2017 International Conference on Intelligent Computing, Instrumentation and Control Technologies (ICICICT)
Survey on Spectrum Sensing Techniques in
Cognitive Radio Networks
Jayashree Agarkhed1
Associate Professor, Computer Science and Engineering
Poojya Doddappa Appa College of Engineering
Kalaburagi, Karnataka, India.
jayashreeptl@yahoo.com
Abstract — Recent advancements in wireless communication
technologies have lead to challenges in effective utilization of
Radio frequency (RF) spectrum. These challenges can be
overcome by using cognitive radio (CR) technology, which
implements spectrum access in opportunistic manner. In this
article we study the classification of various spectrum sensing
techniques used in field of CR technology with a comparative
study of their performances under different conditions.
Keywords— Cognitive radio (CR), Cognitive cycle, spectrum
sensing.
I. INTRODUCTION
A Cognitive Radio (CR) initially proposed in [1] is a
challenging technology to utilize the unused spectrum and can
play a vital role in efficient spectrum utilization. CR is best
suitable for the next generation wireless communications
which promises to unleash the potential of underutilized bands
in TV spectrum. The cognitive technique is the mechanism
that includes perception and planning along with reasoning,
continuously updating with a history of learning. Joseph
Mitola describes CRs [1] [2] as radios that can make decisions
by themselves utilizing the collected information about the RF
environment through model-based reasoning and can also plan
and learn based on their past experience.
CR has the additional capability to detect the
underutilized spectrum in a licensed and unlicensed spectrum
band, and utilize the underutilized spectrum in an
opportunistic manner. Here, opportunistic means the
secondary users (SUs) should not violate the accessing rights
of the Primary Users (PUs) when it is necessary. The PUs has
the authority to use the spectrum anytime, whereas SUs can
access the spectrum only when the PU is not using it.
Objective of CR is spectral reuse for which the SUs have to
periodically sense the spectrum which is detecting the
presence of PUs, very frequently. Whenever a PU becomes
active, SU has to vacate the channel immediately or reduce the
transmitting power within certain period of time. The idea is
to make spectrum access more flexible by allowing the
unlicensed users to access the radio spectrum under certain
restrictions. Recent research works have found many
978-1-5090-6106-8/17/$31.00 ©2017 IEEE.
Veeranna Gatate2
Research Scholar, Computer Science and Engineering
Poojya Doddappa Appa College of Engineering
Kalaburagi, Karnataka, India
vcgatate@gmail.com
challenges in the field of spectrum sensing mainly due the
Signal to Noise ratio (SNR), multipath fading and
Interference/Noise level. In this article issues and some of the
features of various spectrum sensing techniques are discussed.
This section describes the cognitive cycle which comprises the
various tasks of a CR. The challenges of spectrum sensing are
discussed in Section II and the features of sensing techniques
are discussed in section III along with the comparative study
of various spectrum sensing techniques.
The two main features of CR are cognitive capability and re-
configurability. Cognitive capability allows CR to sense and
collect information such as signals and their modulation types,
noise, transmission power etc from its surrounding
environment. The re-configurability features of CR allow it to
adjust to the operational parameters so as to derive optimal
performance.
Fig.1 Cognitive cycle
The cognition cycle of CR consists of various phases: Observe
Analyze, Reason, and Act. The goal is to detect available
spectrum, operational parameters, coordinate the spectrum
access with other users, reconfigure the operational
parameters, and vacate the channel when a PU appears. The
major functionalities of a CR device include spectrum sensing,
spectrum management, and spectrum sharing [3]. Using
spectrum sensing, the information of the radio spectrum has to
be obtained so that this information can be utilized by the CR
user. The spectrum sensing information is exploited by the
spectrum management function to analyze the spectrum
opportunities and make decisions on spectrum access. If the
 2017 International Conference on Intelligent Computing, Instrumentation and Control Technologies (ICICICT)
status of the target spectrum changes, the spectrum mobility
function can switch the Operating frequency bands for the CR
users.
Cognitive function allows users to perform opportunistic
utilization of spectrum. A white space is the portion of
unutilized spectrum band. When a particular frequency band is
under utilized by the PU at a particular time SUs can utilize
the spectrum, i.e., a spectrum opportunity is created. The
objective is to prevent interference with PUs. The intention of
sensing the spectrum is to detect the availability of the
spectrum and the activity of the PU by sensing periodically the
target frequency band.
II. CHALLENGES OF SPECTRUM SENSING
Several factors make the spectrum sensing more challenging.
Some of the reasons are outlined in [4]. The required SNR
value when detecting the primary signal may be low due to the
fading of the transmitted signal because of which the SU may
not detect the presence of PU. This detection will be further
difficult in low SNR conditions. The multipath fading due to
transmitted signal may be another issue due to which the
signal power becomes weak and therefore becomes more
complicated for the SU to detect the existence of PU. Also the
interference level along with noise may change with time.
This variation also leads to complexity for spectrum sensing.
Some of the other challenges associated with the spectrum
sensing discussed in [5] [6] for CR networks are briefly
outlined in this section.
A. Security
In CR, an un-trusted user can modify its interface to be
identified itself as a primary user. Therefore can have a
undesirable impact on the spectrum sensing performed by
PU’s. Such attacks are classified as primary user emulation
(PUE) attack [7]. As a solution to this PUE attack authors in
[8] propose an encrypted technique to identify PUs. In this
method a trusted PU sends an encrypted value termed
signature apart from their transmissions. This value is
generated by using a private key. However, this method
suffers a drawback that it can be used with digital
modulations.
B. Hidden Primary User Problem
Like the hidden node problem in CSMA there is hidden PU
problem in CR networks whose factors include multiple path
fading and shadowing scenarios observed by SUs while
detecting the PUs transmissions. Here, CR device generates
unexpected interference to the PU as the primary transmitter’s
signal could not be recognized due to non cooperation
between the CR devices and due to the geographic
distributions of devices. As a solution to this problem
cooperative sensing discussed in section III can be used.
C. Sensing duration and frequency
Spectrum sensing methods must detect the presence of PUs
within certain duration of time so that interference from and
to the PU’s is kept to its minimum to vacate the band
immediately. Hence, this condition further limits the sensing
method performance thereby leading to complexity for CR
design.
D. Uncertainty in Channels
A low strength signal received due to multipath fading or
shadowing, does not mean that the PU is located out of the
SUs interference range, as the primary signal may experience
a deep fade or being shadowed by obstacles. Hence spectrum
sensing is challenged by uncertainty in channels since CRs
have to differentiate accurately between a faded or shadowed
primary signal from a white space.
E. Noise Uncertainty
Noise uncertainty can be a further challenge in spectrum
sensing since a very weak primary signal can be
indistinguishable from noise if Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
comes down below a certain threshold. This threshold is found
by the detecting the level of noise uncertainty [6]. However
feature detectors are not influenced to this drawback due to
their ability to differentiate between noise and signal.
F. Aggregate-Interference Uncertainty
Multiple CR networks working over the same RF band may
exist since number of SUs being deployed in CR networks are
more. Hence sensing the spectrum may become complex by
uncertainty in aggregate interference (e.g., due to the unknown
number of secondary systems and their locations). This type of
uncertainty demands more detectors that are sensitive as SUs
may interfere with PUs which are located far from its
interference range, and therefore should be able to detect
them.
III. SPECTRUM SENSING TECHNIQUES
Currently many techniques for sensing the spectrum have been
proposed but still the research carried out in this area is in
early stages. Spectrum sensing can be performed at PHY-layer
and at MAC-layers. In this article we focus on some common
sensing methods as depicted in the tree diagram in fig 2.
Fig. 2 Spectrum sensing techniques under study
1) Energy Detection: Energy detection (ED) spectrum sensing
has advantages like ease of use and less complexity. It does
not need any information about the primary signal. Authors in
[3] propose a hypothesis model for the signal received as-
 2017 International Conference on Intelligent Computing, Instrumentation and Control Technologies (ICICICT)

TABLE I. COMPARISON OF SPECTRUM SENSING TECHNIQUES

H0: absence of primary user
TAKEN UNDER STUDY
H1: presence of primary user Parameter Energy Feature Matched filtering
Detection detection and coherent
Null hypothesis is denoted by H0, meaning there is no PU (ED) [3] (FD)[3] detection (MF)[9]
present in the band, while H1 means the detection of PUs Method Compares Uses features of Uses a filter to
Employed detection values primary signals detect primary user
presence. The detection statistics of the energy detector can be with a threshold. to detect their signal.
defined as the average energy of all samples observed presence.
Power Low Low High
N consumption
Complexity Low High High
T = 1/ N ∑ |y (t)2| (1)
Primary user Not needed Needed Needed
T=1 information
Primary user Yes Yes Does not work in
By comparing the statistics of PU detection with a predefined Detection in low SNR
threshold λ, the decision on whether the spectrum is being low SNR
conditions
occupied or not by the PU is made. According to [3] Primary Signal Less More Less
performance of the detector is characterized by two Detection time
probabilities: the probability of false alarm P F and the Advantages Easy to Robust and More robust and
probability of detection PD. implement better PU better PU
detection than detection than FD
ED method in low SNR
PF = Pr (T > λ | H0) (2)
PD= Pr (T > λ | H1) (3) B. Cooperative Techniques
The energy detection spectrum sensing has advantages like
Detection probability PD is expected to be high and false alarm simplicity and ease of use but suffers from hidden node
PF is expected to be low, else the detector must ensure problem discussed in section II. These techniques decrease the
guaranteed PU protection while optimizing the spectrum false alarm probabilities increases the reliability of spectrum
usage efficiency. sensing considerably when compared to other sensing
techniques. These techniques also solve hidden primary user
2) Feature Detection: Certain features are associated with the problem discussed in section II. In cooperative spectrum
transmitted information of a PU. For example, the statistics of sensing is carried with a Fusion Center (FC). Each Cognitive
the transmitted signals in many wireless communications are User (CU) senses the spectrum and sends the sensed data to
periodic because of the inherent periodic properties like the FC in regular time intervals. In the FC the sensed data is
modulation rate, carrier frequency, etc. Features can mean any combined and a decision is made that whether PU signal is
intrinsic properties or attributes that are associated with a PU’s present or absent. The SU reports to the FC either by Data
transmission, for example, bandwidths and frequencies Fusion method or by Decision Fusion method [10]. Two ways
extracted from ED spectrum sensing can be used as reference of coordination are widely used:
features for determining a PU’s presence [3]. 1) Centralized cooperative spectrum sensing: In this technique
there is a central entity known as CR controller. When one CR
3) Matched Filtering and Coherent Detection: In some cases user detects the presence of PU then it sends a message that
the signal information of PUs is known to the SUs before PU has been detected to the CR controller. The controller
transmission then appropriate detection method for sensing is informs all the other CR Users about the presence of PU using
matched filtering [9], since a matched filter can synchronize broadcasting technique. This method can further be
the received signal to the primary signal known already to categorized as partially cooperative and totally cooperative. In
detect the presence of the PU and thus enhance the SNR in the partially cooperative technique nodes cooperate only by
presence of noise. sensing the channel. The other method is totally cooperative in
which nodes cooperatively sense the channel along with
This technique of Matched filtering (MF) requires perfect relaying each other’s information.
knowledge of the radio frequency, modulation type,
bandwidth, shape of the pulse, packet format, etc. to 2) Distributed cooperative spectrum sensing: This method
demodulate the received signals. If wrong information is used implements distributed cooperation in which there is no
for MF, then there may be degradation in detection central entity. Recent research have proposed algorithms for
performance [9]. Table 1 gives a brief comparison of the decentralized techniques among which most common are the
spectrum sensing methods discussed so far. gossiping algorithms [11] or clustering schemes [12], where
cognitive users gather to form clusters, by implementing auto
coordination among them. The control channel needed can be
implemented as a dedicated frequency channel.
 2017 International Conference on Intelligent Computing, Instrumentation and Control Technologies (ICICICT)

TABLE II COMPARISON OF VARIOUS COOPERATIVE SPECTRUM SENSING TECHNIQUES UNDER STUDY

Parameter ED based Cooperative
spectrum sensing [10]
Network model Single / multi-hop cognitive
relay network.
Algorithm/Technique Amplification of received
used signal based on TDMA
Type of spectrum sensing Distributed sensing
GUESS Protocol [11]
Distributed network
Incremental approach
Distributed sensing
Selective CSS Scheme [12]
Cluster based scheme
Local spectrum sensing and
Parallel report mechanism
Distributed sensing
Random Geometric model
[13]
Random geometric model
Location aware sensing
Centralized sensing

Data / Decision fusion k-out-of n rule ODI approach Chair-vashney fusion rule Linear fusion rule
method
Probability detection MGF of SNR of received FM aggregation of primary Log Likelihood Ratio ( LLR) Fisher Linear discriminant
calculation method primary signal. signals analysis of received primary
signal
Advantages / limitations Increases the detection Reduces the network Reduces the energy Low complexity, less false
capability but not scalable overhead and execution time consumption and reporting alarm probability
with more hops. time to FC but (Cs<=8)

probability for the proposed method decreases with the

increase in cluster sizes (Cs).

A random geometric model for cooperative spectrum sensing

is studied from [13]. The problem of random PU network
detection problem is focused in this work. A location aware
spectrum sensing algorithm is used which combines the
sensing results from various SUs. This method uses the linear
fusion rule and has better performance with comparison of
some of the existing cooperative sensing mechanisms.

C. Proactive and Reactive Sensing

Fig. 3 System model for cooperative spectrum sensing
An ED based sensing technique for cooperation is proposed in
[10]. Here each SU is assumed to be a cognitive relay node
which makes use of orthogonal channels like Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) approach to forward the amplified
signal to FC. The FC then uses k-out-of-n rule to fuse all
sensed data. Moment Generating function (MGF) of SNR of
received signal of PU is calculated to determine the existence
of PUs.
An incremental gossiping approach –GUESS is proposed in
[11]. Order and Duplicate insensitive (ODI) techniques have
been used for sensed data aggregation. In this approach each
device has 3 stages – susceptible (no updates received),
Infectious (state change due to update received) and
Recovered (device stops propagating updates). Authors
conclude that GUESS protocol reduces the execution time and
network overhead.
In [12] a selective CSS scheme based on cluster formation
which uses a selective method to select the best sensing node
within a cluster as a cluster-header. The authors use a parallel
reporting mechanism which reduces time required to report
the cluster decision to FC. Finally Chair-vashney rule was
used in FC to fuse all the decisions. However the sensing error
The techniques of spectrum sensing discussed in the
subsections A and B are PHY-layer sensing, another category
of spectrum sensing techniques that involve MAC-layer
sensing are discussed in this subsection. The MAC-layer
sensing deals with which types of channels are to be selected
for sensing [6] [14].These sensing techniques are generally
categorized as proactive and reactive sensing.
Proactive: In this type of spectrum sensing the channels are
periodically sensed with fixed sensing periods to gather
information about those channels which may become
available. A list of one or more available bands is maintained
to keep minimum delay caused in detecting an available
channel. The gathered data is then used to predict the
utilization pattern making the secondary node locate most
optimal channel whenever it is in need of an idle channel.
Reactive: This type of spectrum sensing is used whenever the
secondary node has some data to send or receive. This is
termed as On-Demand spectrum sensing since sensing of
spectrum is performed only when it is needed. The spectrum
behavior is not stable hence it is very difficult for the
secondary node to predict the usage pattern so that it can
locate an idle channel.
 2017 International Conference on Intelligent Computing, Instrumentation and Control Technologies (ICICICT)

IV. RELATED WORK As discussed earlier the energy detector has low complexity
Spectrum sensing has become an important area for research but cannot detect the presence of PU under low SNR
in past few years. Due to inefficient utilization of allocated conditions. When compared to energy detector feature
spectrum plenty of opportunities for unlicensed users are detector has better sensing outcome as it can detect primary
available to take the best advantage of vacant spectrum. signal in low SNR conditions and is better to withstand noise
Spectrum allocated to TV broadcasting is been underutilized uncertainty. Matched filtering technique is more complex but
resulting in wastage of spectrum which made Federal can detect primary signal more accurately than feature
Communications Commission (FCC) to open up the licensed detector. Please refer [3] for more details. Next comparison of
spectrum band to unlicensed users for efficient use of vacant performance analysis of cooperative spectrum sensing
spectrum[15]. CR technology helps in extracting opportunities techniques is discussed.
to use the unutilized spectrum. The main aim of CR is to
improve spectral efficiency of wireless networks. A detailed 1
study of evolution and research challenges of spectrum
sensing is made from [16]. 0.8 False Alarm
probability
0.6
Recent works in spectrum sensing have addressed severe Random
challenges like detecting the presence of PU and avoiding the 0.4 Geometric Model
interference to primary users under low SNR conditions. The
sensing becomes difficult when there is robust noise 0.2 ED based
spectrum sensing
uncertainty. Hidden node problem, multipath fading and 0
shadowing further contribute to issues in spectrum sensing 1 2 3 4
[17].A two stage spectrum sensing is proposed in [18] which
combine Energy Detection (ED) technique and Akaike’s Fig. 4 comparison of cooperative spectrum sensing techniques
information criteria (AIC) for PU detection under low power
noise uncertainty. Authors conclude that combined strategy TABLE. III COMPARISON OF SELECTIVE CSS AND GUESS PROTOCOLS
works more accurately with less sensing time when compared Execution time
to individual implementation but suffers from complexity. Primary signal
Protocol variation Time Efficiency (%)
Machine learning can be integrated to cognitive radio since Cluster size(Cs)
learning from the environment is essential to take appropriate 2 80
actions based on previous history. Machine learning can be Cluster based 4 90
supervised learning, unsupervised learning and reinforcement Selective CSS
learning. A Hidden Markov Model (HMM) is used in [17] scheme 6 94
which help in knowing the channel usage patterns. This 8 96
method addresses the problem of missing data and is more Primary signal
accurate under low SNR conditions. A neural network based Protocol Time Efficiency (%)
variation
spectrum sensing is proposed in [19]. This technique Incremental 1-10
overcomes the disadvantage of energy detection of being gossip of
80-81
GUESS
easily addicted to noise. The authors conclude that having protocol
10-100
double threshold will yield better performance than having
1-10
single threshold. Uniform gossip >85
10-100
V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Energy detection based cooperative sensing [10] is having
better performance when compared with geometric model
based spectrum sensing [13] with higher false alarm
probability. Execution time is compared between incremental
gossip and uniform gossip in which incremental gossip used
by Guess protocol is better than uniform gossip [11]. The
execution time gets better for CSS scheme with the increase in
cluster sizes (Cs) [12].

VI. CONCLUSION
Fig. 4 comparison of PHY-layer spectrum sensing techniques Radio frequency spectrum is been utilized increasingly by
more technologies in recent years, hence the spectrum has
now become overcrowded. So we must have an efficient
 2017 International Conference on Intelligent Computing, Instrumentation and Control Technologies (ICICICT)

access algorithm to use the frequency spectrum in a wise International Conference on Advanced Technologies for
Communications (ATC) 2016
manner. In this article spectrum sensing techniques are
[18] Prem Prakash Anand, Chhagan Charan, “Two stage spectrum sensing
highlighted with a brief analysis of their performance. For for cognitive radio networks using ED and AIC under noise
accurate sensing matched filter technique has better uncertainty”, fifth International Conference on Recent Trends in
performance when compared to other techniques in PHY- Information Technology (ICRTIT) 2016
layer. Cluster based selective scheme has better performance [19] Brinda Varatharajana, E. Praveen,Vinoth. E., “Neural network aided
when compared to incremental update protocols in MAC- enhanced spectrum sensing in cognitive radio” ,International Conference
on Modeling Optimisation and Computing (ICMOC-2012).
layer.
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