r a t e s this. H o w s h o u l d
e s s e n t i a l l y b l i n d p a r t i c l e s o f m a t t e r a n d q u a n t a of e n e r g y s u d d e n l y b e c o m e
e n d o w e d w i t h t h e p o w e r of s i g h t a n d b e a b l e to p e r c e i v e t h i n g s as t h e y a r e
in all t h e i r far-flung, m a n i f o l d m e a n i n g f u l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s ? R a t h e r , a n y ex-
p e r i e n c e at r a n d o m s h o w s us t h a t w e as h u m a n b e i n g s h a v e a l w a y s a n d in an
a b s o l u t e l y o r i g i n a l s e n s e h a d o u r a b o d e "'out t h e r e , " i.e., at all t i m e s in t h e
t o t a l a r e n a of this or t h a t p e r c e i v i n g , t h i n k i n g , d r e a m i n g , feeling, i n e l u c t a b l e
r e l a t i o n s h i p to an o b j e c t c o n f r o n t i n g us, w h e t h e r a p l a n t , a n a n i m a l , a f e l l o w
h u m a n b e i n g , o u r s e l v e s , or to h e a v e n a n d e a r t h . F u n d a m e n t a l l y , w e a r e n o t
o n l y f r o m t i m e to t i m e i n s u c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p . O u r t o t a l h u m a n e x i s t e n c e in
g e n e r a l h a p p e n s o n l y as t h e t o t a l i t y of o u r p a s t , p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t i e s
of e n t e r i n g into a r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h a t w h i c h b e f a l l s us.
Also o u r total, s o - c a l l e d phy,sical b e h a v i o r , t h a t r e a l m o f " o u r e x i s t e n c e
w h i c h a n o b j e c t i f y i n g a p p r o a c h is a c c u s t o m e d to i s o l a t e i]atellectually as a
b o d y or carcass, is an u n m e d i a t e d p a r t or p a r t i a l p h e n o m e n o n of o u r o r i g i n a l
p e r c e i v i n g , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , l u m i n a t i n g c o n n e e t e d n e s s w i t h t h a t w h i c h w e en-
c o u n t e r . T h i s c o n n e c t e d n e s s is t h e p r i m o r d i a l c o n s t i t u e n t of o u r h u m a n n a t u r e
as such. O t h e r w i s e it w o u l d r e m a i n u n f a t h o m a b l e h o w a n d w h y t h e c o r p o r e a l
s i d e of o u r n a t u r e is a l w a y s so u t t e r l y o r i e n t e d t o w a r d t h a t w h i c h c o n f r o n t s
us, a n d this on all its levels at o n c e v e g e t a t i v e , h o r m o n a l , cortical, m u s c u l a r ,
and skeletal as w e h a v e j u s t b e e n r e m i n d e d o n c e a g a i n b y o u r e x a m p l e of
t h e a p p l e t r e e . It a t all t i m e s m o v e s i n , m e d i a t e l y w i t h i n t h a t p e r c e p t u a l a n d
u n d e r s t a n d i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h i n g s in. w h i c h a n d a s w h i c h o u r e x i s t e n c e
s i m p l y t u r n s u p a t a n y g i v e n t i m e . T h e i m m e d i a t e c o n s e q u e n c e of this is t h a t
f u n d a r n e n t a l l y all t h e c o r p o r e a l p h e n o m e n a of o u r e x i s t e n c e d o w n to t h e
most intricate structures and functions can never really be understood except
f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of t h e t o t a l i t y of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s to o b j e c t s a n d to f e l l o w
h u m a n b e i n g s m a k i n g u p o u r e x i s t e n c e at a n y g i v e n t i m e .
T o b e sure, t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e h u m a n w a y of e x i s t i n g m u s t n o t b e
m i s u n d e r s t o o d as m e r e d o g m a t i c a s s e r t i o h s a n d c o n f u s e d w i t h scientific ex-
p l a n a t i o n s w h i c h w o u l d first n e e d s o m e k i n d of "'proof" or other. W e a r e con-
c e r n e d h e r e , r a t h e r , w i t h i m m e d i a t e l y p e r c e p t i b l e f e a t u r e s of o u r e x i s t e n c e
MAN IN NATURAL SCIENCE AND DASEINSANALYSIS 209

w h i c h c a n o n l y b e see or n o t seen, a n d n o t h i n g m o r e as, let us say, t h e f a c t

t h a t a p e r s o n h a s t w o a r m s is i m m e d i a t e l y o b s e r v a b l e a n d does n o t first n e e d
to b e d e r i v e a f r o m s o m e t h i n g else b y s o m e k i n d of t h e o r e t i c a l p r o o f .
T h e g r e a t e r c o n g r u e n c e w i t h , a n d c l o s e n e s s to, r e a l i t y of t h e d a s e i n s a n a l y t i c
a p p r o a c h is n o w h e r e m o r e c o n v i n c i n g l y s h o w n t h a n in t h e c a s e of all t h o s e
p h e n o m e n a of w h i c h s c i e n t i f i c - o b j e c t i v e t h i n k i n g fails in a p a r t i c u l a r l y crass
f a s h i o n . T h e s e p h e n o m e n a w e h a v e h e r e t o f o r e d e s i g n a t e d as t h e f r i n g e p h e -
o m e n a of this w a y of t h i n k i n g . W i t h i n t h e b i o l o g i c a l a n d p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e a l m
these were the mimetic phenomena, the expressive gestures and the bodily
phenomena "'accompanying" the emotions.
T h e c i t a t i o n f r o m D a r w i n r e m i n d e d us t h a t t h e o l d - s t y l e biologists h a d
b r a n d e d t h e m i m i c r y of t h e e n r a g e d " p e r s o n , his c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b a r i n g of t h e
t e e t h , as a useless s u r v i v a l o f w h a t h a d o n c e b e e n an a g g r e s s i v e action. T h e i r
s p e c u l a t i o n s r a n a l o n g p h y l o g e n e t i c lines. N o w a d a y s w e no l o n g e r n e e d to
r e s o r t to s u c h u t t e r l y u n f o u n d e d a n d i n d e m o n s t r a b l e h y p o t h e s e s . W e stick,
r a t h e r , to t h e i m m e d i a t e r e a l i t y of a r a g i n g or h a t i n g h u m a n b e i n g . T h i s r e a l i t y
consists a b o v e all in his b e i n g a t t u n e d to a c e r t a i n m o o d . ,As t h e a t t n n e m e n t
to t h e m o o d of r a g e or of h a t e , it defines all t h e t h i n g s a n d p e r s o n s c o n f r o n t -
i n g h i m m e r e l y as r e s i s t a n t o b s t a c l e s . It a l l o w s t h e m to 'be~ p e r c e i v e d as restric-
tive limits o p p o s i n g his o w n p h y s i c a l or p s y c h i c u n f o l d i n g . F o r this r e a s o n ,
a p e r s o n w h o is e n r a g e d or w h o gives w a y to h a t r e d a l w a y s p r o c e e d s to t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n a n d a n n i h i l a t i o n of t h e t h i n g s in his e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h h e r e c o g -
n i z e s o n l y as o b s t r u c t i v e b a r r i e r s . T h e r e f o r e r a g e a n d h a t r e d ( H a s s ) a r e so
e m i n e n t l y h o s t i l e to f o r m t h a t t h e y d e f o r m e v e r y t h i n g a n d m a k e it u g l y
( h i i s s l i c h ) . T h u s , for i n s t a n c e , in S h a k e s p e a r e ' s R i c h a r d I I I t h e h a t r e d filling
L a d y A n n e ' s e x e c r a t i o n s d i s t o r t s t h e m u r d e r e r of h e r h u s b a n d so t h a t in h e r
w o r d s h e b e c o m e s a "'creeping v e n o m ' d thing.'" I n fact, h e r h a t r e d e v e n carries
o v e r to his u n b o r n child, w h o m s h e w i s h e s to b e "'abortivel . . . . P r o d i g i o u s a n d
u n t i m e l y b r o u g h t to l i g h t , / \ ¥ h o s e u g l y u n n a t u r a l a s p e c t / M a y f r i g h t t h e h o p e -
ful m o t h e r at t h e view.'"
T h i s s t a t e of b e i n g a t t u n e d to r a g e a n d h a t e , this m e l o d y of e x i s t e n c e de-
t e r m i n i n g a n d r e s t r i c t i n g a b e i n g to a m o d e of b e h a v i o r l e a d i n g o n l y to t h e
d i s t o r t i n g a n d t e a r i n g of t h i n g s , d o e s not, h o w e v e r , e v e n t u a t e o n l y in d e s t r u c -
tive i m p u l s e s a n d w i s h e s or in v o l u n t a r y acts. T h i s s t a t e of existing also in-
c l u d e s its t o t a l b o d i l y m e d i u m as w e l l a n d s h o w s itself in t h e d i s t o r t e d g r i m a c e s
of t h e e n r a g e d p e r s o n a n d in his h a t e - d i s f i g u r e d m i m i c r y too.
If t h e e x i s t e n c e of a h u m a n b e i n g is a t t u n e d w h o l l y to a n x i e t y , it is con-
s t r i c t e d to a m e r e p o i n t , as it w e r e , to u t t e r n u l l i t y , a n d this n o t o n l y in t h e
r e a h n of m e n t a l e x p e r i e n c e s . I n t h e b o d i l y s p h e r e as w e l l t h e m o o d of a n x i e t y
finds its s i g n i f i c a n t r e s o n a n c e . T h i s o c c u r s , for o n e t h i n g , in an a n x i o u s flinch-
ing i n v o l v i n g t h e w h o l e b o d y a n d in t h e a n x i o u s g e s t u r e of r e t r a c t i o n of t h e
e x t r e m i t i e s . S i m i l a r l y , i n s i d e t h e b o d y , t h e t h r o a t b e c o m e s c o n s t r i c t e d as well,
t h e h e a r t b e c o m e s c ~ a m p e d , a n d e v e n t h e i n n e r m o s t vitals a r e s q u e e z e d like
a l e m o n o w i n g to t h e s t r o n g c o n t r a c t i o n s of t h e b o w e l s a n d b l a d d e r .
I n t h e e l a t i o n of joy, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e b r e a s t is l i f t e d a n d t h e heart.
b e a t s faster. In just t h e s a m e w a y e v e r y t h i n g in t h e m i m i c r y of t h e j o y o u s
210 MEDARD BOSS

p e r s o n is u p l i f t e d in s u c h a m o o d . This is w h y as c h i l d r e n w e all d r e w t h e
face of a l a u g h i n g p e r s o n w i t h e y e b r o w s a n d corners of t h e m o u t h t u r n e d up.
In contrast, w e i n d i c a t e d m i m e t i c a l l y t h e p a i n f u l l y d e p r e s s e d b e i n g of t h e
sad p e r s o n w i t h d o w n w a r d strokes, a n d w e stressed this b y p u t t i n g in tears
falling to t h e g r o u n d . In o p p o s i t i o n to Plessner's t h e o r y , then, w h e n a person
l a u g h s a n d weeps, he is in r e a l i t y a n y t h i n g b u t "cut off f r o m his r e l a t i o n s h i p
to his b o d y . ''24
T h e b e h a v i o r of d o g a n d r a b b i t h a d also p o s e d i n s u p e r a b l e difficulties for
t e c h n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d physiologists. "-''~ T o explain t h e s t o p p a g e of b r e a t h of a
s t a r t l e d dog, t h e y w e r e o b l i g e d to a s c r i b e to this a n i m a l t h e e n t i r e l y unverifiable
m o t i v e t h a t it d i d n o t w a n t its a t t e n t i o n d i s t r a c t e d b y its o w n b r e a t h i n g . T h e
h e a r t s t o p p a g e of t h e r a b b i t w h i c h has a h a r m f u l o l f a c t o r y a g e n t h e l d u n d e r
its nose, a s t o p p a g e t h a t w a s all too p u r p o s e l e s s , in f a c t c o n t r a r y to all p u r p o s e ,
fell, as w e h a v e seen, so far o u t of t h e f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e of a t e c h n i c a l l y
o r i e n t e d p h y s i o l o g y t h a t it d e m o t e d this h e a r t s t o p p a g e to t h e status of a
m e a n i n g l e s s "'irradiation s y m p t o m of v e g e t a t i v e e x c i t e m e n t . " As such, t h e
r e a s o n i n g t h e n was, it m e r e l y i n d i c a t e d t h e limits a n d the insufficiency of t h e
organic order.
At this p o i n t as well, t h e i m m e d i a t e l y given r e a l i t y o f a living b e i n g w h i c h
s u d d e n l y comes across an u n f a m i l i a r thing, or is e v e n f r i g h t e n e d b y it, t e a c h e s
us s o m e t h i n g q u i t e different. W h e n s t a r t l e d in this w a y , t h e e n t i r e b e i n g comes
to a h a l t b e f o r e it a n d Stiffens. Again, all s p h e r e s of t h e living b e i n g ' s r e l a t i o n -
ship to t h e external w o r l d t a k e p a r t in this stiffening, as it were, a n d c o m e to a
standstill. This standstill of t h e m e l o d y of h u m a n existence is n o t i c e a b l e
again in t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l b e w i l d e r m e n t of t h e s t a r t l e d person. At t h e s a m e
t i m e t h e r e a p p e a r s the a b r u p t stiffening of t h e e n t i r e v o l u n t a r y m u s c u l a r
s y s t e m a n d t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n of b r e a t h i n g r h y t h m a n d s t o p p a g e ~-of t h e h e a r t -
beat. W h a t a p p e a r e d a m e a n i n g l e s s " i r r a d i a t i o n p h e n o m e n o n " b u r s t i n g t h e
b o u n d s of t h e o r g a n i c o r d e r is c a p a b l e of f u r n i s h i n g us w i t h e v e r m o r e con-
v i n c i n g insights into t h e m a g n i f i c e n t l y a l l - e n c o m p a s s i n g s t r u c t u r e of h u m a n
existence e m b r a c i n g b o t h t h e b o d i l y a n d t h e m e n t a l spheres. W e no l o n g e r
n e e d a t all to b l a m e t h e i n a d e q u a t e l y u n d e r s t o o d p h e n o m e n o n itself for t h e
insufficiency of our o w n f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e a n d b r a n d it as a s y m p t o m of t h e
" ' b r e a k d o w n of t h e o r g a n i c order."
In t h e field of m e d i c i n e w e h a v e h a d to a d m i t t h a t w e in effect say n o t h i n g
w h e n w e "explain" t h e t r a u m a t i c d e m e n t i a of a p a t i e n t as, let us say, b e i n g
"'caused" b y a b u l l e t w o u n d on t h e brain. Such an e x p l a n a t i o n does n o t f u r t h e r
ou~ a c t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e s e p a t i e n t s in t h e least. W e n e v e r will b e
a b l e to i m a g i n e t h a t t h e c h a t t e r of s u c h an " o r g a n i c t y p e , " his a l m o s t d r e a m -
like v e g e t a t i v e existence w h i c h is p e r h a p s i n t e r r u p t e d o n l y b y h a l l u c i n a t o r y
states of excitement, w e r e a c t u a l l y b r o u g h t on b y t h e d e m o l i s h e d b r a i n cells,
t h a t is to say, i n a c t u a l fact w e r e p r o d u c e d b y t h e m . E v i d e n t l y w e h a v e al-
r e a d y s u r r e n d e r e d our grasp of t h e given total r e a l i t y f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t of
w h i c h alone such an o c c u r r e n c e c o u l d b e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . N e v e r a g a i n shall
w e b e a b l e to b r i n g o u r c o n c e p t i o n of s o m e t h i n g i n v o l v i n g t h e p h y s i c a l
b r a i n into r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e u n i t y of an existing h u m a n b e i n g . If the w a y
2~IAN I N N A T U R A L SCIENCE AND DASEINSA1NVALYSIS 211

is to be o p e n e d for a d e q u a t e a n s w e r s , o u r q u e s t i o n m u s t be not w h a t sort o f

o b j e c t was m o r e or less d e m o l i s h e d b y t h e shot, b u t r a t h e r w h o h a d b e e n
s t r u c k in this or t h a t w a y b y t h e bullet. M o r e a d e q u a t e l y still: h o w a m a n ' s
existence, t h a t is, his possibilities of r e l a t i n g to w h a t h e has met, e n c o u n t e r s in
the p r e s e n t a n d will disclose in his f u t u r e ..... has b e e n i m p a i r e d . O n l y this k i n d of
q u e s t i o n takes into a c c o u n t the c e n t r a l f a c t t h a t w h a t u s u a l l y is isolated a n d
objectified as an o r g a n i s m , or e v e n as the different p a r t i c u l a r b o d i l y organs,
a c t u a l l y is b u t a p a r t i a l p h e n o m e n o n of m a n ' s w h o l e existence in t h e sense of a
l u m i n a t i n g w o r l d - o p e n n e s s . T h u s m a n does n o t h a v e his b r a i n e i t h e r in tlle
sense in w h i c h , let us say, he o w n s his c o m p u t i n g m a c h i n e . R a t h e r , he him-
self /s his b r a i n to t h e e x t e n t t h a t his" existence, a m o n g o t h e r things, is also
cerebral. F o r this r e a s o n in t h e case of a g u n s h o t w o u n d on the b r a i n it is
a c t u a l l y n e v e r m e r e l y an object, a brain, b u t a l w a y s t h e total existence of a
h u m a n b e i n g t h a t has b e e n struck.
If, on t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e r e c a l l the e x a m p l e of t h e a p p l e tree, w e can
easily u n d e r s t a n d t h a t an u n i m p e d e d c o n s u m m a t i o n of our r e l a t i o n s h i p to
t h e apples, in w h i c h w e m o v e d as a t o t a l existence, c a n b e d i s t u r b e d in m a n i -
fold ways. F r o m the oustide, the f a r m e r w h o o w n s t h e tree can step in a n d
h i n d e r us. H o w e v e r , o u r o w n p a n g s of r e m o r s e can also f r u s t r a t e o u r t h i e v i s h
intent. T h e n w e p r o m p t l y see t h e b o d i l y s p h e r e of t h e g i v e n existence, too,
p a r t i c i p a t i n g in u n m e d i a t e d f a s h i o n in such a d i s t u r b e d , deficient, b l o c k e d
a n d s t a l l e d r e l a t i o n s h i p . ~¥hen a n a p p l e t h i e f is c a u g h t r e d - h a n d e d a n d d r i v e n
into the i m p a s s e of his o w n a n x i e t y a n d is a t t u n e d to a s p e e d y flight, his
h e a r t b e a t will b e g i n to s p e e d u p c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y , his t h r o a t will q u i t e cer-
t a i n l y b e c o m e c o n s t r i c t e d , a n d not o n l y will he n o t g e t a n y m o r e a p p l e s into
it b u t also n o t a n o t h e r w o r d will issue f r o m it. W i t h a n o t h e r a p p l e t h i e f t h e
d e s i r i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p t o w a r d s the fruit as w e l l as t h e r e a c t i v e a t t i t u d e of his
o w n p r o h i b i t i n g c o n s c i e n c e m a y h a v e b e e n w a r d e d off f r o m t h e o p e n s p h e r e
of reflective a n d r e s p o n s i b l e decisions, so m u c h so t h a t these t w o c o n t r a d i c t o r y
m o d e s of r e l a t i o n s h i p t o w a r d s the a p p l e are c a r r i e d o u t in t h e b o d i l y r e a l m
only. T h e n t h e r i g h t a r m p a r t i c i p a t i n g in these m u t u a l l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y a n d
m u t u a l l y n e u t r a l i z i n g i n v o l v e m e n t s w i t h t h e a p p l e s w o u l d , p r e s u m a b l y , be-
c o m e "'hysterically" p a r a l y s e d . It w o u l d h a v e b e e n his p a t h o l o g i c a l relation-
ship to the a p p l e itself, h o w e v e r , t h a t w o u l d h a v e o c c u r r e d as t h e paralysis
of his arm. T h e r e is no f u r t h e r n e e d of r e c o u r s e to t h e h y p o t h e s i s of an
u n c o n s c i o u s , to a r e - e m e r g e n c e of reF, zcssed t h o u g h t s f r o m it, a n d to a
m y s t e r i o u s leap of e n e r g y in t h e sense of t h e F r e u d i a n "'hysterical con-
version.
CONCLUSIONS

O b v i o u s l y , then, a f u n d a m e n t a l l y n e w c o n c e p t w i t h i n t h e science of m a n
w h i c h will e n a b l e us to u n d e r s t a n d b e t t e r t h a n b e f o r e b o t h t h e states of
h e a l t h a n d ot illness of t h e h u m a n b e i n g is n o t o n l y u r g e n t l y n e c e s s a r y b u t
is also possible. A m a z i n g l y e n o u g h , on o u r w a y t o w a r d s a m o r e a d e q u a t e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m a n ' s soul a n d b o d y w e h a v e g r a d u a l l y lost t h e notioh of
a soul as w e l l as t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a b o d y . W h a t finally r e m a i n e d w a s
212 I~IEDARD I~OSS

b u t the simple p h e n o m e n o n of man's existence ill a completely ek-static sense,

i.e., man's existence as a l u m i n a t i n g realm standing out into the world openness
into w h i c h all t h a t is a n d has to be m a y come forth and unfold its m e a n i n g
to the highest possible extent.
Along with the disappearance of this soul-body dichotomy, the fatal split
b e t w e e n subject and object has also c o m p l e t e l y vanished. This split does
not even n e e d to be overcome in our a p p r o a c h as it has never arisen. Vqhere
man's w h o l e existence is u n d e r s t o o d as being the l u m i n a t i n g word-openness
into w h i c h a l l tlae particular beings of his w o r l d m a y shine forth there are
no "'ob-jects'" w h a t s o e v e r w h i c h arc as this term w o u l d have t h e m "thrown-
over-against" a subject's consciousness in order to give rise to m e n t a l images
of themselves only within this subjective consciousness. In other words,
the daseinsanalytic w a y of looking at m a n a n d his w o r l d has as little to do
w i t h a so-called "'objective" psychology as it is a subjectivistic one. It leaves
b o t h these kinds of psychological theories far b e h i n d by disclosing the pri-
m a r y and u n s e p a r a b l e unity of man's l u m i n a t i n g existence as world-openness
a n d that w h i c h shines forth in its light immediately, i.e., all p h e n o m e n a of his
w o r l d w i t h all their m e a n i n g f u l references.
Finally a third artificial d i c h o t o m y is left b e h i n d b y daseinsanalytic think-
ing as well, i.e., the utterly sterile dispute b e t w e e n a so-called existentialism
a n d a so-called essentialism. Such a d i c h o t o m y presupposes at the outset the
belief in the Neo-Platonic dualism w h i c h is never verifiable b y any percepti-
ble evidence. W e refer to the Neo-Platonic belief in a r e a l m of "'essential,"
supersensual, good a n d beautiful "'ideas" and in the less real world of m o r e
or less defective or b o t c h e d realizations of these ideas in the earthly-existential
behavior of m a n as he actually is.
W e m a n a g e d to take our stand at a point w h i c h lies b e y o n d t h e very pos-
sibilities of such artificial dichotomies b y simply accepting the main challenge
of Daseinsanalysis, i.e., to look just at the things in the w o r l d actually ap-
p e a r i n g in the light of our Dasein a n d to linger sufficiently long to p a y full
attention to the i m m e d i a t e l y given p h e n o m e n a . Previous scientific m e t h o d s
of thought, however, have led us astray by always i n d u c i n g us, after a first
fleeting glimpse, at once to build theoretical hypotheses into the actually
perceived p h e n o m e n a . N o one p e r h a p s has been able to f o r m u l a t e this in
terms t h a t are m o r e p r e g n a n t a n d of m o r e general validity than has S i g m u n d
F r e u d w h e n he wrote as follows: "'We do not seek merely to describe a n d
classify p h e n o m e n a b u t to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m as signs of a p l a y of forces in
the psychic apparatus, as expressions of goal-direc:ted drives, which function
together or in opposition to one another. W e are concerned with arriving
at a dynamic conception of m e n t a l p h e n o m e n a . Perceived p h e n o m e n a m u s t
in our view retreat b e h i n d the m e r e l y posited drives. ''26 H e no longer h e e d e d
the w a r n i n g so clearly stated by the philosopher Lotze some 50 years ago
w h e n the latter wrote: "'Forces show no experience, they are a s u p p l e m e n t
of t h o u g h t omy.• -2r In sharp contradistinction to the natural-scientific "phil-
osophy," Daseinsanalysis, far from seeking to foist upon us yet another
~IAN IN NATURAL SCIENCE AND DASEINSANALYSIS
"'philosoplaical" s y s t e m of t h o u g h t , p u r e l y a n d s i m p l e tries to a i d us in seeing
t h e h u m a n p h e n o m e n a t h a t a r e i m m e d i a t e l y p e r c e p t i b l e , a n d t h a t in a m o r e
a p p r o p r i a t e and more f u n d a m e n t a l sense than h e r e t o f o r e ? s
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214
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I~,IEDABD BOSS
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