Unit one – concept and practice of research in social sciences

MEANING OF RESEARCH

Introduction to research - Meaning, concepts and definitions

The word research is derived from the French word, recherché, which is from the old French
word, recerhier, which simply means “to investigate thoroughly”. In this case, it means the
search for knowledge again and again.

Basically, research is fact finding. It is enquiry that utilizes the scientific method to study a
phenomenon, situation or society.

Research is knowledge that can be explained or verified through some procedure. For one to
engage in any research, the expected outcome of the research must be important otherwise
there will be no need for the research. Consequently, all research activities start from problems
that require solutions. This may sometime originate from an idea, a puzzle or simply the wish to
explore our knowledge about simple issues, phenomena, situations or societies.

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the
former as a prefix meaning again, a new or over again and the latter as a verb, meaning to
examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun
describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge,
undertaken to establish facts or principles (Grinnell 1993).

The simplest meaning of research is to search for facts, answers to research question and
solution for the problem.

Thus, the term research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solution (s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

So in general, research = Re + Search

‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out something, the following is the
process:
 Observes collection of data
Person --------------------- phenomena ---------------------------- conclusion.
Again and again Analysis of data

Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena again and again from different
dimensions.

For example there are many theories of learning due to the observation from different
dimensions. The research is a process of which a person observes the phenomena again and
again and collects the data and on the basis of data he draws some conclusions. Research is
oriented towards the discovery of relationship that exists among phenomena of the world in
which we live. The fundamental assumption is that invariant relationship exists between certain
antecedents and certain consequents so that under a specific set of conditions a certain
consequents can be expected to follow the introduction of a given antecedent.

So from the above mentioned meaning of research, we can give different interpretation of
research as-

 Searching again ( re+ search)

 Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic
 Careful investigation or inquiry for new facts in any branch of knowledge
 Systematized effort to gain new knowledge
 Manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing/
extending/ correcting/ verifying knowledge
 Activity engaged in intellectual pursuits of discovering something new and
meaningful.

Hence in conclusion we can summarize research as-

Research is:
 What:
 The process of new knowledge creation
 Why:
 To bridge the gap between the existing and the required knowledge or for
problem solving.
 How :
 Through a structured and sequential method of enquiry, directed towards a
clear objective.
 Development of Applications
generalizations, Solution of rigorous
Observable
principles or of a analysis
Careful experiences
theories problem
designed or empirical
procedure evidence
s
Objective
Expertise and
finance
Research and logical

Careful Accurate observation

recording and Requires
and description Gathering data
reporting Non courage
repetitive from first hand
sources

Some definitions of research-

Some of the definitions of research in literature are given below which can help you to
understand proper meaning and concept of research.

1. Encyclopedia of Social Science defines research as, “the manipulation of generalizing to

extend, connect or verify knowledge…” Manipulation incorporates experimentation
adopted for the purpose of arriving at generalization.

2. Kerlinger (1973) defines research as a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical

investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relationship about
various phenomena.”

3. Burns (1994) also defines research as ‘a systematic investigation to find answers to a

problem’

4. P.M Cook outlines research as an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and
their meanings or implications, with reference to a problem. He sees the word
 ‘Research’ as an acronym, each letter of the word, standing for a particular aspect as
given below:

R = Rational way of thinking

E = Expert and Exhaustive treatment
S = Search and solution
E = Exactness
A = Analysis
R = Relationship of facts
C = Critical observation, Careful planning, Constructive attitude and Condensed
Generalization
H = Honesty and Hard working

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

The criteria for good research are as follows:

1. Purpose of research should be clearly defined and common concepts that are used
should be operationally defined.
2. The research procedure should be precisely planned, focused and appropriately
described in order to enable other researcher to do research for further advancement.
3. Research design should be carefully planned to generate results to maintained
objectivity.
4. The research report should be as much as possible frank enough to gauge effects of the
findings.
5. Data analysis in the research report should be adequate to reveal its significance and
the method of analysis employed be appropriate and
6. Validity and reliability of data should be examined carefully.

PURPOSE/AIM/OBJECTIVES OF GOOD RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
 Research helps to determine the frequency with which something occurs or
with which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view
are known as diagnostic research studies)’
 Research aims test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such
studies are known as hypothesis- testing research studies/experimental studies).
 Research extends knowledge of human beings social life and environment.
 Research reveals the mysteries of nature.
  Research establishes generalizations and general laws and contributes to theory
building in various fields of knowledge.
 Research verifies and tests existing facts and theory.
 Research helps us to improve our knowledge and ability to handle situation.
 General laws developed through research may enable us to make reliable
predictions of events.
 Research aims to analyze inter-relationship between variables and to derive
causal explanations, which help us to better understanding of the world in which
we live.
 Research aims to finding solutions to the problem, e.g.:- socio-economic
problems, health problems, organizational and human relational problems and
so on…
 Research also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for better
understanding to unknown phenomena.
 Research helps national planning board to focus our national development. It
enables the planners to evaluate alternative strategies, on-going programs and
evaluation etc.,
 Research provides functional data for rational decision making and formulation
of strategies and policies.

Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source
of providing guidelines for solving different business, personal, profession governmental and
social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way.

CHARACTERISTICS/ FEATURES OF RESEARCH

A. SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTIC/ FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

Good research possesses certain specific qualities which are as follows

 Good research is systematic: it means that research is structured according to

set of rules to follow certain steps in specified sequence. Systematic research
also invites creative thinking, and certainly avoids use of guessing and intuition
for arriving at the conclusion.
 Good research is empirical: it implies that any conclusion drawn is based upon
hardcore evidence gathered from information collected from real life
experiences and observations. This provides a basis for external ability to
research results.
 Good research is valid and verifiable: Research involves precise observation and
accurate description. The researcher selects reliable and valid instruments to be
used in the collection of data and uses some statistical measures for accurate
description of the results obtained. Whatever you conclude on the basis of
finding is correct and can be verified by yourself and others.
  Good Research is logical: it suggests that research is guided by the rules of
reasoning and logical process of induction (general to specific) and deduction
(specific to general) that plays an important role in carrying out research. In fact,
logical reasoning makes research feasible and more meaningful in the context of
decision making.
 Good research develops theories and principles: which are very helpful in
accurate prediction regarding the variables under study. On the basis of the
sample observed and studied, the researcher makes sound generalizations
regarding the whole populations. Thus, research goes beyond immediate
situations, objects or groups being investigated by formulating a generalization
or theory about these factors.
 Research is replicable: the designs, procedures and results of scientific research
should be replicable so that any person other than the researcher himself may
assess their validity. Thus, one researcher may use or transit the results obtained
by another researcher. Thus, the procedures and results of the research are
replicable as well as transmittable.

B. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS/ FEATURES OF RESEARCH

The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of ‘Research’

1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.
6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his
hypotheses.
7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
8. It endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms.
9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be
unpopular and bring social disapproval.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Conclusions and generalizations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.

Scientific research

Science aims at description, explanation and understanding of various objects or phenomena in

nature. Research is a special Endeavour, which involves systematic and critical investigation
towards increasing the stream of knowledge. Now it is easier to define scientific research.

We may define scientific research as a “systematic and critical investigation about the natural
phenomena to describe, explain and finally to understand the relations among them”.
Meaning and essentials of scientific method
Scientific method is a way in which one can test opinion, impressions or guess by examining
available evidences for and against them. So it is controlling lot of things and establishing stable
belief.

Essentials of scientific method are,

 Scientific method aims at discovering facts.
 It is itself corrective in nature.
 It is itself based on systematic doubts.
 Scientific theories are abstract in nature.

Scientific Method of research

It is obvious that it would be impossible to comprehend the nature and content of research
without an appreciation of method. The method used in scientific research is usually designated
as scientific method.

The scientific method of social research can be made clearer when it is described in terms of its
characteristics. The scientific research is based on objective observation, recording,
classification, generalization and verification. These are also defined as the steps of social
research.

Through these steps, scientific method brings about not only verifiability of the facts, but also it
lays the confidence in the validity of conclusions.

The major characteristics and steps of scientific method

The following are the five main steps /characteristics of scientific method.
1. Objective observation
2. Recording
3. Classification
4. Generalization
5. Verification

 Objective observation: The initial step in a scientific method is a minute, factual

and objective observation of subject matter. This objective observation is an
essential condition in scientific study. Without it no study can legitimately be
called scientific. The observations of scientist are impartial. Consequently, the
scientific method is inapplicable to any subject the study of which cannot be
objective.
 Recording. The second step is the accurate transcription of observation. In this
too, it is essential to be factual, minute, objective, and impartial.
 Classification. Third step, in the scientific method is the classification of the
collected data so that the scattered facts may form distinct patterns.
  Generalization. The fourth step, in the scientific method is the formulation of
general laws on the basis of the pattern of this classified data i.e. generalization.
 Verification – The generalization cannot be declared to be scientific unless they
are thus conclusively verified. That subject which does not admit of a similar
verification cannot be studied scientifically.

Now let us see the necessary qualities of this method. They are:
1. Factuality
2. Universality
3. validity
4. power of prediction
5. discovery of cause effect relation

 Factuality- The subject should be related to facts.

 Universality- Its laws should be universal.
 Validity- Its laws should be such that their validity can be verified.
 Power of prediction- The subject should be such that some prediction can be
based on its laws
 Discovery of cause effect relation-The subject should be such that it may be
possible to discover a valid cause- effect relation in its laws.

Steps/ stages and procedures for conducting a scientific research

Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering
a multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This
process is used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method.

Basically the goal of the research is to find the truth and to use a scientific method that results
in a reasonable and answers to a question. In the research process also consists of the series of
action and also the steps for conducting the research which is scientific. Therefore, there are
following stages of research process which are as follows:

a. Identification of the Problem The first step in the process is to identify a

problem or develop a research question. The research problem may be
something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information
that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a Recreation trend
nationally. The problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity,
which is a local problem and concern within the community. This serves as the
focus of the study.
b. Review of Literature
The review of literature identifies the flaws or holes in previous research which
provides justification for the study. Literature review is also conducted in a given
subject area before a research question is identified. The review is a careful
 examination of a body of literature pointing towards the answer to your
research question. Literature reviewed typically includes scholarly journals,
authoritative databases and primary sources. Sometimes it includes newspapers,
magazines, other books, films, and audio and video tapes, and secondary
sources. Primary sources are the origin of information under study, fundamental
documents relating to a particular subject or idea. These may be accessible as
physical publications, as publications in electronic databases, or on the internet.
Secondary sources are documents or recordings that relate to or discuss
information originally presented elsewhere. These may be accessible as physical
objects or electronically in databases or on the internet. So, the review of
literature is guided by the all good research and writing. Literature review is also
mechanized by which our research is viewed as a cumulative process. Therefore,
this makes the literature an integral part of the scientific process.

c. Formulating a Hypothesis
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more
about the topic under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the
literature related to the research problem. This step provides foundational
knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also educates the
researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these
studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity
study, the review of literature enables the programmer to discover horrifying
statistics related to the long term effects of childhood obesity in terms of health
issues, death rates and projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer
finds several articles and information from the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention that describe the benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day. The
information discovered during this step helps the programmer fully understand
the magnitude of the problem, recognize the future consequences of obesity
and identify a strategy to combat obesity (i.e., walking).

d. Identifying, Manipulating and Controlling Variables

Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too
large or broad in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the
problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can only be done after the
literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained through the review of
literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research project.
In the example, the programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem
and the purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could be studied based
on genetics, family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure activities,
or health issues. All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study;
therefore, the problem and purpose of the study must be more clearly defined.
The programmer has decided that the purpose of the study is to determine if
walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will improve the individual’s
 health. This purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than the original
problem.

6. Formulating a Research Design

Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the
study or the description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as
they apply to the study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions
depending on who is reading the study. To minimize confusion about what the terms
and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the study. In the
obesity study, the concept of “individual’s health” can be defined in hundreds of
ways, such as physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual health. For this study, the
individual’s health is defined as physical health. The concept of physical health may
also be defined and measured in many ways. In this case, the programmer decides
to more narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of weight,
percentage of body fat and cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more
narrowly, the scope of the study is more manageable for the programmer, making it
easier to collect the necessary data for the study. This also makes the concepts more
understandable to the reader.

7. Constructing Devices for Observation and Measurement

The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The
instrumentation plan serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will
participate in the study; how, when, and where data will be collected; and the
content of the program. In the obesity study, the researcher has decided to have the
children participate in a walking program for six months. The group of participants is
called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population specified
for the study. The study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the
community, so a smaller group is used to represent the population. The researcher
develops the plan for the walking program, indicating what data will be collected,
when and how the data will be collected, who will collect the data, and how the data
will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be
completed for the study. This ensures that the programmer has carefully thought
through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-step plan to be followed
in the study.

8. Sample Selection and Data Collection

Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the
collection of data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information
needed to answer the research question. Every study includes the collection of some
type of data whether it is from the literature or from subjects-to answer the
research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a
questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the
programmers will be collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of
body fat, cholesterol levels, and the number of days the person walked a total of
 10,000 steps during the class. The researcher collects these data at the first session
and at the last session of the program. These two sets of data are necessary to
determine the effect of the walking program on weight, body fat, and cholesterol
level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is ready to move
to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.

9. Data Analysis and Interpretation

The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be
answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will be
analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of
this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the
research questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the
measurements of weight, percentage of body fat and cholesterol that were taken at
the first meeting of the subjects to the measurements of the same variables at the
final program session. These two sets of data will be analyzed to determine if there
was a difference between the first measurement and the second measurement for
each individual in the program.

TYPES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answer to questions through application of scientific

procedures. Research always starts from a question like why, what, how etc,. The nature of
questions varies the type research procedure and methods and procedure also varies. Research
may be classified crudely, according to its major intent or the method.

According to the intent, research may be classified as pure research (basic research), applied
research, exploratory research, descriptive study, action research etc,.

According to the method of study, research may be classified as experimental research,

analytical study, historical research and survey.

The above classification is not a watertight demarcation. It is just a narration to understand the
different approaches to research. The different types of research are not sharply
distinguishable from one another. There may be overlapping between one type to other.
However they can be categorized as below

Any classification of research into different types is inevitably arbitrary. However, researches
have been classified differently depending on the approach, the purpose and the nature of
research activity. Broadly speaking, research can be classified according to its aim, purpose and
method as follows:
1. Pure research,
2. Applied research,
3. Exploratory research,
4. Descriptive research,
 5. Diagnostic research,
6. Evaluation studies,
7. Action research,
8. Experimental research,
9. Analytical study,
10. Survey, and
11. Historical study

The above classification is just an approach to differentiate the various aspects of research.
These different types do not indicate water-tight demarcations and are not clearly
distinguishable from each other. However, the outcome and quality of a research project
depends on the suitable choice of the type.

However, each type needs a different research design. We now, discuss the salient features of
these different types.

1. Pure Research/ fundamental/ basic research

Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalization with the formulation of a

theory. It is a research concerning principles or laws or rules. It aims at the achievement of
knowledge and truth. Research studies concentrating on some natural phenomenon or relating
to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. It aims at some theoretical
conclusions. It may verify the old theory or establish a new one. It tries to explain the cause and
effect relationship in social phenomena. It is essentially positive and not normative. That is, it
explains the phenomena as they are and not as they should be.

Pure research is focused to collect knowledge without any intention to apply it. It is purely
intellectual in character. It is also known as basic or fundamental research. Intellectual curiosity
is the only motivational factor behind it. It is not necessarily problem oriented. It aims at
extension of knowledge. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an
existing theory. The development of various sciences owes much too pure research. The
findings of pure research enrich the store house of knowledge. Pure research lays the
foundation for applied research. The findings of pure research formed the basis for
innumerable scientific and technological inventions like steam engine, auto mobiles and
telecommunication etc, which have revolutionized and enriched our human life.

Basic research had many definitions, most of them unsatisfying in one way or another. It can
even authoritatively been said that an adequate or operational definition of basic research is
not possible (Kidd-1959).

In many cases basic research is done to test theory to test relations among phenomena in order
to understand the phenomena, with little or to thought of application of the results to practical
problems (Kerlinger – 1972).
The best example is that to Michael Faraday. He said research in electricity, without knowing
that, it would be useful. He did continuous search to find out the truth or knowledge.
Researching knowledge is for knowledge sake only.

Contributions of Pure Research

 Pure research of solutions to many practical problems by developing principles.
 Pure research helps to find out the critical factors in practical problems.
 Pure research provides many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose best
solutions.

2. Applied Research

Applied research is concerned with the solution of particular problems. It aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial organization. It is empirical
and practical. It is concerned with applied aspects of life. Research to identify social, economic
or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the marketing research are
examples of applied research.

Applied research is focused up on a real life problem requiring an action pr policy decision. It
tries to find out practical and immediate result. It is thus problem oriented and action directed.

According to Kerlinger (1979) applied research is research directed towards the solution of
specified practical problems. Julian Simon has pointed out that applied social sciences help in
making policy decision.

“Applied research methods are sometimes more sophisticated than any methods used in pure
research (touffers: 1950)

There is vast scope for applied research in the fields of technology, management, commerce,
economics and other social sciences. Innumerable problems are face in these areas.

They need empirical study for finding solutions. The immediate purpose of an applied research
is to find solutions to practical problems, it may incidentally contribute to the development of
theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovering of new facts or testing of a theory or to
conceptual clarity.

Contributions of Applied Research

 Applied research can contribute new facts. It uncovers new facts which enrich the
concerned body of knowledge.
 Applied research can put theory to the test. It offers an opportunity to test the validity
of existing theory.
 Applied research may aid in conceptual clarification. Many concepts are vague. E.g.
small farmer, social responsibility, social structure etc; Applied research aid conceptual
clarity.
  Applied research may integrate previously existing theories. A practical problem has
many facts. It cannot be solved by the application of abstract principles from a single
science.

The solution of a practical problem may require some integration of the theories and principles
of various disciplines.

Basic and Applied Research – Compared

The procedures and techniques utilized by basic and applied researchers do not differ
substantially. Both employ the scientific method to answer the questions at hand.

The scientific community is the primary consumer of basic research. The consumers of applied
research findings are practitioners such as teachers, counselors, and caseworkers, or decision
makers such as managers, committees, and officials. Often, someone other than the researcher
who conducted the study uses the results of applied research. This means that applied
researchers have an obligation to translate findings from scientific technical language into the
language of decision makers or practitioners.

The results of applied research are less likely to enter the public domain in publications. Results
may be available only to a small number of decision makers or practitioners, who decide
whether or how to put the research results into practice and who may or may not use the
results. Applied and basic researchers adopt different orientations toward research
methodology. Basic researchers emphasize high standards and try to conduct near-perfect
research. Applied researchers make more trade-offs. They may compromise scientific rigor to
get quick, usable results. Compromise is no excuse for sloppy research, however. Applied
researchers squeeze research into the constraints of an applied setting and balance rigor
against practical needs. Such balancing requires an in-depth knowledge of research and an
awareness of the consequences of compromising standards.

3. Exploratory research: It is also called formulative study. Such a study is conducted to gain
familiarity with a phenomenon as it is a preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem. It is similar
to a doctor’s initial investigation of a patient, for getting some clues for identifying his ailment.
Exploratory research is ill structured and is usually in the form of a pilot study. It helps the
researcher to formulate a more precise research problem or to develop a hypothesis, or
concentrate on discovery of new ideals and insights.

In short, the purpose of an exploratory study may be:

i. To gather information for clarifying concepts,
ii. To develop familiarity with the problem,
iii. To generate new ideas, and
iv. To determine the feasibility of the study.
 Exploratory research is necessary in social sciences as these sciences are relatively of recent
origin and there are only a few researches in them.

4. Descriptive Research: It is a fact finding mission. The aim of these studies is to accurately lay
down the characteristics of any group, situation or individual. It is the simplest type of
research, but is more specific than exploratory study.

Descriptive study is possible in the case of:

i. Problems which are describable and not arguable. For example, philosophical or
other controversial issues are not suitable for descriptive research.
ii. The date should be amenable to an accurate, objective and if possible quantitative
analysis for reliability and significance.
iii. It should be possible to develop valid standards of comparison.
iv. It should lend itself to verifiable procedure of collection and analysis of data.

However, the study by itself does not deal with the testing of propositions or hypothesis.

5. Diagnostic Research: It is similar to the descriptive study. But it is focused towards discovering
the frequency with which something occurs and to find out why does it occur. It aims at
identifying the causes of a problem or association of occurrence of a problem with something
else and tries to obtain a possible solution. Thus, it requires:

i. Prior knowledge of the problem.

ii. It must be thorough formulation.
iii. Clear cut definition of the population.
iv. Adequate method for collecting correct information.
v. Precise measurement of variables.
vi. Statistical analysis.

A diagnostic research involves large amount of work. It is guided by hypothesis and it is not
possible in areas where knowledge is not advanced enough to make a diagnosis of the given
situation.

6. Evaluation Studies: It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of
various planned or implemented social or economic programmes (like family planning, adult
literacy, mid-day meal for students) or to assess the impact of developmental projects on the
development of the area (like irrigation projects, rural development projects, slum clearance).
Thus, its aim is:

i. To appraise the effect of any activity for its qualitative and quantitative
performance,
ii. To determine the conditions required for success of a programme or activity,
iii. To assess the changes required over time, and
iv. To find the means to bring about these changes.
7. Experimental Research: It tries to assess the effect of one particular variable or a set of
variables on a phenomenon. It aims at determining whether and in what manner variables are
related to each other, i.e. it tests a hypothesis of causal relationship between variables. There
are various types of designs available for an experimental study. These designs aim at using
procedures which can reduce bias and increase the reliability of results.

Discussion about type of research, based on method of study mainly concentrates on analytical,
historical and survey research. Analytical study is called a study involving use of statistical
methods.

8. Survey: Survey is a fact finding study. It is a method of research which involves collection of
data directly from the individuals (either from the entire group i.e. a sample). It requires
planning by experts in the field of surveys. It also needs careful analysis and then rational
interpretation of the findings.

The surveys may be conducted for various purposes:

i. Fact-finding surveys may have a descriptive purpose. They provide required information to
the Government, business houses, private bodies etc. on the various subjects like expenditure
patterns, market demand, etc.

ii. Many inquires are conducted to explain certain phenomenon. Such surveys test hypothesis,
to explain relationships between different variables, e.g. consumer behavior or responses to
certain stimuli, effect of changes in tax structure on expenditure, income earning capacity,
labor productivity etc. Such surveys are useful for making predictions and for taking policy
decisions.

iii. Surveys are also concluded to make spatial and/or temporal comparisons of behavioral
groups, economic status, demographic patterns etc.

The above mentioned purposes of the survey clearly indicate that a survey is a field study and it
is conducted in a natural setting.

It seeks direct responses from individuals. It can cover a large population and tackle various
problems. The study may be intensive or extensive. It covers a definite geographical area.

Surveys can be conducted on all aspects of human behavior. However, we can broadly divide
them into two categories namely,
1. Social,
2. Economic.

Survey method of conducting research is the most versatile of all methods of research. It is also
the only practical way to obtain detailed first hand information on different aspects of a given
topic.
 It enables a researcher to draw generalizations about large population on the basis of a sample
study. Survey is also a useful instrument for verifying theories.

However, success of a survey depends on the willingness and co-operation of the respondents.
Results obtained from a survey are, therefore, subject to these response errors to consider
while judging the reliability or accuracy of the results obtained from a survey.

9. Historical Research: It is a study based on past records. It is based on the belief that the past
contains the key to the present and then present influences the future. This method is more
often used in sociological research. Historical study helps in tracing the evolution, growth and
transformation of society.

The major limitation of this method is that it is difficult to judge the accuracy and reliability of
past data. If the data relates to very distant past period, it is difficult to perceive the significance
of such data. Apart from these limitations, verification of results is not possible in historical
studies.

SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH: MEANING AND SCOPE

Social Science Research

Meaning and Scope:

Sciences are broadly divided in to natural (physical) sciences and social sciences. Social sciences
include various disciplines dealing with human life, human behavior and institutions.
E.g. Anthropology, History, Economics, Education, Commerce, Demography etc,.
Social sciences are not exact science like physical sciences. It deals with human beings.
Human nature and mans environment are so complex, that it is more difficult to comprehend
and predict human behavior than the physical phenomena. It is difficult see the underlying
uniformities in the diversity of complex human behavior.

Social science research

Social science research is a systematic method of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing
human life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge of human behavior and social life.

Social research seeks to find explanations to unexplained phenomena, to clarify the doubtful
and correct the misconceived fact of social life.

It involves the application of scientific method for understanding and analyzing of social life in
order to correct and verify the existing knowledge as a system. The main idea behind social
research is to discover new inter relations, new knowledge, new facts and also to verify old
ones.
Human behavior may be involved by certain values and laws. The main purpose of social
research is to discover those laws which can be proper guidelines for studying human contact
and behavior.

According to P.V. Young, we may define social research as “the systematic method of
discovering new facts and verifying old facts. Their sequences inter relationship, causal
explanations and the natural laws govern them”. From the above definition we can identify the
following,

Characteristics of Social Research

 Social research deals with social phenomena. It studies human behavior and their
feelings.
 Social research is carried on both for discovering new facts and verification of the old
ones.
 Social research tries to establish casual connection between various human activities.

Nature of Social Science Research

In contrast to the physical science the social science lack the power of exact prediction; this is
attributed to the “erratic”, idiosynoration and irregular nature of human behavior.

Social scientist point out that the low predictable potential in social science is due to our
limited knowledge of relevant variables operative in the group like customs, traditions etc,. The
cause and effect are difficult to be segregated clearly. The present state of development of
social science is far behind physical science. Merton advises to social scientist against their
despair; it is possible to develop border applicability.

Objectives of Social Research

The major objectives of social research are listed as follows:-
a. The aim of social research is to discover new facts and verifying or testing old facts.
b. It tries to understand the human behavior and its interaction with the environment.
c. It tries to find out the casual connection between human activities and natural laws
governing them.

Functions of Social Science Research

1. Discovery of facts & their interpretations - Research provides answer to questions of
what, where, when & how of man, social life and institutions. There are half truths
pseudo truths and superstitions. Discovery of facts enlighten us.
2. Diagnosis of problems- The developing countries face so many problems such as
poverty unemployment, Social tensions, law productivity etc. Social Science Research
helps to discover solution to these problems.
3. Systematization of knowledge- The facts discovered through research are past & parcel
of the body of knowledge.
4. Prediction- Social Science Research aims at predicting social events.
 5. Planning – Panning is needed for socio-economic development & Social Science
Research provides sufficient data for planning.
6. Social Welfare- Social Science Research unfolds & identify the causes of social evils &
problems.

Scope of Social Science Research

The fields of social science research unlimited and the materials of research are endless.
Every group of social phenomena, every phase of human life and every stages of past and
present development are materials for the social scientist. The area of research in various social
sciences provides vast scope for research in social sciences.

The main scopes of social research are:

 Social research provides new insight in to the organized society and its social structure.
 Social research also provide new horizon in scientific explanation; advanced and tested
principles of procedure and suggested new concepts.
 Another scope of social research is that exemplified by studies and attempt to test or
challenge existing theories and revise them the light of new evidence.
 Social research helpful to establish new theory and established techniques of
exploration.
 Social research also provides contributions to existing stone of fruitful ideas,
methodology and basis understanding of social life and control of its problems.

Objectivity in social research

The question of objectivity has been central to the methodological debates of the social
sciences from the beginning. It means the willingness and ability to examine evidence
dispassionately. It is the first condition of research. Objectivity means basing conclusion on
facts without any bias and value judgement. The conclusion should be independent of one’s
personal beliefs, likes dislikes and hopes. Both the data and the inference drawn from their
analysis must be free from bias and prejudices. But modern feminist researchers and critical
social researchers argued research is a moral-political activity that requires the researcher to
commit to a value position. Value freedom is a myth.
 Unit two
Social work research and characteristics

Social Work Research

Social work research is the application of research methods to the production of knowledge
that social workers need to solve problems they confront in the practice of social work. The
knowledge is useful in appraising the effectiveness of methods and techniques of social work. It
provides information that can be taken into consideration by social workers prior to making
decisions that affect their clients, programs or agencies such as use of alternative intervention
techniques or change or modification of program, and so forth.

Social work research offers an opportunity for all social workers to make a difference or
modification in their practice. There is no doubt about the fact that social worker will be more
effective practitioner guided by the findings of social work research. Thus, social work research
seeks to accomplish the same humanistic goals, as does a social work method. Social work
research deals with those methods and issues, which are useful in evaluating social work
programs and practices. It explains the methodology of social research and illustrates its
applications in social work settings.

Goal of Social Work Research

Social work is a practical profession. As such, the major objective of social work research is to
search for answers to questions raised regarding interventions or treatment effectiveness in
social work practice. In other words social work research attempts to provide knowledge about
what interventions or treatments really help or hinder the attainment of social work goals. In
addition, it also helps in searching for answers to problems or difficulties faced by social work
practitioners in the practice of their profession. Ultimately, it helps building knowledge—base
for social work theory and practice.

Scope of Research in Social Work

While on the theoretical side, social work research reexamines the special body of knowledge,
concepts and theories and tries to evolve a systematic theory and valid concepts in the area of
social work practice. Social work Research may be conducted to know the efficacy of different
methods of social work as to search for alternate interventions and treatments. Identification of
social work needs and resources, evaluation of program and services, evaluation of program
and services of social work agencies, are some of the areas in which social work researches are
undertaken.

Social work research may be conducted to know the problems faced by professional social
workers in social work agencies and communities in their concern with social work functions.
Thus, social work research embraces the entire gamut of social work profession: concepts,
theories, methods, programs, services and the problems faced by social workers in their
practice. Social work research typically focuses on assessment of practitioner’s work with
individuals, groups, family’s communities or appraisal of agencies or programs that involve the
continued efforts of practitioners with many clients. As such, the research design, data
collection and analytic strategies in social work research vary as a function of unit of analysis
and program of agencies of social work practitioner. It focuses on or confines itself to select
aspects of behavior and alternate modes of behavior modifications. It helps to find ways and
means to enhance social functioning at the individual, group, community and societal levels.
When the focus of research is on concepts, principles, theories underlying social work methods
and skills, social work research is known as intervention research. It also involves the study of
the relationship of social workers with their clients: individuals, groups or communities on
various levels of interaction or therapy as well as their natural relationships and functioning
within the organizational structure of social agencies. The areas of social work research may be
broadly categorized as follows:
1. Studies to establish identify and measure the need for service.
2. To measure the services offered as they relate to needs
3. To test, gauge and evaluate results of social work intervention.
4. To list the efficacy of specific techniques of offering services.
5. Studies in methodology of social work.

Social work is a diverse profession, possible broad research areas could be:
1. Community Health,
2. Community Mental Health ,
3. Child Welfare,
4. Women Welfare,
5. Youth Welfare
6. Aged Welfare,
7. Substance Abuse,
8. Poverty alleviation,
9. Mental retardation,
10. Juvenile Delinquency,
11. Crime and Corrections, etc.

The list is not exhaustive; it is only illustrative which enlists broad areas which are very
frequently studied by social workers. Again, within one or more problem- areas, research might
focus on individuals, families, groups, community organizations or broad social systems. It
might deal with characteristics of a larger population, and the services available to them.

Nature of Social Work Research

Reid has elaborated on the two main components of Social Work research, namely the
substantive and the methodological. The latter is concerned with methodological issues and the
former has been classified into four main groups (see Reid, 1987).
a. Studies concerned with the behavior and personality problems of individuals, families
and small groups, both clients and non-clients.
b. Investigations of the characteristics, utilization and outcome of services.
c. Research on the attitudes, orientations and training of social workers on the social work
profession or on inter-disciplinary concerns.
d. Studies of organizations, communities and social policy.
In 1958, Gordon had listed that research in Social Work is –

a. directed towards the solution of problems and may attempt to answer a question or to
determine the relation between two or more variables;
b. emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, and theories that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrences;
c. tries to be objective and logical by applying every possible test to validate the
Procedures employed, data collected and the conclusions reached;
d. examines various Social Work interventions, their pros and cons and select appropriate
intervention in solving specific problem or handling specific solution;
e. accumulates knowledge in a practice field in order to increase the practitioner’s ability
to exercise conscious and deliberate mastery over his fields;
f. broadens the professional practice of Social Work beyond the more traditional activities
of conducting studies;
g. examines our research tools, the type of research thinking we bring to Social Work and
whether the latter is getting the profession anywhere either in Social Work education or
practice;
h. Questions that the Social Work scientist is going to be. In order to fulfill the above
mentioned activities, the significance of research in Social Work lies in studying
processes and awareness of interventions, clarifying problems for amelioration, using
and fostering theory in the context of problem amelioration; exploring society’s
response to the human conditions; developing a database for an information system;
and focusing on specific constellation as the unit of analysis (Caputo, 1985).

It has been well reiterated by Goldstein (1962) that scientific standards and scientific method
would make social work practice more scientific, systematized, focused, and well directed. In
professional practice, social workers have to be well informed on research for ethical reasons In
the United Nations, the National Association of School of Social Workers’ Code of Ethics (1997)
has given special attention to this:

a. Social Workers should educate themselves, their students, and their colleagues about
responsible research practices.
b. Social Workers should monitor and evaluate policies, the implementation of program,
and practice interventions.
c. Social Workers should promote and facilitate evaluation and research to contribute to
the development of knowledge.
d. Social Workers should critically examine and keep current with emerging knowledge
relevant to social work and fully use evaluation and research evidence in their
professional practice (see Marlow, 1998).

Research plays an important role in facilitating accountability to various stakeholders. The

welfare sector is characterized by paucity of funds and with funding being largely from
government and charitable organizations; therefore accountability of the money utilized
assumes a pointed significance. It can also be mentioned here that certain research procedures
seek involvement of the clients in such a manner that they are part of the research process
from planning to its implementation. According to Marlow (1998) this kind of participation
means empowerment of the clients. This holds true even in the case of participatory action
research. The different ways in which this takes place is first through generation of knowledge
and action directly useful to the people, and second, through continuous efforts made to
promote collaboration at all stages of the research process. To conclude, research helps the
social workers to adopt two roles, that of the producer and the consumer of research.

According to the Council on Social Work Education (2001) social workers are expected to be
both effective producers and consumers of research. It can well be understood that social
workers have to understand research in order to use it in various program. A social worker who
understands research tools and techniques is well placed to make an objective assessment of
the quality of research base and become a consumer of already validated theories. Also perusal
of existing data base helps the practitioner to plan interventions and avoid errors.

In their second role the social workers need to essentially know about research methodology.
When answers to various social situations cannot be found in prevailing literature or when
there is a need to study the effectiveness of interventions social workers conduct their own
research. Also, research is sometimes carried out to establish the need for a new service. In
fact, social workers continuously access data from multiple sources, document the progress of
clients in individual or group interactions towards predetermined goals, write reports and carry
out many tasks that fall in the purview of research process. They use research techniques to
map communities, to carry out need assessment, compare needs of different population
groups, and many times to convince a funding agency that a project should be launched. As
producers of research social workers conduct their own research or assist others to do so.
There are many situations in social work practice where social workers conduct research and
produce their findings. For example, they may conduct opinion surveys to study the level of
satisfaction with agency services among their client groups or of former clients. Research is also
undertaken to identify the needs of client groups.

Many times interventions are evaluated for their impact upon the clients by professional social
workers.

According to Dudley (2005) in achieving these objectives the professional social worker has to
have an understanding of the following aspects of social research:
 the steps in scientific research process;
 the kinds of research that are occurring in social work;
 the ethics of social research;
 the importance of diversity into research;
 ways in which research can support and promote social justice;
 the importance of evaluating your practice as a social worker;
 And the impact of the research design on the quality of the results.
Ethics and Social Work Research
As with other methods of Social Work Practice, an understanding not only of the values and
principles of practice is important. The same can also be stated for the ethics of research. Over
the years much emphasis has been laid upon the need for researchers to incorporate several
safeguards into their research to prevent ethical problems from occurring. One of the first
efforts in this direction was the policy statement on ethical principles and guidelines for the
protection of human subjects of biomedical and behavioral research in 1979. This document,
namely the Belmont Report, was released by the Department of Health and Human Services.

In the context of Social Work research the most important ethical safeguards to be kept in
consideration are:
a. confidentiality;
b. informed consent;
c. monitoring the effects of a study on the participants and offering assistance if
necessary;
d. involving research participants in decision making about the study;
e. Selecting researchers without a conflict of interest (see Dudley, 2005).

Confidentiality: A primary responsibility of the researcher is to protect the privacy of all

research participants by ensuring their anonymity. The researcher knows the names of all the
participants but promises not to reveal their identity outside the research team. Oftentimes,
researchers change the names of their respondents in order to conceal their identity.

Informed Consent: The informed consent is sought from the research participants prior to the
research process. Mostly the document of informed consent should cover the following areas:
general purpose of the study; qualifications and organizational affiliation of the researcher;
expectations of the research participant; assurance of confidentiality; identification of any
possible negative effects the study might have on the participants; identification of any possible
benefits resulting from the participation; an explicit reminder that the participants can stop
participating at any time; the name of someone who can be called to answer the queries of the
respondents.

Protection of the respondents at all stages of research is a prime concern of the researcher.
These concerns are manifold, greater if the participants are in any way vulnerable or can face
any physical or psychological harm.

An innovative way to increase the protection of the participants in research is by involving

them in some or all of the steps of the study as it progresses. The Participatory Action Research
is a way of doing so. Some researchers even consult the prospective participants during the
designing of the study.

An important aspect is in relation to the report of the study. Misrepresentation of the findings
of the study and other actions that compromise the integrity of the study must be looked into
(see Dudley, 2005). This is usually possible through taking the services of qualified outside
researchers who can lend the research the much desired objectivity.

Use/Relevance or importance of Scientific Method in Social work research

Social work primarily deals with human behavior, which is, by and large, complex and dynamic
in nature. One cannot, therefore, investigate the human behavior under guided conditions as in
natural and physical sciences. This creates many problems for the researcher such as the
problems of subjectivity and individualistic generalizations etc.

The problems arising out of the nature and content of social Work do not seriously diminish the
importance of scientific method for social scientists. Notwithstanding the inherent defects of
social sciences, scientific method can be acceptable with its own limitations for the study of
social phenomena so far as it helps to arrive at valid generalizations.

Social work is a practice profession. As such the major objective of social research is to search
for answers to questions raised regarding interventions or practice effectiveness. In other
words social work research attempts to provide knowledge about what interventions or
treatment really help or hinder the attainment of social work goals. In additions, it also helps in
searching for answers to problem or difficulties faced by social worker in the practice of their
profession. Ultimately it helps building knowledge base for social work theory and practice.
Social work research also deals with problems faced by professional social Workers, social work
agencies and community in its concern with social work functions. In other words in social work
research, the problems to e investigated are always found in the course of doing social work or
planning to do it. It is obvious that in social work research the study of a problem is from the
point of view of social work and that of professional social work. The designing of research
problems, data collection and its interpretation will have to be attempted in a manner as would
be useful to professional social work which would add new knowledge to the social work theory
and practice and improve the efficiency of professional social workers.

Social work research is regarded as the systematic use of research concepts, methods,
techniques and strategies to provide information related to the objectives of social work
programs and practices. Thus the unit of analysis of social work research could be individuals,
groups, families or program of agency. That is, social work research typically focuses on
assessment of practitioners’ work with individuals, groups, families, communities or appraisal
of agencies or programs that involve the continued efforts of practitioners with many clients. As
such, research design, data collection and analytical strategies in social work research vary as a
function of unit of analysis and program of agencies of social work practitioner. Social work
research is the use of scientific method in the search of knowledge, including knowledge of
alternate practice and interventions techniques, which would be of direct use to social work
profession and thus enhanced the practice of social work methods. Social work research
focuses on or confines itself to select aspects of behavior and alternate models of behavior
modifications. Social work research lays special emphasis on evaluation. This is one of the
reasons that social work research is also understood as evaluate research. Under social work
research, varieties of evaluative researches are undertaken. Some of the researches are on
impacts or effect, efficacy and effectiveness. Evaluation of agencies and its projects and
programs are some of the specialized areas of social work research.

Conclusion
Social work research is the application of research methods to the production of knowledge
that social workers need to solve problems they confront in the practice of social work. The
knowledge is useful in appraising the effectiveness of methods and techniques of social work.
The major objective of social work research is to search for answers to questions raised
regarding interventions or treatment—effectiveness in social work practice. Social work
research mostly draws its inferences through inductive reasoning. That is, inferring something
from the facts. Thus, in social work research inductive reasoning carries us from observation to
theory through intervention/ assessment. A substantive part of social work practice is
concerned with the micro-level practice, such as working with individuals, groups or a
community. Social work research lays special emphasis on evaluation. Social work research
typically focuses on assessment of practitioner’s work with individuals, groups, family’s
communities or appraisal of agencies or program that involve the continued efforts of
practitioners with many clients.

The areas of social work research may be broadly categorized as: studies to identify and
measure the need for service; studies to measure the services offered as they relate to needs;
studies to test, gauge and evaluate results of social work intervention; studies to list the
efficacy of specific techniques of offering services and studies in methodology of social work.

Characteristic of social work Research

The above definitions reveal the following characteristics of social work research.
1. Social work research is a systematic and critical investigation to a phenomenon.
2. It aims at interpreting and explaining a phenomenon.
3. It adopts scientific method.
4. It is based on empirical evidences and observable experience.
5. It develops generalizations, principles or theories.
6. It directed towards finding answer to the questions and solutions to the problems.

Purpose of social work research

The purposes or objectives of social work research are varied. They are-
1. Social work research extends knowledge of human beings social life and environment.
2. It reveals the mysteries of nature.
3. Social work research establishes generalizations and general laws and contributes to
theory building in various fields of knowledge.
4. It verifies and tests existing facts and theory.
5. It helps us to improve our knowledge and ability to handle situation.
6. General laws developed through research may enable us to make reliable predictions of
events.
7. Social work research aims to analyze inter-relationship between variables and to derive
causal explanations, which help us to better understanding of the world in which we
live.
8. It aims to finding solutions to the problem, e.g.:- socio-economic problems, health
problems, organizational and human relational problems and so on…
9. It also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for better understanding to
unknown phenomena.
10. Social work research helps national planning board to focus our national development.
It enables the planners to evaluate alternative strategies, on-going programs and
evaluation etc.,
11. Provides functional data for rational decision making and formulation of strategies and
policies.
 Unit III- social research and social work research- similarities and
differences
SOCIAL RESEARCH AND SOCIAL WORK RESEARCH: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES.

Search implies thorough investigation and the term 'research' which has been derived from the French
word 'rechercher', 're' and 'chercher', means a critical examination of a topic or subject to discover new
facts for increasing the sum total of human knowledge. It is a method for discovery of new knowledge
which augments to the existing body of organized facts, ideals and aspiration, "Research is considered to
be the more formal, systematic, intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of analysis.

It involves a more systematic structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of
procedures and a report of results or conclusions". Research per se constitutes a method for the discovery
of truth which necessitates critical thinking. "It comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing, and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at least, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulated hypotheses." "It is the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory
or in the practice of an art." Thus, research is a "systemized effort to, gain new knowledge."

Research is characterized by :
(i) a specific problem.
(ii) involvement in original work,
(iii) resting upon a mental attitude of curiosity,
(iv) requirement of an open mind,
(v) resting upon the assumption that everything is subject to law and order,
(vi) discovery of laws and generalizations
(vii) study of cause and effect
(viii) measurement and
(ix) Involvement in a conscious technique.

Social research implies discovery of some facts concealed in a social phenomenon or some laws
governing it. It is mainly concerned with the cause and effect relationship of human behavior and the
discovery of new facts as well as the verification of old facts. Therefore, "we may define social research
as the systematic method of discovering new facts or verifying old facts, their sequences,
interrelationships, causal explanations and the natural laws which govern them." While studying human
behavior and social problems and discovering new interrelations, new knowledge, new facts and
verifying old ones, social research applies the scientific method and tries to establish the causal
connection between various human activities and the natural laws governing them by means of logical
and systematized methods because the human behavior may be motivated by certain rules and laws and
does not appear haphazardly. Briefly stated, social research implies scientific investigation conducted in
the field of social as well as behavioral sciences.

In a very broad sense, social work research is the application of research methods to solve problems that
social workers confront in the practice of social work. It provides information that can be taken into
consideration by social workers prior to making decisions that affect their clients, programmes or
agencies such as use of alternative intervention techniques or change or modification of programme /
client/objectives and so forth.

Comparison between Social research and Social work research

Social work research and social research are identical in nature in many respects. Both of them deal with
social phenomena. The methods and the technique used in both of them are almost similar. Both are
interdependent and are influenced by each other. Yet there are some fundamental differences between
the two which may be classified as under:

1. Social work research is concerned on specific persons, specific problems and situations, e.g.
prevalence of alcoholism among washer men in Bhopal. Whereas social research is concerned
with general and abstract problems, e.g. effect of family environment upon delinquency.
2. In social work survey the object is to fulfill immediate needs and use knowledge available at a given
time. It is thus practical in nature. While in the social research the objective is long time research of
broad perspective in order to develop more accurate procedures and theories. Thus, its primary aim
is theoretical in nature.
3. In social work survey the purpose is to improve the lot of men. It is thus utilitarian in nature.
Whereas in social research the purpose is to increase the general knowledge of man or devise
improvement in the technique of study. It is thus purely scientific in nature.
4. Social work research results in a social reform, an administrative change or a remedial measure for
removing immediate evils. The social research results in formulation of new theories or discovery of
new technique of study or modification of old concepts.
5. The social work survey may form the basis of some hypothesis. Whereas the social research
develops the hypotheses and thus evolves a theory.
6. In the social work survey a hypothesis is not necessary for it. Generally a social survey is best
undertaken without any hypothesis which may be the result of it. While in the social research, a
hypothesis is essential for proceeding on with the word of social research. The social research is
mainly concerned with the testing of hypothesis thus formed.
The social work survey may be conducted on professional basis. Many surveys are conducted not for any
interest in the topic but from payment from other interested parties, e.g. the habit of newspaper reading,
option surveys, etc. Whereas the social research is never conducted on professional basis as no one stands
to gain specially through such a type of study. Thirst for knowledge is the only incentive and its ultimate
satisfaction is the only reward for a social scientist.
Based on above discussion the comparison can be tabulated as below-
Social work research Social research
1. Social work research is related mostly 1. Social research is dedicated to develop
to treat the social problems practically. the theories in social sciences.
2. Social work research is used to solve 2. In social research, methods,
the problem at the immediate time of procedures, tools and techniques of
planning scientific system will be used for the
growth, correction and examination of
knowledge

3. Social work research has its own 3. Social research has broad areas.
specific area
4. Social work research is problem- 4.It includes all research methods but is
oriented. theory oriented.

5. It is used to provide for guidance to 5.it is more interested in the inquiry of

social worker.
6.it is more practical and functional
7.it focuses on need based assessment or
treatment
8. it is specified in subject oriented
human beings
6.it is more theory based
7. It focuses on theory building.
8.it is generalization oriented

Hence in conclusion

1. Social work research begins with practical problems whereas social research may be
concerned with any aspects of social life.
2. The objective of social work research is to produce knowledge that can be helpful in
planning and executing social work programs, whereas the objective of social research
is to accumulate the knowledge for understanding social life of human beings.
3. Social work is an applied research which is directed towards the acquisition of
knowledge in order to control or change human behavior but social research can be
basic or applied.
4. Social work research serves the goals of social work whereas sociological research has
no specific goals like that of social work as it increases the knowledge of any of the
social sciences.
5. Social work research helps the social worker in dealing with social problems or
problems relating to their clients( individual, group or community) while social
research may be helpful to social work as it helps in increasing the knowledge of
human behavior.

Social work research and its Relation to Other social science research
Social work research is related to various social science researches. The areas like sociology,
social work and social policy are considered cognate disciplines of social work which has
influenced social work research.

1. Sociology research and Social work research

Sociology research focuses on scientific study of the human society. All social sciences study
human behavior, but the content, approach and the context of sociology are very different
from other disciplines. Sociology research is the study of society with society as the unit of
analysis. Here it studies the internal differentiations and how they interact with each other
and how they influence each other. It studies the allocation of functions to the different
structures of the society.

Secondly sociology research acts as the study of intuitions – political, economic, social, legal,
stratifications, etc. It studies the features that these institutions share and the features that
are different. Their degree of specialization and level of autonomy are also studied. Thirdly it
is the study of social relationships. The subject matter for sociology was collective behavior of
human beings. Society, community, family, religion, nation and groups are concepts that
sociology investigates and studies.

In similar cases, social work research also studies human society, the behavior of individual,
group or communities in micro, macro and macro level. It also research on different
institution like political, economic, cultural, inequalities and stratification as that of sociology
research.

Sociology research has a significant influence on social work research. Sociological research is
guided by certain perspectives which have same influence on social work research. Further
they have enabled social work research professionals to influence social policy by advocating
for legislations and programs.

Sociological concepts like role, status, authority, power, rights, responsibility, groups,
communities and nations are used in casework, group work and community organization
which has enriched social work practice. Both research study society and their sub system
like family, types of families, changing roles of family members, changing functions of family
and its members, the problems and means to resolve these problems and problems of elderly
and their solutions.

2. Psychological research and Social work research

Social work research on the study of mental processes and human behavior. Social work
research can be defined as the science of human and animal behavior; it includes application
of this science to human problems (Morgan,C.T. et al, 1993; 30).
Being a science it uses the tools of observation, measurement and classification to study
human behavior.

The area of social work researcher and the clinical psychologist overlaps even in other areas
like child development and there are common areas of concern also. Often social work
research and psychological expand their respective spheres of influence.

Along with sociology, social work had a major influence on the social work research
profession. The emergence of Freud’s psychoanalytical approach gave a major impetus to
case work in the earlier part of the twentieth century due to the following reasons:

1. Case work in its initial stages was a very general method which needed only common
sense and logical thinking to practice. The psychoanalytical approach gave it an
established (medical) base on which it could develop into a specialized method.
2. The need for knowledge to explain difficult phenomena with which practice was
involved.
3. The entrance into the general culture of psychoanalytical ideas.
4. Political and economic contexts that, time to time, emphasized individual culpability
over social justice and societal responsibility.

Social work researcher trained in this skill extended the clientele of social work profession
from the poor to middle class and the rich classes. Social work research profession’s total
identification with poor, destitute and the disabled was reduced when clients from other
section of the society started using their services. Most of these clients were well off and
were part of the mainstream of the society. They mainly suffered from psychological aliments
rather than from poverty. Thus social work research came to be seen as a helping profession
rather than solely caring for the poor. This new role of the social work was also better paying
than those on other positions.

Even now the categories of social work research professionals who are the highest incomes
are who offer individual and privatized care to their clients. Social work research contributed
a number of techniques to social work research in a number of following ways:-

1. Behavior modification theories, psychoanalysis techniques like dream analysis, etc.

2. Child development with emphasis on role expectation at every stage.
3. Study of abnormal behavior and the various classification of mental illness.
4. In the field of counseling.

Social work researcher often used these techniques in their practice to increase their
effectiveness. But social work research engagement with social work has its critics. The
adoption of social work methods removed social work research from its original mission of
helping the poor (Dominelli, 2002, Wootton, 1959; 271 quoted in Lymbery, 2005; 40).

3. History research and Social work research

The purpose of history is to know the past so that the present is better understood. If we
want to know who we are we must know from where we came and how we reached here. So
history studies the past events, the factors that influenced it and what circumstances brought
about the events that happened.

For social work research, history is important for the following reasons. First, the history of
profession is to be studied so that the current status of the profession is known. New
methods in historiography have enabled us to go beyond the approaches that have been seen
earlier. This has allowed new light to be thrown on some of the problems that the profession
is facing today. For example the feminist viewpoint of the history of social work research, the
alleged low status of social work research profession lies in its origin itself.

The pioneers in the profession were white women who were themselves marginalized by
society which was transferred to their profession. Second, the role of social work research
especially in the west in linked to the fortunes of the welfare state. The welfare state is today
facing unfrequented crises due to the rise of neo-liberalism which advocates a minimal state.
To fight this political tendency social work research has often used history to explain the
growth of the welfare state and present problems it needs to address.

4. Public Administration and Social work research

According to Luther Gulick ‘public administration research is that part of the science of
administration which has to do with the government and thus concerns itself primarily with
the executive branch where the government is done’.
The American Council of Social Work education has defined ‘administration research helps in
the process of transforming community resources into a program of community service, in
accordance with the goals, policies and standards which have been agreed by those involved
in the enterprise. It is creative in the sense that it structures roles and relationships in such a
way as to alter and enhance the total product. It involves the problem solving process of
study, diagnosis and treatment or action and evaluation of results.’

The scope of public administration research is similar to social work research in the following
ways
1. the analysis of social problem and determining the administrative response to the
problem
2. the planning and execution of social services in a scientific way.
3. organizing social security programmes in a scientific way
4. Helping in the formulation of social policies.

The social work researcher has to have the knowledge of the various services and resources
provided by the government. To perform these functions the social work researcher has to be
familiar with the political and administrative context in which he performs the role. Also he
needs to know the laws, rules and regulations, procedures which are associated with the
process. The humanization of the social services was the major aim of social work research
(Rogers and Stevenson, 1973,) of late the role of the social work researcher in policy
formulation is gaining importance.

Social work researchers are increasingly aware that participation in the formulation of
policies is an important means to bring about social change in line with their values. Policy
science is itself a multidisciplinary subject, which deals with how policies are made and how
policy analysis can be done.

The knowledge about both these aspects are important to the social work researcher. The
need for participation in policy formulation has made knowledge about social policy
important.

5. Law and Social work research

Social work research and law research have an important relationship in many ways.
1. In many countries both has been given statutory powers to intervene in selected
areas of social life, for example the family to protect children or prevent domestic
violence.
2. Due to scandals in the social services regulation through law has increased in these
areas.
3. The limitations in law and the legal system has made it difficult for common people to
get justice. Social workers have understood this chronic malady afflicting the legal
system. Therefore law has an ever increasing importance in social work research
education as well as professional service.

Another important development that has made law important for social work research is the
emergence of human rights based practice. (Johns, Roberts, 2005; 20)

The need for knowledge of law is of paramount importance to the Nepalese social work
researcher. Nepalese social legislations are often attempts to bridge the gulf between
consensual values and their apparent incongruence with prevailing patterns of behaviour. It
creates a legal framework for the new situations and provides opportunities for change in the
desired direction.

Social work researchers need the knowledge of law when they perform their roles as
counselors. Secondly, social work researcher as mentioned earlier performs a number of
quasi-judicial functions in the correctional field, childcare, adoption and mental health field.
Thirdly, in developing countries like in Nepal the social work researcher need the knowledge
of law to protect the poor from the misuse of law.
.
Hence the social work research and law research has same understanding of laws and
legislations in the following:
 i. Constitution with special emphasis on rights and directive principle
j. Legal Aid
k. Special legislations to protect disadvantaged sections
l. Public Interest Litigation.
m. Basic procedures related to arrest, bail, first information Report, charge sheet etc.

6. Economics research and Social work research

Economic research helps to study on how the goods and services we want get produced and
how they are distributed among the society. No area of society is free from the influence of
economic policy.

Many issues related to social work research like income, poverty, unemployment, migrations
are directly related to the economic situation. Social work researcher has to understand the
situation, has to adopt a thorough analysis of the situation which often includes the study of
economic factors. Often individual and relationship problems have its root in the economic
condition that in turn is created by factors beyond the control of people affected by it.

For example, unemployment can increase tendency to divorce and depression. It has clear
evidence that these measures are not only the rights of the people but has benefits for the
whole society.
 Unit four
Types of research- barefoot research, baseline survey, participatory action research,
evaluation research, anthropological/ ethnographic research, feminist research, social
emersion and culture shock

Barefoot research

Meaning and definition

Barefoot research is a kind of research which encourages workers, or community people to

research their own circumstances, exploring their industry community, society, village or even
groups from their own point of view and drawing their own conclusions. This is not a classic
action research in the sense of research being undertaken by researchers with practitioners,
nor do researchers appear as teachers as in intensive realist evaluation. Instead, such an
approach has been called ‘barefoot’ research, because it is a journey undertaken with very little
support. We propose this definition of the research idea—academically untrained people doing
research on their own circumstances. If this is a research design it is so in a minimal sense of
the term.

Barefoot, as a methodology, have its origins in the medical profession and in Third World
Development. The Barefoot Doctor and the Barefoot Midwife were approaches to provide
appropriate support services in poor countries, often led by local people themselves.
Barefoot research implies a methodology that is without pretence, sensitive to needs and
above all, close to local realities. Nowadays barefoot research is primarily conducted in social
work by social workers in the different fields like mental health social work, industrial social
work, and social welfare services and so on.

Purpose

The fundamental purpose of Barefoot Research is to improve the lives of people by taking
action to bring about practical change. It is available and accessible, even to the less powerful
groups in society. It can raise awareness and produce valuable information. Because of its
participatory nature, it places an element of control in the hands of the participants.

Barefoot Research can be carried out equally in industrial and organizational setting
By workers themselves who act as researchers, rather than using the standard scientific
approach whereby an outside researcher investigates
 Without the need for sophisticated equipment, trained experts, or expensive resources
Barefoot Research in work security is a tool that provides major benefits for workers,
their families and their communities. Conducting Barefoot Research gives dignity and
respect to life, by using simple methods to protect workers’ lives, which in turn protects
their families, neighborhoods, villages, communities.

Barefoot Research is not an academic exercise. It is a practical approach for improving workers’
basic security with special emphasis on working conditions. The absence of basic security for
workers can often mean that workers accept any working conditions for fear of not having a job
or income.

Barefoot Research can help to overcome this problem by:

Generating information that is difficult for employers, inspectors or enforcement
representatives to ignore
providing some protection against reprisal, since it is much more difficult to discredit or
rebuke an entire workforce than it is a few isolated individuals
empowering and building confidence in workers, since the participatory element of the
research process validates workers concerns and creates a sense of ownership of the
process and outcomes
Organizing workers around their health, well being and basic security and work security.

So based on the above discussion it can be said that, barefoot research tries to bring changes in
people’s life standard by means of the activities of practical changes in their lives. In this
research the important information about the people’s problem will be provided and tries to
keep the aware with their problem and solving the problem. This research focuses primarily on
the poorest section of society which plays vital role in bringing the changes in of people’s life.

PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH

Participatory Action Research (PAR)

Concept of Participation
The principle of participation is widely recognized as a right in itself under the Declaration on
the Rights to Development. Article 25, International Covenant on Civil AND Political Rights the
participation and the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs means that every person
and all people are entitled to participate in, contributes to, and enjoy civil, economic, social and
political development. It also means that all people are entitled to participate in society to the
maximum of their potential. This, in turn, means that steps have to be taken to facilitate
participation. Participation as a concept has found favor and recently there has been quite a
few arguments given for ‘participation’.

Croft and Beresford (1994) have elaborated on a few of such arguments.

1. Most people want to be involved.
2. People have a right to be involved.
3. Involvement increases accountability.
4. Participation makes more efficient and cost-effective services.
5. Involving people accords with Social Work goals.
6. Involving people challenges institutionalized discrimination.

Concept of participation action research

“A participatory action research is a qualitative research paradigm in which the researcher’s

function is to serve as a resource to those being studied—typically, disadvantaged groups—as
an opportunity for them to act effectively in their own interest. The disadvantaged participants
define their problems, define the remedies desired, and take the lead in designing the research
that will help them realize their aims.”

There are a number of definitions for Participatory Action Research.

Some are as follows:

 Participatory Action Research is a new paradigm research that entails doing research
with and for people rather than on people (Lofman, Pelkonen, and Pietila , 2004 p. 333).
 Participatory Action Research is a real world research that adopts and employs critical
approaches (including critical reflection) with focus on improving human life (Dick,
2006).
 Participatory Action Research is a form of action research in which professional social
researchers operate as full collaborators with members of organizations in studying and
transforming those organizations. It is an ongoing organizational learning process, a
research approach that emphasizes co-learning, participation and organizational
transformation (Greenwood et al, 1993).
 Participatory action research (PAR) is a form of action research that is committed to the
involvement of those who are most affected (Alston and Bowles, 1998).

Based on the above, we can list out the unique features of Participatory Action Research as
follows:
 It focuses on change
 It is context-specific
 It involves collaboration, partnership and shared ownership. The beneficiaries are
invested in the research.
  Generates knowledge or data through shared/collective/collaborative efforts
 Is based on the action research cycle plan-act-observe-reflect
 It assumes that knowledge is relative, uncertain, evolving, contextual, and value-laden
(Bradbury & Reason, 2003; Ozanne & Saatcioglu, 2008; Borda, 2008).
 It explains causality in terms of local realities and macrostructures (Fook, 2006; Suarez,
Newman, and Reed, 2008).

However, Participatory Action Research is not without its dilemmas and problems. Some of the
ethical dilemmas in Participatory Action Research projects as discussed by Manzo and Brightbill,
(2007) are:
 It is difficult to maintain anonymity of respondents since control and ownership is
shared
 It can create discomfort in the lives of the respondents and participants by empowering
them
 Ensuring free consent may be a problem since the researcher is a participant and an
insider; other participants may feel coerced due to the power relationship.
 There may be difficulty in involving other participants in the data management
processes (entry, and analysis) as well as documentation processes. The reasons for this
could include time related issues, the lack of analytical skills amongst the other
participants / respondents as well as an acceptance or recognition that full participation
in analysis could enhance vulnerability in the group which in turn could be damaging.
Moreover, in many cases the practitioner-researcher is equipped with better skills and
knowledge to carry out the analysis and documentation.
 The focus of Participatory Action Research is on generating localized knowledge to
benefit the participating group/community and not contributing to theory building or
development which is the focus of most academic research. New theory may emerge
from new knowledge of local systems, but that is not the primary goal of Participatory
Action Research.
 Participatory Action Research projects may, at times, face criticism from academicians.

Action Research and Participatory Action Research in Social work settings

Action research and participatory action research lends itself to social work settings because it
is in keeping with social work values as can be seen from the following:
 Action research and participatory action research are people oriented
 Both, action research and participatory action research lay emphasis on participation. In
both, the researchers are part of their research studies; the researchers are located
within the research.
 Action research and participatory action research are usually collaborative efforts. The
researchers work with and not for the people in their research. Ownership is shared and
hence clients are seen as co-researchers.
Participatory action research (PAR) is closely allied to both critical research and feminist
research. PAR, one of several types of action research that originated in the 1940s with social
psychologist Kurt Lewin, is based on a recognition that the use and production of knowledge
can be political and can be used to exert power. PAR researchers typically work with groups or
communities that are vulnerable to the control or oppression of a dominant group or culture.

PAR is, as the name implies, participatory. There is collaboration between researchers and
study participants in the definition of the problem, the selection of an approach and research
methods, the analysis of the data, and the use to which findings are put. The aim of PAR is to
produce not only knowledge but also action and consciousness-raising. Researchers specifically
seek to empower people through the process of constructing knowledge. The PAR tradition has
as its starting point a concern for the powerlessness of the group under study. Thus, a key
objective is to produce action that is directly used to make improvements through education
and sociopolitical action.

In PAR, the research methods take second place to emergent processes of collaboration and
dialogue that can motivate, increase self-esteem, and generate solidarity. Thus, data-gathering
strategies are not only the traditional methods of interview and observation (including both
qualitative and quantitative approaches) but also may include storytelling, sociodrama, drawing
and painting, and other activities designed to encourage people to find creative ways to explore
their lives and recognize their own strengths.

Nature of Participatory action research

The ultimate object of participatory action research is to solve the practical problems with the
help of research techniques. Participatory action research, then, like social research seeks to
identify the exact nature and magnitude of the problem, analyse the causes in all their variety
and intensity. Participatory Action research, however, assumes a distinct character of its own in
a significant measure when it comes to the action to solve social problem. Participatory action
research emerges out of situational needs and a solution is also designed with respect to the
situation. Unlike other social researches, participatory action research is increasingly becoming
a team work where researchers collaborate with practitioners and subjects/beneficiaries
participate in the research process. Although the researcher takes the initiative and leads the
team, participatory action research is a team work wherein other partners: beneficiaries and
other stake-holders have to put in conscious effort in the research process. Participatory action
research is a self-evaluative process where the participatory action research team evaluates the
outcome of the exercise. Participatory action research is initiated by practicing individual or
group. Hence it becomes necessary for the researchers to understand the problem as it exists
and develop the participatory action research design.

Objective of participatory Action Research

The major objective of participatory action research is to search for answers to questions raised
while trying to resolve social problems. In other words, participatory action research attempts
to provide knowledge about what interventions or treatments can really help in resolving social
problems. In addition, it also helps in searching for answers to problems or difficulties faced by
practitioners in the practice of their profession.

Key characteristics of PAR and PAR researchers/ Participatory action research

1. Aims ‘to change practices, social structures, and social media which maintain
irrationality, injustice and unsatisfying forms of existence’ (McTaggart 1997 cited in
Reason and Bradbury 2006: 1)
2. Treats participants as competent and reflexive agents capable of participating in all
aspects of the research process
3. Is context-bound and addresses real-life problems.
4. Integrates values and beliefs that are indigenous to the community into the central core
of interventions and outcome variables
5. Involves participants and researchers in collaborative processes for generating
knowledge
6. Treats diverse experiences within a community as an opportunity to enrich the research
process
7. Leads to the construction of new meanings through reflections on action
8. Measures the credibility/validity of knowledge derived from the process according to
whether the resulting action solves problems for the people involved and increases
community self-determination.

PRA/ PLA as approaches or methods in participatory action research

Definitions of PRA/PLA:

PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal):

According to Robert Chambers (1994) it is an approach and methods for learning about rural
life and conditions from, with and by rural people. It is methodology to involve rural community
by interacting with them and understanding them along with their locality. It is an approach
used by Non-Governmental Organizations and other agencies in the international development
by taking the opinions and knowledge from rural people in executing the programs of various
developmental projects. The main focus remains on indigenous or local knowledge. Information
sharing is important component in PRA.

PLA (participatory learning and Action):

PLA is one of the recent terminologies in the field of participatory technique.
It is learning from community, collection of data and carrying actions.

Concept of PRA/PLA:
A PRA/PLA is a field exercise in order to get information and generate ideas by involving local
people of the community. It is about learning from the local people. It is about building a
process of participation, of discussion, communication, and conflict resolution. The outsider’s
role is that of a catalyst, a facilitator, and a conveyor of that process within a community.
PRA/PLA therefore basically aims at a process that empowers local people to change their own
conditions and situations. It is intended to enable them to conduct their own analysis to plan
and to take action. These can be described as a family of approaches that enable people to
express and analyze the realities of their lives and conditions, to plan themselves what actions
to take, and to monitor and evaluate the results. In general PRA/PLA can be used for:
i. General analysis of a specific topic, questions, or problem.
ii. Needs assessment.
iii. Identification and establishment of priorities for development or research activities.
iv. Identification of conflict interests between groups

Hence these methods/techniques benefit in following ways:

a. Empowerment of the local people.
b. Securing active involvement of the community.
c. Creating a culture of open learning with each other and with community members
d. Setting research priorities.
e. Setting participatory extension programs.
f. Policy review.

However PRA/PLA methods are followed by certain principles:

a. Principle of community participation: This principle is important in carrying out the PRA/
PLA activities in the community. Outsiders alone cannot carry out these activities. This
has to be done with the maximum participation of people within the community so as to
share their knowledge and take decisions with the facilitators for the benefit of the
community.
b. Principle of interdisciplinary team:
c. Principle of flexibility:
d. Principle of Optimal Ignorance:
e. Principle of Triangulation:

It can be concluded that PRA/PLA is effective because it seeks to understand the survival
strategy of the community, appraise it and show ways to enhance the capability of that effort
to ensure sustainability.

Historical development of PRA/PLA:

The earlier form of participatory work was FSR (Farming System Research) which developed
around 1960’s. The objective of this type of participatory work was to further research in the
field of farming system, analyze problem and plan research. However one of the pioneers of in
participatory work was Robert Chambers who developed a technique known as the Rapid Rural
Appraisal (RRA) in the late 1970’s. RRA attempted to incorporate the interests of poor and
marginalized in development interventions. It acknowledged the need to consult the poor on
their needs. This technique used rapid collection of data by outsiders to achieve a more
comprehensive understanding of the complexity of rural societies. RRA however was seen as a
means of information gathering by the outsiders and therefore replaced by PRA or the
Participatory Rural Appraisal developed in 1980’s empowered the local masses. Through PRA
communities look at their situation in-depth, measure their capacities and capabilities, frame
issues and interventions and initiate the process of change with themselves being the main
actors. Communities are facilitated to articulate their issues and concerns through the means of
various methods of PRA. A number of other methods/ approaches like Participatory Learning
and Action (PLA), Rapid Participatory Rural Appraisal (RPRA), Visualization in Participatory
Program (VIPP) are also currently being used: however they all essentially build upon the
RRA/PRA.

Important tools of PRA:

1. Social mapping: It is a space related PRA. It is used to depict the habitation pattern of a
particular region. This is drawn by local people as they are the people living there,
knowing about the totality of their community. It is not drawn to scale but reveals what
is believed to be relevant and important to them. It includes number of families and
their population data, farm families, their economic and educational status,
infrastructure facilities like roads, electricity, transport, storage, schools, worship places
and other public amenities, interdependence of families on each other informal/local
leaders.

 Process: A meeting is organized in which participation of key informants from

the community is ensured. The informants must represent a cross-section of the
population. The informants must have information on the households, social
relationships and dynamics prevailing in the community. Males and Females
should participate in this exercise either together or separately. Central location
must be identified as a landmark and all the resources of the community are
must be marked on the map. Direction indicators and borders must be precisely
depicted.
 Items used: All the locally available material like pebbles, stones, dry soil, mud,
leaves, shoots, twigs, seeds, grains, flour, colors. Chart papers, water, gum, tape,
sketch pens, bold markers etc.
2. Impact diagrams: It is a flow diagram, commonly used to identify and depict image of
an activity, intervention or event. It takes into account the types of change as perceived
by the local people. It helps to identify impacts of certain events- planned, unplanned,
negative or positive.
3. Transect Walk: This tool provides the in-depth information about the resources (natural
and man-made) present in the community. It gives cross-sectional information about
the selected areas of community. It is conducted as a joint exercise with the key local
informants when the area is surveyed and its resources, constituents and problems are
observed, discussed articulated and recorded during walk. It is one-dimensional map
 and concentrated on a selected area. Transect can be done through straight of zigzag
walking.

 Process: Groups of key local informants are organized based on gender, age and
economic status along with the facilitators to conduct transect walk of the most
important area of the community. Each group can concentrate on the area with
a set of agenda. For example, one group can prioritize water status, related
infrastructure and amenities like wells, canals, surface water and other irrigation
options and the other group can prioritize soil, crop type, plantation and
deforestation.
 Items used: Notebooks, chart papers, sketch pens, bold markers and all the
locally available materials as mentioned above.

4. Well-Being Analysis: This tool is used to compare the well-being of households on

certain criteria like land holding, livestock, type of house, gender status, health,
education, social status etc. The criteria are arrived at through consensus. It can be used
to analyze material (wealth ranking and asset survey), psychological as well as gender
well-being. This tool is a preliminary exercise to short list the would-be clients and the
real poor or the poorest of the poor. It also tells us the perception of the local people
about the concept of well-being.
5. Time-line Exercise: It is used to determine over a period of time what changes are taking
place in the status of land, water, vegetation, and their effect on Socio-Economic
pattern of the village. It may include:
a. Trends in the amount of top soil and their losses
b. Trends in land utilization.
c. Amount of rainfall.
d. Water retention.
e. Vegetation,
f. Usage of timber.
g. Transport facilities.
h. Migration patterns.
i. Influence of outside forces.
j. Cattle production..
k. Change in predominant occupation.
l. Captures the chronology of events as recalled by local people.
m. Flexible in terms of time scale.

6. Focused Group Discussions(FGD): FGDs help in understanding an issue thoroughly those

who are either positively or negatively affected by an action/work in the village
7. VENN Diagrams: Venn Diagrams help us to understand the network of relationships of
various institutions working for the village.
8. Mobility Map: This tool is used to understand the mobility of males and females within
and outside the community. It helps in learning the key places where people go,
frequency, mode of transport and purpose. It also brings out the gender differences in
 mobility. It is useful in identifying and discussing issues related to access to water, land,
community places, social meetings etc

Anthropological/ Ethnography research

Meaning and definition

Ethnographic research or anthropological research may be described as a type of research

related to or based on ethnography. The word ethnography is derived from the Greek words
ethos (tribal people) and graphos (something that is written). Literally, then, ethnography
denotes a written document about tribes or cultural groups.

In practice, historically the term ‘ethnography ‘has its origin in the subject anthropology
(science dealing with the origins, development and characteristic s of human beings). The
Random house dictionary of the English language defines ethnography as” a branch of
anthropology dealing with the scientific description of individual cultures “. In such a sense, the
term ‘ethnography’ refers both to a research process and the product of that process.

The product is a written account, that is, the ethnography of what was studied (wiersman and
Jurs 2005:69). Ethnographic researches (in their product form) try to provide rich narratives or
description of the communities or cultures under investigations (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
That is why the term ethnography or ethnographic research may be found to be used almost
synonymously in the texts of research methodologies. We also in this text like to use
synonymously.

Some definitions by scholars on ethnography

1. Spradly( !993:3)- ethnography is the work which describes a culture. The goal of
ethnographic research is to understand another way of life from the native point of
view.
2. Hammersley (1990): ethnography is a social science research method. It relies heavily on
up- close, personal experience and possible participation, not just observation, by
researchers trained in the art of ethnography. These ethnographers often work in
multidisciplinary teams. The ethnographic focal point may include intensive language
and culture learning, intensive study of a single field or domain, and a blend of
historical, observational and interview methods. A typical ethnographic researcher
employs three kinds of data collection viz. interviews, participant observation and
documents. This is in turn produces three kind of data viz. quotation, description, and
experts of documents, resulting in one product, that is, narrative description. This
 narrative often includes charts, diagrams, and additional artifacts that help to tell the
story.
3. LeCompte and preissle (1993:235)- ethnographic research is a process involving
methods of enquiry, an outcome and a resultant record of the enquiry. The intention of
the research is to create as vivid a reconstruction as possible of the culture or groups
being studied.
4. Maanen (1996:263)- when used as a method , ethnography typically refers to a
fieldwork ( alternatively, participant observation) conducted by a single investigator
who “lives with and lives like” those who are studied, usually for a year or more.
5. Fetterman( 1998)- ethnography is the art and science of describing a group or culture.
The description may be of a small tribal group in an exotic land or a classroom in middle
class suburbia.
6. Harris and Johnson (2000)- ethnography literally means ‘ a portrait of a people’.
Ethnography is a written description of a particular culture – the customs, beliefs and
behavior – based on information collected through field work.
7. Anderson (2009) - it is the branch of anthropology that involves understanding how
people live their lives. Unlike traditional market researchers who ask specific, highly
practical questions, anthropological researchers visit consumers in their house or offices
to observe and listen in a non directed way. Our goal is to see people’s behavior on their
terms, not ours. While this observational method may appear inefficient, it enlightens
us about the contexts in which customers would use a new product and the meaning
that product might hold in their lives.

Hence from the above definitions it can be said that it is a research strategy that allows
researchers to explore and examine the cultures and societies that are a fundamental part of
the human experience. Ethnography literally means a description of a people. It is important to
understand that ethnography deals with people in the collective sense, not with individuals. As
such, it is a way of studying people in organized, enduring groups, which may be referred to as
communities or societies. The distinctive way of life that characterizes such a group is its
culture. The study of culture involves an examination of the group’s learned and shared
behaviors, customs, and beliefs.

Once more

1. Ethnography is the art and science of describing a human group – its institutions,
interpersonal behaviors, material productions, and beliefs. Ethnographic researchers are
primarily concerned with the routine, everyday lives of the people they study.
2. Ethnography was developed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth century for the study of small-scale, traditional, isolated societies, although it
is now widely used by practitioners of many disciplines in all kinds of research settings.
Ethnography as method
The ethnographic method is different from other ways of conducting social science research.

 It is field-based (conducted in the natural settings in which real people actually live,
rather than in laboratories where the researcher controls the elements of the behaviors
to be observed or measured).
 it is personalized (conducted by researchers who are in day-to-day, face-to face contact
with the people they are studying and who are thus both participants in and observers
of the lives under study).
 It is multi factorial (conducted through the use of two or more data collection
techniques – which may be qualitative or quantitative in nature – in order to triangulate
on a conclusion, which may be said to be strengthened by the multiple ways in which it
was reached).
 It requires a long-term commitment (i.e. it is conducted by researchers who intend to
interact with the people they are studying for an extended period of time – although the
exact time frame may vary anywhere from several weeks to a year or more).
 It is inductive (conducted in such a way as to use an accumulation of descriptive detail to
build toward general patterns or explanatory theories rather than structured to test
hypotheses derived from existing theories or models).
 It is dialogic (conducted by researchers whose conclusions and interpretations can be
commented upon by those under study even as they are being formed).
 It is holistic (conducted so as to yield the fullest possible portrait of the group under
study).

Ethnographic research is often conducted by scholars who are both subjective participants in
the community under study and objective observers thereof.

Ethnography is a method of research that seeks to define predictable patterns of group

behavior. It is field-based, personalized, multi factorial, long-term, inductive, dialogic,
and holistic in nature.
Ethnography is also a product of research. It is a narrative about the study community
that evokes the lived experience of that community and that invites the reader into a
vicarious encounter with the people. The narrative is typically in prose, although it may
also take other literary or artistic forms in order to convey the story. In all cases, it
makes use of the literary and/or artistic conventions of the appropriate genre in order
to tell the story in the most compelling way.
Ethnography An approach to field work developed by social anthropologists that attempts a detailed
and accurate description of a group’s way of life.ie —a detailed study of the life and activities of a
group of people by researchers who may live with that group over a period of years

Characteristics of Ethnographic Research:

According to Hammersley and Sanders, ethnography is characterized by the following features:

1. People's behavior is studied in everyday contexts.

2. It is conducted in a natural setting.
3. Its goal is more likely to be exploratory rather than evaluative.
4. It is aimed at discovering the local person‘s or ―native‘s‖ point of view, wherein, the
native may be a consumer or an end-user.
5. Data are gathered from a wide range of sources, but observation and/or relatively informal
conversations are usually the principal ones.
6. The approach to data collection is unstructured in that it does not involve following
through a predetermined detailed plan set up at the beginning of the study nor does it
determine the categories that will be used for analyzing and interpreting the soft data
obtained. This does not mean that the research is unsystematic. It simply means that
initially the data are collected as raw form and a wide amount as feasible.
7. The focus is usually a single setting or group of a relatively small size. In life history
research, the focus may even be a single individual.
8. The analysis of the data involves interpretation of the meanings and functions of human
actions and mainly takes the form of verbal descriptions and explanations, with
quantification and statistical analysis playing a subordinate role at most.
9. It is cyclic in nature concerning data collection and analysis. It is open to change and
refinement throughout the process as new learning shapes future observations. As one
type of data provides new information, this information may stimulate the researcher to
look at another type of data or to elicit confirmation of an interpretation from another
person who is part of the culture being studied.

Conclusion

Ethnographic studies are usually holistic, founded on the idea that human beings are best
understood in the fullest possible context, including the place where they live, the
improvements they have made to that place, how they make a living and gather food, housing,
energy and water for themselves, what their marriage customs are, what language(s) they
speak and so on. Ethnography is a form of research focusing on the sociology of meaning
through close field observation of socio-cultural phenomena. Typically, the ethnographer
focuses on a community (not necessarily geographic, considering also work, leisure, classroom
or school groups and other communities). Ethnography may be approached from the point of
view of art and cultural preservation and as a descriptive rather than analytic endeavor. It
essentially is a branch of social and cultural anthropology. The emphasis in ethnography is on
studying an entire culture. The method starts with selection of a culture, review of the
literature pertaining to the culture, and identification of variables of interest - typically variables
perceived as significant by members of the culture. Ethnography is an enormously wide area
with an immense diversity of practitioners and methods. However, the most common
ethnographic approach is participant observation and unstructured interviewing as a part of
field research. The ethnographer becomes immersed in the culture as an active participant and
records extensive field notes. In an ethnographic study, there is no preset limit of what will be
observed and interviewed and no real end point in as is the case with grounded theory.

Feminist research

Feminist research is more a philosophy than design. Feminist concerns and theory act as the
guiding framework for this research. A focus on the viewpoints of women, the aim to reduce
power imbalance between researcher and respondents, and attempts to change social
inequality between men and women are the main characteristics of feminist research.

Feminist research is an approach to social research which uses a specific sub-set of methods,
and/or makes a particular selection of topics, with the goal of challenging methodologies
developed by men, and enhancing the position of women in society.

Strictly speaking, feminist research is a research on women by women and for women. In this
research qualitative and result oriented research methods are used. Thus, feminist research
plays significant roles in improving and developing the capacity and skills of the women. This
research method, in regard to women, emphasizes on the following things:-
1. The research must be done without any men prejudice
2. Women should fully participate on it
3. Every activity of women must be the research subject matter
4. There should be specific emphasis on the subject matter that is deeply concerned about
women

Hence based on the above explanations we can summarize that –

Feminist research is primarily ‘connected in the principle to feminist struggle’ (Sprague &
Zimmerman, 1993, p. 266). By documenting women’s lives, experiences, and concerns,
illuminating gender based stereotypes and biases, and unearthing women’s subjugated
knowledge, feminist research challenges the basic structure and ideologies that oppress
women. Feminist research goals foster empowerment and emancipation for women and
other marginalized groups, and feminist researchers often apply their findings in the service
of promoting social change and social justice for women.
Feminist research is characterized by its feminist theory philosophical base that underpins all
enquiries and feminist concerns act as the guiding framework.

Feminist research differs from traditional research in three ways:

1. Its main focus is the experiences and viewpoints of women. It uses research methods
aimed at exploring these.
2. It actively tries to remove or reduce the power imbalance between the researcher and
respondents.
3. The goal of feminist research is changing the social inequality between men and
women. In fact, feminist research may be classified as action research in the area of
gender inequality, using research techniques to create awareness of women’s issues
and concerns, and to foster action promoting equality between sexes.

The focus is sharply on gender domination and discrimination within patriarchal societies.
Similar to critical researchers, feminist researchers seek to establish collaborative and non
exploitative relationships with their informants, to place themselves within the study to avoid
objectification, and to conduct research that is transformative.

The aim is to ameliorate the “invisibility and distortion of female experience in ways relevant to
ending women’s unequal social position”

There are three key features of feminist research.

1. The research is characterized by objectives to build new knowledge and to achieve social
change.
2. Feminist research is based on the values and beliefs of feminism and includes feminism
within the process, for example, to centre on the meanings women give to their world, and
at the same time accept that research is often undertaken in patriarchal organizations or
environments. With this approach, feminist values inform the research, starting from the
selection of the research issue to data presentation. Adopting a feminist paradigm invokes
a structure which leads the researcher’s decision making.
3. A third feature is the diversity of feminist research which is both interdisciplinary and
trans-disciplinary. Though feminist research does adopt various methodologies it is
redefined continuously by the concerns of women coming from very different viewpoints
or perspectives. Consequently, it requires that issues such as the empowerment of women,
including those traditionally excluded, are attended to as well as issues of diversity, racism
and democratic decision making.

Ten themes of feminist research methodology identified by Reinharz (1992)

1. Feminism is a perspective, not a research method
2. Feminists use a multiplicity of research methods
3. Feminist research involves an ongoing criticism of non feminist scholarship
4. Feminist research is guided by feminist theory
5. Feminist research may be trans- disciplinary
 6. Feminist research aims to create social change
7. Feminist research strives to represent human diversity
8. Feminist research frequently includes the researcher as a person
9. Feminist research frequently attempts to develop special relations with the people
studied (in interactive research)
10. Feminist research frequently defines a special relation with the reader

Summing up

Like other forms of emancipator research, feminist research is characterized by its goals rather
than its methods. During the last twenty years this form of research has made an immense
impact on society In their quest to study ‘the condition of women in sexist society’ (Stanley &
Wise 1990, p. 12), feminist researchers applied academic and research techniques to expose
the sexism inherent in male dominated social sciences and research (sometimes referred to as
‘male stream research’).
For example, feminist researchers highlighted the ‘gender-blindness’ of official statistics which
made it impossible to determine the status and condition of women separately from the male
‘head of the house’ (see, for example, Roberts 1981, Oakley 1985). Thus feminist researchers
showed how traditional ways of measuring the world have ignored or silenced women’s
viewpoints and position because the researchers literally cannot ‘see’ them.

‘Feminist research’ has been defined as a focus on women, in research carried out by women
who were feminist, for other women (Stanley & Wise 1990, p. 21). From the beginning, feminist
research was committed to changing women’s lives. During the earlier phases of feminist
research, quantitative methods were seen as being ‘male’, while qualitative ones were ‘female’.
Since then, a plurality of approaches has developed: feminist researchers now use a variety of
methods, including quantitative research, and have introduced some innovative techniques of
their own in their task to study and improve women’s lives. These include consciousness-raising
groups, textual analysis and collaborative strategies such as keeping group diaries and
discussing the meaning of results or presenting results back to respondents for interpretation
with the researcher.

Many writers emphasize that the ongoing debate within this plurality of multiple approaches is
itself an important part of feminist research. They maintain that it is crucial that different
approaches be respected and no single approach gain dominance as the form of feminist
research.

In line with this thinking, Reinharz (1992) defines feminist methodology as the sum of feminist
research methods. In her definition, feminist research is research which is done by researchers
who claim to be feminist, or which are published in explicitly feminist journals and books, or
which receives awards from organizations that give awards for feminist research.

Like emancipator researchers, feminist researchers come from a variety of theoretical

backgrounds, including socialist feminism, radical feminism, liberal feminism and Marxist
feminism. Recently, many feminist researchers have been influenced by the work of
poststructuralists and postmodernists

Social Immersion

Social immersion is one of the field work methods. It refers to the mode of field work in which
the researcher totally immerses himself/herself in the society to gain an in-depth knowledge
about it. The term “immersion” is derived from the word “immerse”, which means “involve
yourself in something or put something or yourself under liquid completely”. Therefore, the
literal meaning of the word “immersion” is “putting something or somebody under liquid
completely”. But when this word is used in the phrase “social immersion”, it does not carry its
literal meaning. Instead, it carries its figurative meaning. The figurative meaning of the word
“immersion” is “involving you in something, say, a society”. Thus, social immersion refers to
involving yourself in a society.

As a method of field work, social immersion means visiting a particular society or community,
be friendly with people living there and living with them for a certain period of time to gain a
detailed understanding about them. For example, if we are interested in learning Tharu culture,
we may live in a Tharu society. During our stay with them, we will get an opportunity to observe
their culture. This close observation will enable us to gain an in-depth knowledge of this
culture.

If we apply this kind of field work method, then we are said to be using social immersion.
Professor Patti Adler had used this method while studying the world of illicit drug trafficking.
When Professor Adler wanted to study the world of illicit drug trafficking, she immersed herself
in the sub-culture of drug traffickers. It took her a great deal of gaining trust from her subjects,
but once she did, she became part of the group and lived among them for several years. As a
result of living with, befriending, and participating in activities of the drug traffickers, she was
able to get a real life account of what the drug trafficking world is really like and how it works.
She gained a new understanding of the drug trafficking world that those on the outside never
see or know about.

In Nepal, many anthropologists have adopted social immersion as a field work method. Gopal
Singh Nepali had also used social immersion while studying culture of the Newar people. He
had immersed himself in the Newar society in course of gaining a detailed understanding about
Newar culture.

Culture shock

It is a feeling of alienation and helplessness that result from rapid immersion in a new and
different culture. Anthropologists arriving in new cultures are in many ways like children. Their
language skills are often weak, and their speech is sometimes babyish. Their social skills are
undeveloped. They are ignorant of many aspects of their environment and their new culture.
One almost universal result of this situation is the syndrome called culture shock-the feelings of
alienation, loneliness, and isolation common to one who has been placed in a new culture.

Getting past culture shock is a process of learning the language, customs, and social
organization, of gaining the fundamental grounding knowledge that it takes to be an adult in a
different culture. Most anthropologists never truly become members of the cultures they study.
We are separated from our subjects by our backgrounds, by our education, and sometimes by
the color of our skin. We are also separated by the knowledge that our time in the field is
temporary and that we will leave to rejoin our other lives. However, in our best moments,
anthropologists do come close to acting and feeling like members of the cultures we study.

In most cases, as anthropologists begin to adapt to new cultures, they develop networks of
friends and contacts that both guide them in their new surroundings and offer insights into the
culture. Traditionally in anthropology, these people are called informants. They may also be
called respondents, interlocutors, consultants, and sometimes partners.

Even among those fieldworkers who have a pleasant experience during their initial contact
period (and many do), almost all report experiencing some form of depression and shock soon
thereafter—usually within a few weeks. (The term culture shock, for the first time, was
introduced in 1960 by anthropologist, namely, Kalervo Oberg)

One kind of shock comes as the novelty of the field site wears off and there is this nasty feeling
that research has to get done. Some researchers (especially those on their first field trip) may
also experience feelings of anxiety about their ability to collect good data.

A good response at this stage is to do highly task-oriented work: making maps, taking censuses,
doing household inventories, collecting genealogies, and so on. Another useful response is to
make clinical, methodological field notes about your feelings and responses in doing participant
observation fieldwork.

Another kind of shock is to the culture itself. Culture shock is an uncomfortable stress response
and must be taken very seriously. In serious cases of culture shock, nothing seems right. You
may find yourself very upset at a lack of clean toilet facilities, or people’s eating habits, or their
child-rearing practices.

The prospect of having to put up with the local food for a year or more may become
frightening. You find yourself focusing on little annoyances— something as simple as the fact
that light switches go side to side rather than up and down may upset you.

Culture shock commonly involves a feeling that people really don’t want you around (this may,
in fact, be the case). You feel lonely and wish you could find someone with whom to speak your
native language. Even with a spouse in the field, the strain of using another language day after
day, and concentrating hard so that you can collect data in that language, can be emotionally
wearing.

Hence it is an experience a person may have when one moves to a cultural environment which
is different from one's own. Culture shock is the depression and anxiety experienced by many
people when they travel or move to a new social and cultural setting.

Stages of culture shock

The five stages of culture shock are:

1. The Honeymoon Stage - You are very positive, curious, and anticipate new exciting
experiences. You even idealize the host culture.
2. Irritability and Hostility - You start to feel that what is different is actually inferior. The
host culture is confusing or the systems are frustrating. It's a small step from saying that
they do things in a different way to saying that they do things in a stupid way. You may
blame your frustrations on the new culture (and its shortcomings) rather than on the
adaptation process.
3. Gradual Adjustment - You feel more relaxed and develop a more balanced, objective
view of your experience.
4. Adaptation of Biculturalism - You feel a new sense of belonging and sensitivity to the
host culture.
5. Re-entry Shock - You go home and it isn't what you expected it to be.

The Symptoms of Culture Shock

 Having a sense of distrust, sadness, or loneliness

 Experiencing information overload
 Struggling with the language barrier
 Experiencing a technology gap
 Having a heightened concern for your health
 Experiencing anxiety, feelings of fear, and vulnerability towards your new environment
 Experiencing lack of sleep or sluggishness
 Over compensating to try to “fit in”
 Being overwhelmed by even small challenges
 Having a feeling of shyness and insecurity
 Having second thoughts about why you moved
Baseline survey

Some definitions

 The baseline survey is a systematic collection of facts about people living in specific
geographic cultural and administrative area
 A baseline survey of a community is the scientific study of its condition and needs for
the purpose of presenting of constructive program of social sciences
 Baseline survey is a scientific study done with a purpose of presenting constructive
program for the social advancement or development of any communities
 It is a collection of primary and secondary data which describes and analyzes the
socioeconomic conditions in a particular site at a particular time. It is conducted within
the frame work of a proposed development.

A baseline survey is a type of social research strategy by which we mean that it involves an
overall decision - a strategic decision - about the way to set about gathering and analyzing data.
The strategy involved in a baseline survey is that we collect the same information about all the
cases in a sample. Usually, the cases are individual people, and among other things we ask all of
them the same questions.
The items of information we gather from our respondents are the variables. Variables can be
classified into three broad types, depending on the type of information they provide:
1. Attributes - that is, characteristics such as age, sex, marital status, previous education
2. Behavior - questions such as what? When? How often? (if at all)
3. Opinions, beliefs, and preferences, attitudes - questions on these four characteristics are
probing the respondent's point of view.

Baseline survey in community based initiatives

Baseline survey is of great significance in community-based initiatives as it provides a base for

future interventions and identifies priority needs. The survey tools are designed to acquire and
convert data into useful information in order to help planning, controlling, monitoring and
assessing a program. In the survey process, the data collected from the community are
converted into information and used for managing program operations. Therefore in
community-based initiatives, in addition to the baseline survey, a follow-up survey should be
conducted, preferably after every one or two years. These will provide an effective mechanism
for monitoring progress and measuring the changes occurring in developmental indicators as a
result of the program interventions.

Methods of data collection in baseline surveys

It employs a variety of methods to gather information, such as questionnaires, face-to-face
interviews, telephone interviews and observation. They are:-
1. Questionnaires
These are forms containing sets of questions which the respondent completes and returns
to the researcher. One main type is the postal (/mail) questionnaire, which is sent and
returned through the post. Questionnaires may also be completed and returned on the
spot, for example in a classroom or dentist's waiting-room. The rapid growth of email has
opened up another interesting possibility for the distribution and return of questionnaires.

2. Face-to-face interviews

Face-to-face interviews can be classified into three types: structured, unstructured, and
semi-structured.

a. In a structured interview, the questions and the question order are pre-set. The interviewer
aims to be in control of the interaction, and the respondent is just that - someone who
responds to questions that are put to him or her. The interview schedule is like a
questionnaire, except it is read out and filled in by the interviewer.

b. In unstructured interviews, neither the questions nor the question order are
predetermined. Unstructured interviews are exploratory, and in principle non-directive: it is
more like a focused conversation. The aim is to enable people to express themselves in
their own words, highlighting their own feelings, preferences and priorities rather than
those of the researcher. Although there is no interview schedule the interviewer may well
have an interview guide, consisting of a set of prompts to remind them what main topics
need to be covered.

c. A semi-structured interview is one which aims to have the best of both worlds. Parts of the
interview are structured, with a set of questions directed in sequence to the respondent,
while other parts of the interview are relatively unstructured explorations of particular or
general issues.

Unstructured interviews are widely used in therapy and counseling. They clearly do not meet
the requirement, intrinsic to the survey method, that standardized information is gathered
systematically from all respondents. A survey, by definition, cannot be wholly based on
unstructured interviews. This does not mean that survey researchers and non-directive
interviewers have to be at loggerheads. Throughout this book we point to the advantages of
multi-method research strategies. Questionnaires, unstructured interviews, focus groups,
participant observation, diaries: all these methods, and others besides, can be combined in
imaginative and innovative ways.

3. Telephone interviews
The nature of telephone interactions with strangers implies that telephone interviews are
invariably of the structured variety.
4. Observation
Another important tool/method for baseline survey is observation. Observation is carried
out when keen attention is given to the phenomena and noticed the problem carefully.

Research ethics in baseline survey

Professional research ethics can be seen in the context of the wider cultural factors we have
just been reviewing. The fundamental principles of research ethics flow from the nature of the
social relationship between researcher and respondent, a relationship which is necessarily
embedded in a set of cultural values, norms and codes of conduct.

All of the major professional bodies such as National association of social worker (NASW)
publish guidelines on research ethics to which their members are expected to adhere.

The general principles of research ethics impact somewhat differently, depending on the
research strategy chosen. Despite its different applications, the core of research ethics is due
respect for the integrity of people participating in our research.
Respect for our respondents can be broken down into three key components: informed
consent, confidentiality and sensitivity.

Informed consent
Compared to fieldwork observations, one potential virtue of baseline surveys is that they are
relatively overt. The problems of covert research are far less pressing for the survey researcher
than they may be for the ethnographer working in the field. Even so, as survey researchers we
need to be as open as we reasonably can be about the purposes of our research, the sources of
funding, and the potential audiences for and uses of our findings. We should make it easy for
respondents to raise any queries they may have. In some cases it may be desirable to give the
name of a responsible person whom they can contact if they want to verify who we are and the
nature of our research. In interviews, we should have proof of our identity readily available. It
may also be desirable to indicate that our research has the approval or support of a relevant
person or body - a trade union, say, or a charity. We also need to consider ways in which we
can make a summary of our findings available to our respondents, so that informed consent
comes to fruition in an informed outcome. Likewise we should take the permission from the
respondents before we are ready to publish, open or write a report on the conversation
between researcher and respondents.

Confidentiality
Respondents are usually offered an assurance of confidentiality. In some cases this extends
further to anonymity, which is the stronger guarantee that not even the researchers will be
able to identify who the respondent is -something which is only easily achieved in the case of
self-completion questionnaires. Our assurances need to be as clear as possible, so that people
are not misled. We also need to be aware that, in some cases, it is all too possible for a
knowledgeable reader to identify a respondent even if we have given them a pseudonym and
apparently concealed their identity. This is a particular problem when the researcher is
surveying the members of an organization: there may be very few women or members of
ethnic minorities, particularly in senior positions. How are we going to represent their
responses while concealing their identity from their fellow workers and their bosses?

Sensitivity
One important area in which sensitivity needs to be exercised is in the use of language,
particularly as regards 'race' and ethnicity, sex and gender, age, and disability. Likewise we
must be sensitive about the social norms, values, culture, and context of the society.

Some characteristics
1. It is purely related to gain knowledge
2. It looks for new knowledge and examines the old values
3. It does objective analysis of the facts
4. It tries to solve human curiosities

Conclusion
It is fact that the data collected through baseline survey is very close to truth or reality. It is very
useful and helpful to the researcher in order to do baseline research and prove the facts and
evidences. It can be considered as a major tool to collect as much as possible knowledge to
create theory and to evaluate established theories.

Evaluation Research/ program evaluation research

Evaluation research is a strategy oriented toward formal and objective measurement of the
extent to which a given action activity or program has achieved its original objectives.

Hence it is a term that is applied to a wide spectrum of investigative activities that employ
research methods and a problem-solving process to meet program or practice needs.

Evaluation research is a process used to determine what has happened during a given activity
or to an institution. The purpose of evaluation research is to see if a given program is working, if
an institution is successful according to the goals set for it, or if the original intent is being
successfully carried out. To assessment, evaluation adds the ingredient of value judgment of
the social utility, desirability or effectiveness of a process, product or program and it often
includes a recommendation for some course of action.

Program evaluations, while often including the organization, focus primarily on program
effectiveness result. As Kaufman and Thomas (1980) put it: Evaluation deals with results,
intended or unintended. The questions asked during evaluation are usually the same.

Regardless, of the context, evaluation seeks:

1. What are the goals and objectives of the organization?

 2. What should be the goals and objectives of the organization?
3. What results were intended by the program, project, activity or organization?
4. What results were obtained from the program by the organization?
5. What were the values and usefulness of the method and means used to achieve the
results?
6. How well was the program organization administered and managed? vii. What, if
anything, about the program organization should be changed?
7. What, if anything, about the program organization should be continued?
8. Should the organization exist at all?

Evaluation is more than testing or measuring, it includes asking/answering basic

questions about efforts and results. In many cases of educational program, the major
issues are: goals and objectives of the organization

Evaluations of programs are concerned with two types of the evaluation process that is

1. formative and
Formative evaluation allows for continuous feedback and adjustment of
interventions or programs as they progress. The emphasis is on monitoring them as
they develop.
2. Summative evaluations.
Summative evaluation focuses on how a program or practice influences the
outcomes that the study seeks to measure, that is, how effective it is in meeting
stated objectives or standards.

Although non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have increased in number and financial

clout, there have been very few systematic evaluation researches of their effectiveness (UNDP,
1993). To contribute effectively to sustainable human development, NGOs as well as donor/
funding agencies have to recognize the significance of social work research.

Thus evaluation research can play multifarious roles to make services more effective (Monette,
1986). In order to enhance program effectiveness, evaluators have assessed problems and
needs of a program/target population. They have assessed the extent and location of the
problems, the program as well as the target population’s characteristics, problems, expressed
needs and desires (Monette, 1986).

This information has been used to guide program planning and implementation concerning
such issues as the type of services to offer, how to maximize service utilization by targeted sub-
groups, where to locate services, and so on (Jain, 1992).
Importance of evaluation research-
 1. The research assists in knowing the success, unsuccessful and weakness of program
2. It assists in knowing the condition of the activities of program and the workers
3. evaluation research is very helpful to make any necessary changes , revisions or
correction in program
4. Helps to make the later programs improved and corrected by correcting all the mistakes
and weak parts of program

Benefits of Program Evaluation research

Why do organizations evaluate programs? The answer is that an effective evaluation can
benefit the organization in at least five key areas:

1. it is consistent with professional ethics;

2. it can influence social policy and practice;
3. it is an essential component of the funding process;
4. it can improve decision making; and
5. it helps promote efficient services.
 Chapter: 5

Concept of methodology, methods, tools and techniques in research practice

1. Research methodology

 A science of studying how research is done scientifically

 A way to systematically solve the research problem by logically adopting various steps
 Methodology helps to understand not only the products of scientific inquiry but the
process itself
 Aims to describe and analyze methods, throw light on their limitations and resources,
clarify their presuppositions and consequences, relating their potentialities to the
twilight zone at the 'frontiers of knowledge'
 The framework associated with a particular set of paradigmatic assumptions that you
will use to conduct your research, i.e. scientific method, ethnography, action research.

Research methodology is a theory of how inquiry should occur. Research methodology

defines the kinds of problems that are worth investigating and frames them, determines
what research approaches and research methods to use, and also how to understand
what constitutes a legitimate and warranted explanation.

Research methodology involves such general activities as identifying problems, review

of the literature, formulating hypotheses, procedure for testing hypotheses,
measurement, and data collection analysis of data, interpreting results, and drawing
conclusions.

Researchers need to understand the assumptions underlying various techniques and the
need to procedures will be applicable to certain problems and others will not. For
example, an architect, who designs a building, has to consciously evaluate the basis of
his/her decisions, i.e., s/he has to evaluate why and on what basis s/he selects particular
size, number and location of doors, windows and ventilators, uses particular materials
and not others and the like. Similarly, in research you have to expose the research
decisions to evaluation before they are implemented. You have to specify very clearly
and precisely what decisions you select and why you select them so that they can be
evaluated by others too.

Research methodology has many dimensions and RESEARCH METHODs do constitute a

part of the research methodology. The scope of research methodology is wider than
that of research methods. Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk
 of the research methods but also consider the logic behind the methods we use in the
context of our research study and explain why we are using a particular method or
technique and why we are not using others so that research results are capable of being
evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others. Why a research study has been
undertaken, how the research problem has been defined, in what way and why the
HYPOTHESIS has been formulated, what data have been collected and what particular
method has been adopted, why particular technique of analyzing data has been used
and a host of similar other questions are usually answered when we talk of research
methodology concerning a research problem or study.

Thus, research methodology consists of all general and specific activities of

research.(Kothari 2008; Heigham & Croker 2009)

Hence, Research methodology is the science of systematically solving a research

problem. Often recognized as how a research is to be done scientifically, research
methodology involves the learning of the various techniques we can use in the conduct
of research such as the conduct of tests, experiments, surveys and critical studies. These
methods have been properly tested and utilized and, therefore, each one has logic
behind them.

Research methodology aims at the employment of the correct procedures to find out
solutions and paves the way for research methods to be conducted properly. Research
methodology is the guidebook of research and is a science in itself.

Research Methodology is a wider term. It consists of three important elements:

i) theoretical perspectives or orientation to guide research and logic of enquiry,

ii) tools and techniques of data collection, and
iii) Methods of data analysis.

Research Methods, comprises of research techniques and tools. Research techniques refer to
the practical aspects of collecting data and the way the information/data obtained/collected is
organized and analyzed. Tools are the instruments that are used for data collection and its
analysis. It includes questionnaire/schedules, dairies, check lists, maps, photos, drawings etc.

Census and survey methods are mainly used to collect quantitative data.

In qualitative research, data is generated/complied by way of participant observation, semi

structured interviews, life histories, experiments, pilot studies, scenarios etc. Data analysis
involves a set of statistical techniques used in establishing relationships between the different
variables and in evaluating the accuracy of the results.
 Thus, methodology, methods and tools/techniques are three distinct elements of the research
process. Any one of these three elements by itself may not be adequate in many situations. For
instance, no data can be systematically collected without adequate knowledge of techniques of
data collection. Similarly, data cannot be explained without comprehending the philosophy or
perspective behind the characteristics underlying the variables to which the data relates.

Benefits of research methodology

 Advancement of wealth of human knowledge
 'Tools of the trade' to carry out research; Provides tools to look at things in life
objectively
 Develops a critical and scientific attitude, disciplined thinking or a 'bent of mind' to
observe objectively (scientific deduction & inductive thinking); Skills of research will pay-
off in long term particularly in the 'age of information' (or too often of misinformation)
 Enriches practitioner and his practices; Provides chance to study a subject in depth;
Enable us to make intelligent decisions; Understand the material which no other kind of
work can match
 As consumers of research output helps to inculcate the ability to evaluate and use
results of earlier research with reasonable confidence and take rational decisions
 Doing research is the best way to learn to read and think critically

Importance of Research Methodology in Research Study

It is necessary for a researcher to design a methodology for the problem chosen. One should
note that even if the methods considered in two problems are same the methodology may be
different. It is important for the researcher to know not only the research methods necessary
for the research under taken but also the methodology. For example, a researcher not only
needs to know how to calculate mean, variance and distribution function for a set of data, how
to find a solution of a physical system described by mathematical model, how to determine the
roots of algebraic equations and how to apply a particular method but also need to know :

1. Which is a suitable method for the chosen problem?

2. What is the order of accuracy of the result of a method?,
3. What is the efficiency of the method? And so on.

Consideration of these aspects constitutes a research methodology.

Research Method:

Research methods can be defined as the various ways and means of conducting a research that
involve the conduct of experiments, tests, surveys and the like. It can be said that research
methods aim at finding solutions to research problems. There are many types of research
methods. For example, exploratory research which helps defines and identifies a problem.
Then, empirical research uses empirical evidence to test the feasibility of a solution.

Constructive research aims at testing theories in turn, proposing solutions to a query. Research
methods can be further broken down to four categories such as Descriptive research, which
involves research vs. analytical data; Applied research, which deals with research vs. basic
research; Quantitative research, which involves research vs. quantitative; Conceptual research
dealing with empirical research.

Definitions

Method is a style of conducting a research work which is determined by the nature of the
problem.
4. M. Verma has defined the term method in the following manner - “Method is
only in the abstract as logical entities that we can distinguish between matter
and methods, in reality, they form an organic whole and matter determines
method analogously as objective determines means and content and spirit
determine style and form in literature.”

M. Verma has presented broad meaning of the term method. According to him
matter is important for determining method. The common types of matter may
be three types; hence all the methods can be classified under three heads
i. Theoretical problem – survey, experimental method.
ii. Factual problem – Historical, case study and genetic methods.
iii. Application problem – Action Research.

5. Broudy (1963) stated that “Method refers to the formal structure of the
sequence of acts commonly denoted by instruction. The term method covers
both strategy and tactics of teaching and involves the choice of what is to be
taught, and the order in which it is to be taught.” Method is more general, it
includes techniques also. The research techniques are ways of implementing a
method. Different techniques may be employed within the same method.
6. Webster defined methodology as “the science of method or arrangement” which
is not a particularly useful definition. Method is defined as “orderliness and
regularity or habitual practice of them in action”. By placing stress on
“arrangement”, orderliness, regularity and habitual practice, the methodologies
derive their substance essentially from the classically ideal controlled
experiments which permeate rightly or otherwise, the literature of social work
 research. The methodology means with reference to research that it is a type of
inquiry.

CONCLUSION

Research Methods and Research Methodology are two terms that are often confused as one
and the same when strictly speaking they are not so as they have many differences between
them. One of the primary differences between them is that research methods are the methods
by which the research is conducted into a specific subject or a topic. On the other hand,
research methodology explains the methods by which you may proceed with your research.

Comparison between research Method & Research Methodology

It is necessary to explain the differences between research methods & research methodology.
Research methods may be understood as all those methods & techniques that are used for
conducting research. Research methods, thus refer to the methods the researcher use in
performing the research operations. In other words all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of his research problem are termed as as research methods.

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be

understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. Abraham Kaplan defines
research methodology in this way. Research methodology is “the description, explanation &
Justification of various methods of conducting research”.

Research Methodology has many dimensions and research methods do constitute a part of
Research Methodology. The scope of Research Methodology is wider than that of research
methods. “Thus, when we talk of research methodology we not only talk of the research
methods but also considered the logic behind the methods we use in the context of our
particular method or technique & why we are not using others. So that research results are
capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others” Why a research study
has been undertaken how the research problem has been defined in what way & why the
hypothesis has been formulated, what data have been adopted etc ate usually answered when
we talk of Research Methodology.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RESEARCH MENTHODOLOGY AND METHODS

Research methods Research methodology

Research methods are the methods used for Research methodology explains the
data collection in a research. overarching theoretical and philosophical
frameworks which guide the research.
Research methods are in the primary line of Research methodology is rooted in the
conducting the research. existence of the methods

Research methods consist of the techniques Research methodology explains what and how
that allow studies and experiments to be appropriate certain means and methods will
successfully initiated, performed and be to a certain subject.
concluded.

Research methods are more useful during the Research methodologies are employed at the
latter part of a research or an experiment beginning of the experiment to explain the
since they are being utilized for conclusions to purpose of the chosen methods and how they
be appropriately made. will serve its function.

Research methods involve surveys, interviews, Research methodology involves the

case studies, observation, experiments, etc. theoretical frameworks and learning of the
various techniques that can be used in the
conduct of research and the conduct of
tests, experiments, surveys and critical studies
Research methods aim at finding solutions to Research methodology aims at the
research problems. employment of the correct procedures to find
out solutions
Research methods are the end of any Research methodology is the beginning.
research.

Research tools and techniques:

It is behavior and instruments used in research operations which we use to help us collect
data, i.e. questionnaires, observation checklists, interview schedules, Scales, recording
techniques, content analysis, moving average longitudinal/ cross sectional collection of data,
etc. come under this heading

A researcher requires many data – gathering tools or techniques. Tests are the tools of
measurement and it guides the researcher in data collection and also in evaluation. Tools may
vary in complexity, interpretation, design and administration. Each tool is suitable for the
collection of certain type of information.

One has to select from the available tools those which will provide data he seeks for testing
hypothesis. It may be that existing research tools do not suit the purpose in some situation, so
researcher should modify them or construct his own.

The major tools of research in social work can be classified broadly into the following
categories

A. Inquiry forms

7. Questionnaire
It is list of questions related to one topic.
 Definitions

 It may be defined as; “A questionnaire is a systematic compilation of questions

that are submitted to a sampling of population from which information is
desired.” Barr, Davis & Johnson
 “In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to
questions by using a form which the respondent fills in him.” W. J. Goode & K.
Hall

The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data gathering devices .It is
easy to prepare and to administer.

The questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure responses to certain questions.
It is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent will fill by
himself.

It is a systematic compilation of questions. It is an important instrument being used to gather

information from widely scattered sources. Normally used where one cannot see personally all
of the people from whom he desires responses or where there is no particular reason to see
them personally.

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire:

1. It deals with an important or significant topic.

2. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on its covering letter.
3. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources like books, reports
and records.
4. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data.
5. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly duplicated or printed.
6. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified.
7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions.
8. Questions are presented in a order from simple to complex.
9. Double negatives, adverbs and descriptive adjectives are avoided.
10. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one question are also avoided.
11. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives.
12. It is easy to tabulate, summarize and interpret.

Merits of Questionnaire Method:

1. It’s very economical.

2. It’s a time saving process.
3. It covers the research in wide area.
4. It’s very suitable for special type of responses.
5. It is most reliable in special cases.

Demerits of Questionnaire Method:

1. Through this we get only limited responses.

2. Lack of personal contact.
3. Greater possibility of wrong answers.
4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more.
5. Sometimes answers may be illegible.
6. It may be useless in many problems.

II. Checklist

A checklist is a type of informational job aid used to reduce failure by compensating for
potential limits of human memory and attention. It helps to ensure consisting and
completeness in carrying out a task. A basic example is ‘to do list’. A more advanced checklist
which lays out tasks to be done according to time of a day or other factors.

The checklist consists of a list of items with a place to check, or to mark yes or no.

Purpose:

The main purpose of checklist is to call attention to various aspects of an object or situation, to
see that nothing of importance is overlooked. For Example, if you have to go for outing for a
week, you have to list what things you have to take with you. Before leaving home, if you will
check your baggage with the least there will be less chance of forgetting to take any important
things, like toothbrush etc. it ensures the completeness of details of the data. Responses to the
checklist items are largely a matter of fact, not of judgment. It is an important tool in gathering
facts for educational surveys.

Uses:

Checklists are used for various purposes. As we have discussed that we can check our
requirements for journey, Birthday list, proforma for pass-port, submitting examination form or
admission form etc. in every case, it we will check before doing the work, then there is less
chance of overlooking any, important things. As it is useful in over daily life, it is also useful in
educational field in the following way.

 To collect acts for educational surveys.

  To record behavior in observational studies.
 To use in educational appraisal, studies – of school buildings, property, plan, textbooks,
instructional procedures and outcomes etc
 To rate the personality.
 To know the interest of the subjects also.

Hints on Constructing Checklist

 Items in the checklist may be continuous or divided into groups of related items.
 Items should be arranged in categories and the categories in a logical or psychological
order.
 Terms used in the items should be clearly defined.
 Checklist should be continuous and comprehensive in nature.
 A pilot study should be taken to make it standardized.
 Checklist can be constructed in four different ways by arranging items differently.

Merits:

 Students can measure their own behavior with the help of checklist.
 Easy and simple to use and frame the tools.
 Wanted and unwanted behaviors can be included.
 Personal - Social development can be checked.

Limitations:

 Only the presence or absence of the ability can be tested.

 Yes or no type judgments can only be given.
 How much cannot be tested through checklist. For Example, you want to test the story
telling still of a student. You can check only whether the student developed or not
developed the skill but you cannot study how much he has developed?

iii. Schedule

When a researcher is using a set of questionnaires for interview purpose it is known as

schedule.

Definitions
  “Schedule is the name usually applied to set of questions, which are asked and
filled by an interviewer in a face to face situation with another.” W.J. Goode &
P. K. Hatt

By a schedule we cannot, however, obtain information about many things at

once. It is best suited to the study of a single item thoroughly.
 According to Thomas Carson Macormie, “The schedule is nothing more than a
list of questions which, it seems necessary to test the hypothesis.”

Thus schedule is a list of questions formulated and presented with the specific purpose of
testing an assumption or hypothesis. In schedule method interview occupies a central and plays
a vital role.

As a matter of fact success in the use of schedule is largely determined by the ability and tact
of the interviewer rather than by the quality of the questions posed.

Because the interviewer himself poses the questions and notes down the answers all by
himself, the quality of questions has not any great significance.

Important Features of Schedule:

1. The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and
the answers are noted down by him.
2. The list of questions is a mere formal document, it need not be attractive.
3. The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.
4. It aids to delimit the scope of the study and to concentrate on the
circumscribed elements essential to the analysis.
5. It aims at delimiting the subject.
6. In the schedule the list of questions is preplanned and noted down formally
and the interviewer is always armed with the formal document detailing
the questions. Thus interviewer not to depend upon the memory.

Points to be kept in mind while designing schedule;

1. Interviewer should not frame long, complex, defective questions.

 2. Unrelated and unnecessary questions should not be asked.
3. Schedule should not contain personal and upsetting questions.
4. Its questions should be simple, clear and relevant to topic.
5. Questions be suitable to respondent’s intelligence level.
6. Impersonal, indirect and unambiguous questions should be included in
schedule.

Merits of Schedule:

1. Higher percentage of responses.

2. Possible to observe personality factors.
3. Through interview personal contact is possible.
4. It is possible to give human touch to schedule.
5. Removal of doubts is possible because face to face interaction is
there.
6. It is possible to know about the defects of the interviewee.

iv. Rating Scale

Ratting is term applied to express opinion or judgment regarding some situation, object or
character. Opinions are usually expressed on a scale of values; rating techniques are devices by
which such judgments may be quantified.

Definitions

1. “Rating is an essence and direct observation.”- Ruth Strong

2. “A rating scale ascertains the degree, intensity and frequency of a variable.”- Von Dallen

Rating techniques are more commonly used in scaling traits and attributes.

A rating method is a method by which one systematizes, the expression of opinion

concerning a trait.

The rating is done by parents, teachers, a board of interviewers and judges and even by the
self as well. The special feature of rating scale is that the attitudes are evaluated not on the
basis of the opinions of the subjects but on the basis of the opinions and judgments of the
experimenter himself.
 In rating scale data are collected by; Verbal behavior, facial expression, personal
documents, clinical type interview, projective techniques and immediate experiences as
emotions, thoughts and perceptions.

Advantages:

1. Writing reports to parents.

2. Filling out admission blanks for colleges.
3. Finding out students’ needs.
4. Making recommendations to employers.
5. Supplementing other sources of under taking about child.
6. Stimulating effect upon the rates.

Limitations:

1. Difference in rating abilities.

2. Difference in reliability as subjects for rating.
3. Agreement among raters of one type of contact only.
4. Average superior than single. 5. Impact of emotions.
5. Limits of self-rating.
6. Over rating.
7. Limits of rating of specific qualities.
8. Limits of justifications.

v. Opinionnaire

“Opinion polling or opinion gauging represents a single question approach. The answers are
usually in the form of ‘yes’ or ‘no’. An undecided category is often included. Sometimes large
number of response alternatives if provided.” - Anna Anastusi

The terms opinion and attitude are not synonymous, through sometimes we used it
synonymously. We have till now discussed that attitudes scale. We have also discussed that
attitudes are impressed opinions. You can now understand the difference between
opinionnaire and attitude scale, when we discuss of out opinionnaire, it is characteristics and
purposes.

Opinion is what a person says on certain aspects of the issue under considerations. It is an
outward expression of an attitude held by an individual. Attitudes of an individual can be
inferred or estimated from his statements of opinions.
 An opinionnaire is defined as a special form of inquiry. It is used by the researcher to collect
the opinions of a sample of population on certain facts or factors the problem under
investigation. These opinions on different facts of the problem under study are further
quantified, analyzed and interpreted.

Purpose:

Opinionnaire are usually used in researches of the descriptive type which demands survey of
opinions of the concerned individuals. Public opinion research is an example of opinion survey.
Opinion polling enables the researcher to forecast the coming happenings in successful
manner.

Characteristics:

 The opinionnaire makes use of statements or questions on different aspects of the

problem under investigation.
 Responses are expected either on three point or five point scales.
 It uses favorable or unfavorable statements.
 It may be sub-divided into sections.
 The galley poll ballots generally make use of questions instead of statements.
 The public opinion polls generally rely on personal contacts rather than mail ballots.

vi. Attitude Scale

Attitude scale is a form of appraisal procedure and it is also one of the enquiry terms.
Attitude scales have been designed to measure attitude of a subject of group of
subjects towards issues, institutions and group of peoples.
1. The term attitude is defined in various ways, “the behavior which we define as
attitudinal or attitude is a certain observable set organism or relative tendency
preparatory to and indicative of more complete adjustment.” - L. L. Bernard
2. “An attitude may be defined as a learned emotional response set for or against
something.”- Barr David Johnson

An attitude is spoken of as a tendency of an individual to read in a certain way towards

a Phenomenon. It is what a person feels or believes in. It is the inner feeling of an
individual. It may be positive, negative or neutral.

Characteristics of Attitude Scale:

Attitude scale should have the following characteristics.

 • It provides for quantitative measure on a unidimensional scale of continuum.
• It uses statements from the extreme positive to extreme negative position.
• It generally uses a five point scale as we have discussed in rating scale.
• It could be standardized and norms are worked out.
• It disguises the attitude object rather than directly asking about the attitude on the
subject.

Limitations of Attitude Scale

In the attitude scale the following limitations may occur:

 An individual may express socially acceptable opinion conceal his real attitude.
 An individual may not be a good judge of him and may not be clearly aware of
his real attitude.
 He may not have been controlled with a real situation to discover what his real
attitude towards a specific phenomenon was.
 There is no basis for believing that the five positions indicated in the Likert’s
scale are equally spaced.
 It is unlikely that the statements are of equal value in ‘forness’ or “againstness”.
 It is doubtful whether equal scores obtained by several individuals would
indicate equal favorableness towards again position.
 It is unlikely that respondent can validity react to a short statement on a
printed form in the absence of real like qualifying Situation.
 In spite of anonymity of response, Individuals tend to respond according to
what they should feel rather than what they really feel.

B. Observation

This is most commonly used technique of evaluation research. It is used for evaluating cognitive
and non-cognitive aspects of a person. It is used in evaluation performance, interests, attitudes,
values towards their life problems and situations. It is most useful technique for evaluating the
behaviors of children.

It is technique of evaluation in which behavior are observed in a natural situations.

Definitions
  “It is thorough study based on visual observation. Under this technique group
behaviours and social institutions problems are evaluated.”- C. Y. Younge
 “Observation employs relatively more visual and senses than audio and vocal
organs.” - C.A. Mourse

The cause- effect relationship and study of events in original form, is known as
observation.

Observation seeks to ascertain what people think and do by watching them in

action as they express themselves in various situations and activities.

Observation is recognized as the most direct means of studying people when

one is interested in their overt behavior.

In questionnaires and interview people may write answer as they think, they do
but this is often different from what they actually do. These restrictions are
missing in observation so observation is a more natural way of gathering data.
Artificiality and formality of questionnaires and interview is replaced by reality
and informality in observation. Data obtained through observation are more
real and true than the data collected by any other method. It also plays a
particular part in survey procedure.

Characteristics of Observation Schedule:

According to Jahoda it has many characteristics;

1. It serves a formulated research purpose.

2. It is planned systematically rather than occurring haphazardly.
3. It is systematically recorded and related to more general propositions.
4. It is subjected to checks and controls with respect to validity, reliability
and precision.
5. It is a direct technique to study an object, an event or a problem.
6. It is based mainly on visual –audio scene.
7. It employs own experiences.
8. It establishes cause-effect relationship.
 9. It is an objective technique of data collection.
10. It is both objective and subjective evaluation technique.
11. It is formal as well as informal technique.
12. It is quantitative as well as qualitative technique for data collection.

Advantages:

1. It is reliable and valid technique of collecting data and information.

2. We get first hand data through this method.
3. Record of observation is also available immediately.
4. It is simple, broad and comprehensive method.
5. It is an oldest technique of data collection and getting direct
information.

Limitations:

1. It has a limited scope for its use because all the events cannot be observed directly.
2. It is subjective method.
3. It is very time consuming process.
4. Costly so energy consuming also.
5. Presence of observer influences the behavior of the person i.e. subject becomes conscious.
6. In case covert behavior, which can’t be observed, it is not useful.
7. Observer should be trained and experienced.

C. Interview

The Interview:

Interview is a two way method which permits an exchange of ideas and information.

Definitions -

1. “Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction.”- W. J. Goode & P.K. Hatt

2. “The interview constitutes a social situation between two persons, the psychological
process involved requiring both individuals mutually respond though the social research
purpose of the interview call for a varied response from the two parties concerned.”-
Vivien Palmar
3. “The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a person enters more or
less imaginatively into the inner life of a comparative stranger.”- P.V. Young

In an interview a rapport is established between the interviewer and the interviewee. Not
only is physical distance between them annihilated, the social and cultural barrier is also
removed; and a free mutual flow of ideas to and fro takes place. Both create their
respective impression upon each other.

The interview brings them both on the same level and an emotional attachment
supervenes between them.

In an interview all formalities are laid down and the gate is opened for delivering into the
intellectuals, emotional and subconscious stirrings of the interviewee. Thus here the
‘depth’ of subject (man) is gone to the very bottom of his emotional pool and may check his
truthfulness of responses.

Characteristics of an Interview:

1. The interviewer can probe into casual factors, determine attitudes, and discover the
origin of problem.
2. It is appropriate to deal with young children and illiterates person.
3. It can make cross questioning possible.
4. It helps the investigator to gain an impression of the person concerned.
5. It can deal with delicate, confidential and even intimate topics.
6. It has flexibility.
7. Sincerity, frankness, truthfulness and insight of the interviewee can be better judged
through cross questioning.
8. It gives no chance for respondent to modify his earlier answer.
9. It is applicable in survey method, but it is also applicable in historical, experimental,
case studies and clinical studies.

Merits of Interview:

1. Direct research.
2. Deep research
3. Knowledge of past and future.
 4. Knowledge of special features.
5. Mutual encouragement is possible.
6. Supra-observation is possible.
7. Knowledge of historical and emotional causes.
8. Examination of known data.

Disadvantage of Interview:

1. May provides misleading information.

2. Defects due to interviewee(low level of intelligence or may be emotionally
unbalanced)
3. Result may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer.
4. Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental outlook of interviewee
and interviewer.
5. One sided and incomplete research.
6. Art rather than science.

D. Psychological Tests

Among the most useful and most frequently employed tools of social work research
psychological tests occupy a very significant position. Psychological tests are described
to describe and measure 193 a sample of certain aspects of human behavior or inner
qualities. They yield objective descriptions of some psychological aspects of an
individual’s personality and translate them in quantitative terms. As we have mentioned
earlier there are various kinds of psychological test

Problem solving method, tools and techniques in social work

Social work is seen as a professional process where the strength-based problem-solving model
can be applied on the level of individual, group and community. Problem solving in social work
is treated as a continuous spiral process characterized by such phase as engagement,
assessment, planning, intervention and evaluation. Throughout the process use of self, use of
different skills and techniques, also values and ethics are important. Social work is a problem
solving profession that is committed to improve the quality of human life by imparting various
intervention techniques and strategies which are scientifically proved and artistically applied.
Anything that causes difficulty to an individual or even a group of persons may be termed as a
problem. In the same manner, unsatisfied needs or wants may also result in problems.
Problems can be broadly categorized into:-

1. physical,
2. mental and
3. Social.

Physical problems are those problems that affect our body. e.g. cancer, fever, pain, disability
etc. Problems that affect the mental realm, such as stress, depression, excessive anger are
examples of psychological or mental problems. Some social problems affect individual as well
as the people around them; e.g. alcoholism, crime, unemployment, riots etc.

From the social work perspective, problems are generally interrelated. It ranges from simple to
complex. Every problem has numerous solutions. But individuals and communities are confused
with the problem and its solutions. Social work profession also helps the client to choose the
right solutions which are most appropriate to the client. This profession helps the client to
understand the problem and to cope with it. It also prevents the onset of similar problems in
future

Social Work as a Problem Solving Profession

The social life of the modern world is characterized by numerous problems. The consumerist
and profit-oriented approaches of the present society bring about drastic consequences in
social life. Problems like isolation, poverty, unemployment, migration, family disintegration,
and sexual violence, atrocities against women, suicide, substance abuse, communalism,
terrorism, and child abused are on the increase. Solution to these problems on a scientific basis
is essential to ensure peaceful social life.

Problem solving Methods of Social Work

This approach stands on the recognition that life is an ongoing problem encountering – and –
problem solving process. At any point of time, every person is involved in coping with his / her
problems. Sometimes s/he is capable of coping and sometimes fails to resolve the crisis
situation. Through problem solving process, the individual or the family is helped to cope with
or resolve some difficulty that he / she is currently finding difficult to solve. Thus the primary
goal of problem solving is to help a person to cope as effectively as possible with such problems
in carrying social tasks.
In the initial phase attempts are made to engage the client with his / her problems and to do
something about it in a working relationship with the agency. The problem solving starts at
once, from the first movement with treating the person. The client is not treated for his / her
problem but he/she is treated for the purpose of helping him /her to know his/her that is
strength and weaknesses and how to remove these weaknesses.

Characteristics of problem solving method in social work

 Problem solving is not systematic, and may or may not use the scientific method.
 Problem solving is characterized with hurriedness and immediate activity
 Problem solving may not be planned as problems are sudden in nature and require
immediate attention.
 Anybody can be involved in problem solving.
 Reporting is not mandatory in problem solving as only the results are often reported.
 Operational definitions not necessary
 Hypotheses and research questions not applicable.
 Controls are not required in problem solving.
 Needed information for problem solving are gathered in the same setting and may not
require detail.
 Solutions for one problem may not work for another problem even if similar.
 Ethical considerations are not mandatory for problem solving.
 Replication is not possible.
 Only the situation at hand needs any attention.
 Literature is not applicable as it is a here and now situation.

In short, the problem solving approach involves the following steps:

1. It tries to release, energize and gives directions to the client’s motivation for change.
2. It tries to release and exercise the client’s mental, emotional and action capacities for
coping with the problem.
3. It tries to find and make accessible to the client such aids and resources as are
necessary to the solution of the problem.

Being a scientific profession social work has its own methodology. Traditionally the problem
solving methods of social work are divided as primary and secondary. Primary methods are
social case work, social group work and community organization. Secondary methods are
social action, social welfare administration and social work research.

Primary Methods for problem solving

The primary methods are those methods which directly help the client to solve his/ her
problems. The following are the primary methods of social work.

a. Social Case Work (Working with individuals)

Social case work is a unique method of problem-solving. It helps an individual to solve his
psycho-social problems. Here the social worker is concerned with individual problems only.
Here interventions come at the individual level. Professionally trained Social Worker helps a
client with particular problems. Social case work is a primary method of social work. It is
concerned with the adjustment and development of the individual towards more satisfying
human relationship. According to Bowers, “Social casework is an art in which knowledge of the
science of human relations and skills in human relationships are used to mobilize capacities in
the individual and resources in the community, appropriate to better adjustment between the
client and all or any part of his total environment.”

In social case work a person with a problem comes to a place/agency where a professionally
trained worker helps him through a given process. Social case work has four components –
person, problem, place and process.

Techniques in Social Case work

I. Interviewing in social case work

Interview is the communication between two persons with a conscious purpose.

According to P.V.Young “interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a

person enter more or less imaginatively with the life of comparative strangers. It is to
secure information from the client in a systematic way. It is an art which is used by the
case worker for better understanding between him and the client and make the case
worker process easier. It is the foundation of the case work as without interview the
worker cannot get all the possible information about the client nor can the client gain
any confidence in the worker.

Purpose of interview

 To obtain knowledge of the situation

 To understand other person
 To be understood by the other person
 For securing some information which cannot be gathered from any other source

Types of interview
a. Structural interview
The structural interview is known as controlled, guided or directed interview. The
interviewer is asked to get information for certain specific questions only. He cannot go
beyond the questions and add on anything from his side.
b. Unstructured interview
In this type of interview no direct questions are asked to the subject concerning the
problem. The interviewer initiates the conversation regarding topic and the client starts
narrating all the happenings with his feelings and reactions pointing to the event. The
case worker listens carefully to the client and find out the relevant information useful
for the case work process.
c. Focused interview – in this type of interview the client is shown a film or made to listen
to a radio broadcast which is somehow related to his problem. The client is asked to
express his feelings, reactions and attitudes towards this problem. The film or
broadcasting influences the mind of the client, which provokes the inner motivation,
feelings and emotion. Such interview brings out more factual information and helps the
case work process effective.
d. Repetitive interview
This type of interview is repetitive in nature when it is asked. There are some gradual
influences of some social and psychological process on the subject pertaining to the
problem. The questions may be repeated again and again.
II. Recording in social case work
Recording has always been given considerable importance in social work. It is
because the case worker has to know many clients intimately and it is essential that
interviews and details should be recorded in a way that recalls the particular client
with all his/her individual differences.

The records serve various purposes and some of them are as follows:

 Documentation of social work activity: case records provide an ongoing

picture of the nature of social work involvement with the client, progress in
achieving social work goals and outcome.
 Continuity of Service: when a client contacts the social work agency, the
service is provided by the entire setting. In case an individual staff member is
not available the agency must be able to pick up where he or she left up. This
would be possible with the help of record only.
 Quality control: The quality and quantity of services being provided could be
known by reviewing written records that present a picture of social work
activity. Record review is also a means of assessing the kind and quality of
services being provided by the caseworker identifies the areas of strength
and weaknesses where staff needs in service training to upgrade their skills.
  Statistical reporting: Case records are periodically used by social work
agencies as sources of data to justify agency’s activities, to seek and maintain
funding, to substantiate the need for additional staff or to do program
planning.
 Organizing the worker’s thought: recordings provide factual data and
observations which could lead to more in-depth diagnostic assessment and
treatment planning.
 Inter disciplinary Communication: Recording is means to communicate social
diagnostic information and recommendations for consideration by other
professionals who may be involved with the client in a team approach to
treatment.
 Teaching and research: Properly maintained case records could be a
mechanism for mutual assessment of practice skills and the teaching of new
techniques. Case records contain a wealth of information for the professional
researcher seeking to gather data on various categories of clients, problems
faced by them.
 A therapeutic tool: recording can be used as a therapeutic tool with the
client to help him to respond to treatment.

Types of recording

Records can be written in different ways. Those are Process recording, Narrative
recording, Role recording, Summery recording and Abstract.
a. Process recording: Process is continuous development involving many changes.
It is a series of actions, changes or functions that bring about an end result.
Process recording tries to record these development and actions. These
developments are directly or meaningfully related to understanding of the
person in situation and the intervention process.
b. Narrative recording: In narrative recording everything that has happened is
recorded as it has happened whether it is positive or negative. It consists of all
the statements, observations and comments of the worker. It is the narration of
all the happenings and detailed accounts of all the events which go in the
narrative recording.
c. Role recording: It is the refined version of process recording. It is highly selective
in its approach and focuses on the role of the case worker in his interaction with
client from time to time.
d. Summary recording: Summery records are short and easy to use when
considering the total service process. It tries to summarize the main events and
avoid the details of all events. It include entry data , social history, a plan of
action, periodic summaries of significant information, action taken by the worker
and a statement of what was accomplished as the case gets closed. Summery
recordings save time and labor when process recording comparatively is very
time consuming.
 e. Abstract: It is the basic ideas of the case or action plan and does not provide the
detail information. So it is a condensed form of summery recording.

III. Referral
In the case work process it is not possible always to solve the client’s problem in the
same agency and by the same worker. Therefore sometimes cases are transferred or
referred to another agency for rendering expertise help to the client. The helping
process does not end in referral but it is the contact with a particular case worker or
agency who will take over the case

IV. Home Visits

Home visit is another important tool used by the caseworker for gathering
information about client. It is difficult to date the beginning of the home visit
movement because caring for those in needs has traditionally been a responsibility
assumed by relatives, friends and neighbors. However, the foundation for providing
home-based care by trained home visitor was laid by Florence Nightingale. Trained
nurse initially provided care to sick patient and home care was linked to nursing
care.

Philosophy of home visits

The home visit is based on two fundamental beliefs namely that delivering services
in the home can ameliorate existing difficulties or can prevent problems from
developing later. Moral, social and political forces have prompted such services over
time.

Three terms are frequently used to describe the rationale for home visit:
empowerment, enablement and enhancement.

Empowerment can be described as facilitating or maintaining the client or family’s

ability to define its goals and make its own decisions.

Enhancement incorporates the concept of building upon strengths that already exist,
and enablement suggests helping families locate resources that can facilitate the
family’s own actions. In addition to these concepts the Ecological Theory of Human
Development and family systems theory provide a framework for the practice of
home visiting.
 These concepts and theories focus attention on the needs and priorities of families,
importance of the interrelations within families and their environments and stressed
the importance of looking at future as well as immediate needs.

Three questions that must be kept in mind during the home visit are:
 Who is the client?
 How is the client served?
 What is the role of caseworker?

Who is the client? The answer to this question provides information on the client’s identity,
problems being experienced by him/her. As one begins to visit the families, the complex
interactions that exist among family members become clear and difficulties in relationships can
be observed by the caseworker. Viewed in this way then the client may not be a disturbed
individual alone rather focus may be required on other family members also.

How is the client served? Traditionally, home visit was viewed as treatment or intervention for
specific problems and was restricted to the predefined needs of clients. Presently a more
broad-based approach is envisaged that conceptualize family as a unit, responds to critical
needs of all family members with a focus on prevention, building family strengths and
normalization.

What is the role of caseworker? For most of nineteenth century the caseworker was
considered as an expert with more knowledge and experience than the client. Shifts in the
home visitor’s role resulted from changes in the view of family. Client is no longer a passive
recipient rather as an active participant and the family is encouraged to define its own needs,
priorities and preferences. The caseworker therefore is a collaborator, a negotiator and an
expert in the helping skills.

PRINCIPLES OF HOME VISITING

Five principles that should be kept in mind while conducting home visit:

1. Family support should enhance the ability of families to work toward their own goals
and deal effectively with their own problems.
2. Home-based intervention should be individualized, based upon an assessment of the
social, psychological, cultural, educational, economic and physical or health
characteristics of the family.
3. A home visitor must be responsive to the immediate needs of the families as well as to
their long-term goals.
4. A helping relation should be collaboration between the home visitor and the family
members.
 5. The family should be recognized as a social system and intervention efforts directed at
one individual within the family can influence other family members and can influence
the overall functioning of the family.
SKILLS IN HOME VISIT

At the heart of home visit is the relationship between the home visitor and the client for
establishing good rapport. To be effective helper, a number of skills are essential and some of
them are as follows:

I. The home visitor must be a patient listener.

II. The home visitor must be sensitive to verbal and non-verbal communication from the
family about its desires and goals.
III. The home visitor must be able to assess difficulties being encountered by the family.
IV. The home visitor must be able to promote those skills, knowledge, attitudes and
environmental conditions that contribute to effective coping.
V. The home visitor should have the capacity to respond to the client’s feeling and
experiences as if they were his own
VI. The home visitor must be able to see a person with worth and dignity, commitment,
understanding, non-judgmental attitude and warmth.
VII. The home visitor must be able to present himself/ herself genuinely without presenting
a facade.
HOME VISITING TECHNIQUES

Home visitors in their interaction with the client use a number of specific techniques for
preparing the client to become better prepared to deal with some event in his or her life or to
understand better the important aspect of a problem.

A. Modeling
Modeling is demonstrating for the client a specific behavior. It is a technique particularly
advantageous when the client cannot seem to visualize carrying out a particular action
or cannot think how to begin an activity.

It is also useful when a client seems to lack the skills necessary for action. Modeling such
situations could include showing how one might respond in different situations. In most
situations once the visitor has modeled the behavior, and then the client should be
allowed to perform the behavior. Doing so assures that the client has understood what
was modeled and the behavior can be matched to that of the visitor.
B. Role Playing
In role-playing, home visitor acts out one real life role and the client acts out another in
order to help the client gain skill and confidence to deal with a difficult situation. This
technique is particularly appropriate for those situations in which one has difficulty in
being assertive because of the newness of the situation.
 C. Use of examples
Using examples is a common daily event for people during their interactions with others
and is often used when one is explaining, describing or teaching something to a second
person. Home visitor should use the examples that may be relevant and fit with realistic
experiences in the client’s life. The use of examples helps a client feel at ease with
something that they may not have worked out or is not satisfied with.

GROUP WORK AS PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD

In social group work, intervention takes place at group level. The social worker assists the
members of a group to develop capacities and potentialities. The leadership qualities and
personality traits of the group members are developed by organizing programs. The growth and
development of the group members are promoted in social group work.

Social group work is a method of social work which develops the ability to establish
constructive relationship in the individuals through group activities. Group experiences are
essential to human beings. Group work helps individual in groups in social agency settings. The
members of the group are helped by a Group Worker who guides the group members’
interaction in programs. The group interaction helps an individual to develop oneself in
accordance with abilities and capacities. The individuals are empowered to mobilize their
available resources for their own betterment.

Community Organization as a Problem Solving Method

In community organization method the community is the client. Community organization solves
the community problems and fulfills the needs of the community. Many of the community
problems like social injustice, poverty, inadequate housing, poor nutrition, lack of health, lack
of medical services, unemployment, pollution, exploitation, bonded labor system, illicit arrack,
dowry, female infanticide, women and children trafficking, drug trafficking etc. can be solved by
using community organization method. In problem solving generally there are three basic
aspects. These are study, diagnosis, and treatment. First the problem has to be studied. For
this, we have to collect information regarding the problem. From the information collected we
have to identify the main causes. This is called diagnosis. Based on the findings, or diagnosis, a
solution is evolved that is called treatment. We consider this model as medical model because
doctors study the patient to find out the causes for illness and based on findings, treatment or
medicines are prescribed. Such a model can be used in community organization method.
Problems can be solved only with involvement of people due to which resources are mobilized
to solve the problems. This method is especially applicable in Nepalese situations, because in
Nepal a large number of people are affected by poverty or other poverty related problems
which need speedy solutions. For this community organization as a problem solving method is
most effective to solve community problems. For example people in certain area suffer due to
lack of water for their cultivation. With the help of the community organizer and people’s
participation, watersheds can be made and ground water level is increased. Water stored
during rainy season can help the people to continue cultivation. Here the whole village problem
is related with water for irrigation and drinking purpose, which can be solved by using
community organization method.

Community Organization method is used for the following:

1. To meet the needs and bring about and maintain adjustment between needs and
resources in a community.
2. Helping people effectively to work with their problems and plan to realize their
objectives by helping them to develop, strengthen, and maintain qualities of
participation, self direction and cooperation.
3. Bringing about changes in community and group relationships and in the distribution of
decision- making power.
4. The resources of the community are identified and tapped for solving the community
problems.

Secondary Methods for problem solving

Secondary methods are those methods which are intended to support the primary methods of
social work. In secondary method the worker indirectly deals with the client’s problem. The
secondary methods of social work are

1. social action,
2. social welfare administration and
3. Social work research.

Social Action

Social Action is a secondary method of social work. It finds solution for mass social issues
through propaganda, public opinion and collective support. The solutions to mass issues are
found by legal means and non violent activities. The mass issues like dowry, environment
issues, gender issues etc. are addressed through this method. Social action is an individual,
group or community effort within the frame work of philosophy and practice of social work.

The aim of social action is to achieve social progress, modification of social policies, initiating
social legislation and welfare services.
Social welfare administration is used to transform social policy into action. This method makes
use of scientific and administrative techniques in planning, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of the welfare program. Social welfare administration is a process of organization
and administration of an institution/organization/project. Social welfare administration refers
to those activities which are undertaken with regard to the systematic execution of social
policies. It includes Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Co-coordinating, Reporting and
Budgeting (POSDCoRB). It is a dynamic art taking human and physical resources available and
blending them to the achievement of some required goals. The aims of social welfare
administration are the progressive achievement of the well being of human beings.

Social welfare administration requires specialized knowledge. The administrator should possess
sufficient knowledge regarding the agency’s aims, programs, methods of social treatment and
social resources. Such knowledge enables the administrator to perform his task.

Social Work Research

Let us examine the issues like domestic violence, child abuse, migrant labor etc.

In order to understand these problems we must have scientific and systematic method to find
out their various causes and solutions. Social work research tries to analyze the causes behind
social issues and helps the professional to solve the problems. Social work research is a
systematic approach to assess the effectiveness of social work interventions. This may be done
by an evaluation of the situation prior to and after the intervention.

The social work research is the systematic and scientific enquiry of a social phenomenon or a
social problem. This will help to find out the real problem and to formulate specific intervention
strategies to solve that problem.

Social work research is different from social science research because it is basically an action-
oriented research which supports the problem solving process. Social work research tries to say
how things happen. It helps to collect necessary facts which will direct towards solutions.

Social work methods have another classification namely micro, mezzo and macro. Micro means
dealing the problems of individuals and families, mezzo means dealing the problem of group.
Macro means dealing the problem of communities.

Stages of Problem-solving Process

1. Preliminary statement of the problem,

2. Statement of preliminary assumptions about the nature of the problem,
3. Selection and collection of information,
4. Analysis of information available,
5. Development of a plan,
6. Implementation of the plan, and
7. Evaluation of the plan.

1. Preliminary statement of the problem-A clear statement of the problem is necessary

before processing to subsequent steps. Often, problem statement tends to be vague,
global, and lacking in precision. For example, school dropouts or unwed mothers are
often referred to as problems. A more adequate formulation in the area of unwed
mothers might be: lack of educational resources for teenage pregnant girls. In this
statement, the need of the individual and society is education
2. Statement of preliminary assumptions about the nature of the problem-This step is
necessary to help make explicit the type of information needed for understanding and
planning. As the problem is stated, implicit assumptions are made about its nature and
cause, which provide indications as to the need in the situation and as to the block to
need fulfillment.
3. Selection and collection of information-Sources for information should include a
variety of perspectives that may be chosen from historical, social-psychological,
biological, economic, political, religious, and ethical understandings.

Both the facts of the problem itself and the meaning of the problem to those concerned
are important. Skill in the collection of information also calls for skill in communication
and social interaction with persons who are sources of the information. The values of
social work call for the client to be a primary source. There is a need to determine and
accumulate relevant evidence about the situation, and this evidence needs to be related
to the salient features of the situation.
4. Analysis of information available- Analysis of information is influenced and directed by
the purpose for which the analysis is to be used. Other purposes include determination
of feasible goals and possible outcomes and of possible plans of action, interpretation of
the meaning of the information gathered, and evaluation. The cyclical nature of the
process becomes very apparent, for one returns to analysis as an ingredient of each step
of the process. The carrying out of the process generates new information.
5. Development of a plan-Information and its analysis lead to understanding of what can
be done to remove obstacles blocking need fulfillment. A social worker uses assessment
in developing a plan of action. Plans develop from a consideration of a variety of
possible strategies and techniques. As a plan becomes more specific, the social worker
will return to early steps in the process to gather and analyze new information needed
for the specifics of planning. Consideration of a variety of plans is important in creative
planning.
6. Implementation of the plan-In social work, implementation involves interaction
between people and is intervention in nature. It is action based on thinking that has its
source in feelings about concern or need. In addition, it is action based on substantial
knowledge from many sources that explain and predict behavior of persons in the
situation.
 7. Evaluation of the plan-This step may result in redefinition of the problem, expanded
information gathering and analysis, of reformulation of the plan.
If the goal has been reached, evaluation is an appropriate and necessary climax to the
process. Regardless of the outcome of the plan, evaluation of what happened can lead
to an understanding that can be transferred to other situations and to more effective
problem solving in those situations.

Three essential operations of problem-solving process are

1. The facts that constitute and bear upon the problem must be ascertained and
grasped. Such facts may be of objective reality and of subjective reaction, of
cause and effect, of relatedness between the person and his/her problems, of
the solution sought and of the actual means available;
2. The facts must be thought about. The facts must be played upon and organized
by ideas-ideas springing from knowledge and experience and subject to the
governing aim of problem solution;
3. Some choice or decision must be made that is the end result of the
consideration of the particular facts and that affects or has the intent of
resolving the problem.

The process can be conceptualized as having four major components: assessment, planning,
action and termination. Although assessment precedes planning, planning precedes action and
action precedes termination, the process is cyclical in nature.

Planning often leads to the need for new or different understanding of the person in the
situation (assessment). Action often produces new information for use in understanding or
demonstrates the need for additional planning.

Evaluation, the assessment of what has happened as a result of action, is ongoing in the process
and leads to new understanding and sometimes to new plans and action.

Thus, all four stages are always present, but at various points in the work one or more may be
the focus and receive the most attention.

All four stages as well as the interactional process constitute intervention. All can influence
changes in the transactions between clients and the systems in their environment. All can
influence the social functioning of individuals and social systems.

The aim of case work process is to engage the client with his/her problem and his/her will to do
something about it in a working relationship with the agency, its intentions and special means
of helpfulness. The context of the process is a fairly constant one, and its method is a fairly
systematic one-as constant and as systematic as a process keyed to living, feeling, changing
human beings can be-while it yet remains fluid and flexible.

Finally, for the solution or mitigation of many problems there must exists certain material
means or accessible opportunities which are available to the needful person and which he/she
can be helped to use. Money, medical care, nursery schools, scholarship, short-stay homes,
foster homes, recreational facilities- these are the kind of resources that any person may need
in order to resolve a given problem in his/her daily living. The case worker should know about
these resources or know how to become informed of them. She/he should be able to pick the
right ones imaginatively in their relation to the client’s problem.
 Chapter six- research perspectives and approaches

a. Diachronic and synchronic

The term diachronic literally means “through time”. Evolutionist and diffusions theories
are typically diachronic theories as the concept of time is significant in them.

Synchronic perspective is the opposite of diachronic, being typical of functionalism. It

focuses on the relation of things at any given period of time.

Originally, the terms were used by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure to explain the features
of languages that contribute to change (diachronic) and those that bring stability (synchronic).

For instance, the word bitch earlier means hunting dogs and was used in positive manner but
now it is used to abuse a women. A diachronic study would focus on the historical and social
factors that lead to such changes. On the other hand, in synchronic approach, all those aspects
of language are emphasized that bring permanent and stability. Let us take the word mother
which signifies certain relationships that are embedded in a wider social network in our society
and we can use it in a more or less permanent and predictable way in our communications.

The approach diachronic and synchronic is used in Anthropology in terms of changing and
nature of culture where, anthropological research has two purposes:

 To collect and record descriptive data about the cultures of specific peoples(
ethnography), and
 To explain the past and present diversity found in cultural systems in the world
(ethnology). Recognizing that the cultural system of a people is constantly changing,
research is further divided into studies that describes a culture at one period of time(
synchronic) and research that studies the changes in culture of a people over time(
diachronic)

Here synchronic is the description of a culture at one period in time. And, diachronic is
the study of changes in a culture over time.

The diachronic approach studies the development of language in time by paying attention to
affinity between languages and historical transmutations of sounds and by striving for the
reconstruction of principal languages. It produces descriptions how languages are
genealogically related.
The synchronic approach analyses the similarities and differences of languages at a given point
of time by focusing on their structural features and characteristics and by using phonological,
morphological and syntactic explanations including semantic and pragmatic aspects.

Diachronic and synchronic

Diachronic Synchronic
Focus Focus on Processes, Focus on Structures,
How matters develop How matters stand
Analysis Features of change over time, historical dynamics State of the systems at a
given point of time
Logic of Cause and effect chains Systemic associations
order
Basic What comes after what What associates with what
interest - Historical understanding -systematic understanding
comparison solitaries , unique features and processes Similarities, contrasts,
proximities, equalities

The distinction between 'diachronic–synchronic' is useful in comparative research of social

work and elements of both logics of order can be found in social work literature.

b. Emic/ Etic perspectives

Another feature of cultural anthropology that distinguishes it from other social science
disciplines is its emphasis on viewing another culture from the perspective of an insider. This is
emic and etic perspectives.

Ethnographers seek to learn from (rather than to study) members of a cultural group- to
understand their world view. Ethnographic researchers sometimes refer to “emic” and “etic”
perspectives (terms that originate in linguistics, i.e., phonemic versus phonetic).

An emic perspective refers to the way the members of the culture envision their world- it is the
insiders’ view. The emic is the local language, concepts, or means of expression that are used by
the members of the group under study to name and characterize their experiences.

The etic perspective, by contrast, is the outsiders’ interpretation of the experiences of that
culture; it is the language used by those doing the research to refer to the same phenomena.
Ethnographers strive to reveal what has been referred to as tacit knowledge, information
about the culture that is deeply embedded in cultural experiences that members do not talk
about it or may not even be consciously aware of it.
The emic approach (derived from the word phonemic) refers to the insider view, which seeks to
describe another culture in terms of the categories, concepts, and perceptions of the people
being studied.

By contrast, the etic approach (derived from the word phonetic) refers to the outsider view, in
which anthropologists use their own categories and concepts to describe the culture under
analysis. For the last half century, there has been an ongoing debate among anthropologists as
to which approach is more valuable for the scientific study of comparative cultures.

Emic approach -A perspective in ethnography that uses the concepts and categories that are
relevant and meaningful to the culture under analysis.

Etic- approach A perspective in ethnography that uses the concepts and categories of the
anthropologist’s culture to describe another culture.

A radically emic approach was taken by a group of U.S. anthropologists (known as ethno
scientists) during the 1950s and 1960s. In an attempt to obtain a more realistic understanding
of another culture, the ethno scientists insisted on the insider approach.

More recently the interpretive school of cultural anthropology has strongly supported the emic
approach to research. This school, represented by the late Clifford Geertz and others, holds that
because human behavior stems from the way people perceive and classify the world around
them, the only legitimate strategy is the emic, or insider, approach to cultural description. At
the opposite end of the debate are the cultural materialists, best represented by the late
Marvin Harris. Starting from the assumption that material conditions determine thoughts and
behaviors (not the other way around), cultural materialists emphasize the viewpoint of the
ethnographer, not the native informant. There is no consensus on this issue, and each cultural
anthropologist must make a decision about which approach to take when doing research

For decades anthropologists have made the distinction between the emic approach and the etic
approach, terms borrowed from linguistics.

Etic
Analytical in nature
It is primarily quantitative
Primarily comparative across cultures
Focus on isolated variables
It gives emphasis on universal aspects
Concepts and variables are introduced
externally through prediction
It is empirical. So, data are the source of
Emic
Interpretative in nature
It is primarily qualitative
Attention to variation within cultures
Focus on networks of variables
It gives emphasis on unique aspects
Concepts and variables are developed from
experience within the culture
It is constructivist. So, constructs are the
knowledge. source of knowledge.
Culture seen as a determinant of behavior. Culture and behavior are seen as
interdependent.
Investigate behavior from outside the Investigates behavior from inside the
community studied. community studied

c. Covert vs. overt observation

There are two main forms of participation observation:

1. Covert participation observation( concealed, secret, not open) and
2. Overt participant observation( open, public and no secret)

The former involves posing incognito as a “genuine” member of the social group or making
observations about a group in which the researcher is already a member. The latter involves
clearly indicating the true identity of the researcher, and usually the purpose of the
research, to those who are being observed.

Overt observation-

Participant observation in which those being studied are aware that they are being researched.
Overt observation involves participating in the behavior of people who know they are being
studied. The researcher joins the openly, and usually conducts the research with the permission
and cooperation of the group or significant members of the group. In this method the
researcher still takes part in the day-to-day lives of the group but the subjects know they are a
researcher.

Strength of overt participant observation

 On a practical level, recording data is relatively easy because the group knows
and understands the role of the researcher. The researcher asks questions, take
notes and observe behavior openly. With groups that have hierarchical
structures, such as large business, the researcher can gain access to all levels-
the bedroom as well as the shop floor.
 It can be difficult to gain access to some groups, so researchers may use
sponsorship to find a way in. This involves gaining the trust and cooperation of
an important group member.
 The ability to ask questions, observe individual behaviors and experience the day
to day life of respondents, helps the researcher to build up a highly detailed
picture of the lives they are describing. This 360- degree view means the
researcher not only gets to understand what people say they do but also witness
and experiences what people actually do. This can increase the validity of data.

Limitations
  If a group refuses the permission to observe it, then the researcher cannot
be carried out. In addition overt observation requires substantial amounts of
time, effort and money.
 Theoretical criticisms initially focus on the observer/ Hawthorne effect and
the extent to which the knowledge of being watched changes how people
behave. While people may be studied in their natural environment, an
awareness of the presence of the researcher may make them behave
unnaturally.
 Without full participation, researcher involvement may be too superficial to
allow a true understanding of behavior.
 Ethical concerns such as not participating in illegal behavior, may affect the
extent to which the researcher is truly experiencing how people normally
behave.
 There is a risk that the researcher will become too involved and effectively
become the story they are reporting. Their presence becomes the focal point
around which people orientate their behavior.

Covert observation

Covert observation is the participant observation where the researcher does not tell the group
members that he or she is a researcher.

In covert observation, the researcher secretly (covertly) join the group, so that the participants
are unaware that they are being studied. The main objective is to experience behavior in its
natural setting; to watch people behave as they normally behave. Unlike overt participation,
the researcher must balance the roles of researcher and participant without revealing their true
role to other group members.

There are two main benefits of this; firstly it avoids the presence of the researcher consciously
or subconsciously causing those being observed to behave differently, and secondly it allows
the researcher to enter ‘closed’ groups.

A ‘closed’ group is a group of people, who are not necessarily willing to subject themselves to
the scrutiny of others, or one in which outsiders might be forbidden. These might include
certain work environments, religious groups, or criminal groups. This kind of research has
ethical implications; firstly, it is necessary to weigh up whether the collection of data justifies
the deception of the group being studied and secondly there is always the risk to the researcher
that they may be discovered. If the research is dealing with a criminal group there are
implications on the researcher’s safety and in some circumstances they may be required to take
part in or witness illegal behaviors.

Strengths

 Covert observation may be the only way to study people who would not
normally allow them to be researched.
Such people may include:-
 1. Criminal or deviant groups.
2. Closed groups( religious groups, political groups, cultural groups, tribal
groups etc)
 It involves full participation in a group, where the researcher lives, works, and
socializes within the group they are studying means that this method produces
highly detailed insightful, personally observed and experienced data.
 Covert participation also avoids the observer affect the subjects’ behavior that is
largely unaffected by the researcher’s presence.

Limitations

According to Goff- man, the limitations for the covert participant observation are as follows:-

1. Getting in – while gaining covert entry to any group can be a problem, some
groups are more difficult to enter than others.
2. Entry to some groups is only by invitation. Unless the researcher is invited, they
cannot join.
3. The characteristics of the observer must match those of the observed otherwise
it becomes difficult to covertly investigate.
 Chapter seven- qualitative and quantitative research

Meaning of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a broad term that encompasses a variety of approaches to interpretative

research. It can be historical, sociological, education and much more. Qualitative research style
in social research is not much related to the scientific logic of research, but more close to the
world around.

In qualitative research, when compared to quantitative based research, research designs are
often relatively small, loosely structured, encourage research participants to talk in detail about
the meaning that they have of the world. There will include one to one in-depth interviews
focus groups and qualitative observation based studies. Some of the methodological issues of
qualitative research designs are the questions of validity and reliability, objectivity and
subjectivity and ethical matters.

Qualitative research explores attitudes, behavior and experiences through such methods as
interviews or focus groups. It attempts to get an in-depth opinion from participants. As it are
attitudes, behavior and experiences which are important, fewer people take part in the
research, but the contact with these people tends to last a lot longer.

Qualitative research in its purest sense follows the naturalist paradigm, i.e. that research should
be conducted in the natural setting and that the meanings derived from research are specific to
that setting and its conditions. The qualitative approach is sometimes referred to as
interpretative, the naturalistic, the constructivist or the post-positivist approach. The common
qualitative research designs are case study research design.

Some definitions by scholars

 Qualitative research is a research strategy that usually emphasizes words rather than
quantification in the collection and analysis of data. (Bryman 2008a: 366)
 Qualitative research is an umbrella term for an array of attitudes towards and strategies
for conducting inquiry that are aimed at discovering how human beings understand,
experience, interpret, and produce the social world. (Sandelowski 2004: 893)
 Cresswell (1994) defines qualitative study as “inquiry process of understanding a social
or human problem based on building a complex holistic picture formed with words,
reporting detailed views of informants and conducted in a natural setting. Most of the
time, qualitative researchers often start a study with general questions, collect an
extensive amount of verbal data from a smaller number of participants and present
their findings with words or descriptions that are intended to accurately reflect the
situation under study. A qualitative study may conclude with tentative answers on
 hypotheses about what was observed. These tentative hypotheses may then form the
basis of the future quantitative studies designed to test the proposed hypotheses.

Qualitative research involves data in the form of words, pictures, descriptions or narratives.
Qualitative researchers tend to adopt an attitude of discovery or exploration that lead to
discovering, building or enhancing theory as opposed to testing it... Qualitative researchers
remain detached from their subjects in order to make unbiased, universal and context-free
generalizations. Qualitative research is very holistic and emergent with specific focus, design,
interview instruments and interpretations developing and changing along the way. Researchers
interact with their participants, categories emerge from the data leading to “context bound”
information patterns and/or theories that help in explaining a phenomena.

Qualitative researchers operate under the assumption that reality is “socially constructed”
complex and ever-changing” (Glesue and Peshkin, 1992) so the “qualities” these researchers
study are not easily divided into discrete, measurable variables. Rather qualitative researchers
sample a large number of people with the hope of making generalizations; they tend to select
participants “purposefully” to learn about the range of behavior related to the research focus in
order to gain understanding of the complex phenomena in question. For example, a study on
“parents” views about what the quality of science education is all about, can effectively provide
the required information and not mere selection of just any parent. Both verbal (Interview
comments, documents, field-notes) and non-verbal (drawings, photographs, videotapes) data
that represent the social environment are collected.

Qualitative studies tend to use an inductive form of analysis whereby observations of particular
cases may be generalized to a class of cases. Inductive reasoning emphasizes after-the-fact
explanation; theory emerges from a careful consideration of the evidence (data). By observing
the specifics of a situation, qualitative researchers believe they can increase their
understanding of the phenomena of which the situation is an instance. Qualitative researchers
construct interpretative narratives from the data and employ a literary style. The language used
is often descriptive and personal emphasizing the participants’ language and including their
unique assigned ‘meanings’. It is noteworthy that qualitative studies are not usually regarded as
having high predictive value; rather, the knowledge gained is closely tied to the specific
situation that was studied.

A qualitative research may be generally defined as a study, which is conducted in a natural

setting where the researcher, an instrument of data collection, gathers words or pictures,
analyzes them inductively, and describes a process that is both expressive and persuasive in
language.
Qualitative Research attempts to understand and make sense of a phenomenon from the
participant’s perspective. The researcher can approach the phenomenon from an interpretive,
critical, or postmodern stance. All qualitative research is characterized by the search for
meaning and understanding.

The researcher as the primary instrument of data collection and analysis uses an inductive
investigative strategy, and a richly descriptive end product. Qualitative Researches are
interested in understanding what those interpretations are at a particular point in time and in a
particular context. Learning how individuals’ experience and interact with their social world
and, the meaning it has for them.

Qualitative Research demands a commitment to an extensive time in the field, engagement in

the complex, time-consuming process of data analysis, writing of long passages, and
participation in a form of social and human science research that does not have firm guidelines
or specific procedures and is evolving and changing constantly.

Reasons for Conducting Qualitative Research

The following reasons could necessitate a qualitative inquiry:

 Topics that need to be explored: This is a situation where variables cannot be easily
identified; theories are not available to explain behavior of participants or their
population of study.
 Need to present a detailed view of the topic: This is the case where existing view is not
enough to present answers to the problem.
 Need to study individuals in their natural setting: This is the case where, if participants
are removed from their natural setting, it leads to contrived findings that are out of
context.
 Need to write in a literary style: This is where the writer engages a story telling form of
narration and the personal pronoun “I” is used.
 Where there is sufficient time and resources to spend on extensive data collection in the
field and detailed data analysis of “text” information.

Nature of Qualitative Research

1. Often researchers undertake a qualitative study because there is a lack of theory or an
existing theory fails to adequately explain a phenomenon.
2. Qualitative research is inductive. That is, researchers gather data to build concepts,
hypotheses, or theories rather than deductively deriving postulates or hypotheses to be
tested (as in positivist research).
3. Qualitative researches build toward theory from observations and intuitive
understandings gleaned from being conversant with the information in the field.
Typically, findings inductively derived from the data in a qualitative study are in the form
of themes, categories, typologies, concepts, tentative hypotheses, and even substantive
theory.
 4. The product of a qualitative inquiry is richly descriptive. Words and pictures rather than
numbers are used to convey what the researcher has learned about a phenomenon.
5. Finally, data in the form of quotes from documents, field notes, and participant
interviews, excerpts from videotapes, electronic communication, or a combination of
some or all of these are always included in support of the findings of the study. These
quotes and excerpts contribute to the descriptive nature of qualitative research.

Characteristics of a Good Qualitative Research

Henn et. al. (2006) aptly point out, these are certain characteristics of qualitative research
methods:

 Research is carried out in ‘real-life’ settings. The researcher attempts to study human
behavior as it naturally occurs, with as little disruption to people’s lives as possible.
 The objective is to take detailed descriptions of people’s behavior and thoughts in order
to highlight their social meanings. This implies that the researcher adopts an insider
perspective in research, in which there is closeness between the researcher and the
people studied, rather than an impersonal and distanced relationship.
 The researcher is likely to adopt an approach in which the research issues and concepts
are not specified. The focus of the research may change during the course of collecting
data, as new ideas may develop and particular issues become important.
 The qualitative approach encompasses theory construction and not theory testing.
Theoretical ideas tend to develop from the initial data collected which then leads to
future data collection – a cumulative spiral of theory development and data collection
thus develops. There is an inductive approach. Qualitative researchers often begin with
a rather general topic of interest pertaining to some social phenomena. It is only during
the course of data collection and analysis that researchers narrow down their research
problem and begin to formulate and test hypotheses.
 The researcher studies one or a small number of cases, often over an extended period
of time. The data collection process is characterized as being intensive. It involves a very
detailed study with large quantities of data collected from a small number of informants
and settings.
 Unstructured interviews and observations are usually the main sources of data, but
public and private documents and even official statistics and questionnaire data may be
used.
 There is minimal pre-structuring of the data that is collected. Therefore, the
observations and interviews used by qualitative researchers are often referred to as
‘unstructured’.
 Qualitative research data is generally reported in the form of verbal descriptions and
explanations. Statistical analysis and quantification is rarely used.

Creswell (1998) has also given some notable characteristics of qualitative research as below
 I. It entails rigorous data collection. The researcher collects multiple forms of data,
summarizes them adequately and spends adequate time in the field.
II. The study is framed within the assumptions and characteristics of the qualitative
approach to research.
III. The researcher identifies studies and employs one or more traditions of inquiry.
IV. The researcher starts with a single idea or problem that she/he seeks to understand, not
a causal relationship of variables.
V. The study involves detailed methods, a rigorous approach to data collection, data
analysis, and report writing.
VI. The writing is so persuasive that the reader experiences the study as though he was
present in it.
VII. Data is analyzed using multiple levels of abstraction. That is, the researcher’s work is
presented in a way that moves from particular to general levels of abstraction.
VIII. The writing is clear, engaging, and full of unexpected ideas. The story and findings
become believable and realistic, accurately reflecting all the complexities that exist in
real situation.

Types of Qualitative Research

There are several types and classifications of Qualitative Research methods, but here, only five
of them based on Creswell’s (1998) classification are discussed.

1. Narrative/ Biography /Interpretative Research

A biographical study is the study of an individual and his/her experiences as told to the
researcher or found in documents and archival records (Creswell, 1998). It begins with
an objective set of experiences in the subject’s life, noting life course stages and
experiences. The life course stages may be childhood, adulthood, or old age, written in a
chronology, or experiences such as education, marriage, and employment. Then, the
researcher gathers concrete contextual biographical material using interview method.
Here, the researcher focuses on gathering stories as the subject recounts a set of life
experiences in the form of a story or narrative.

The researcher then organizes the stories around themes that indicate epiphanies (i.e.,
pivotal events) in the subject’s life and explores the meanings of these stories. However,
the researcher relies on the individual to provide explanations and then searches for
multiple meanings. In addition, the researcher looks for larger structures to explain the
meanings, and provides an interpretation for the life experiences of the individual. The
larger structures could be social interactions in groups, cultural issues, ideologies and
historical context. If more than one individual is studied, cross-interpretation can be
done.

The information gathered from and about the subject is usually very extensive and
demanding. There is the need to have a clear understanding of the history context to
 enable one to position the subject within the larger trends in society or in the culture.
The researcher needs to be able to bring himself/herself into the narrative and to
acknowledge his or her standpoint, since this is an interpretive research.

2. Phenomenological Research
A phenomenological study describes the meaning of the lived experiences for several
individuals about a concept or a phenomenon (Creswell, 1998). It explores the
structures of consciousness in human experiences. And it involves writing research
questions that explore the meaning of lived experiences for individuals, and asks
individuals to describe these experiences. The researcher collects data, typically via long
interviews, from individuals who have experienced the phenomenon under
investigation.

The data analysis involves extracting significant statements from transcribed interviews.
The significant statements are then transformed into clusters of meanings according to
how each statement falls under specific psychological and phenomenological concepts.
These transformations are tied together to make a general description of the experience
– both the textural description (of what was experienced) and the structural description
(of how it was experienced). The researcher can incorporate his/her personal meaning
of the experience here.

Finally, the report is written in such a way that readers understand better the essential
structure of the experience.

The researcher requires a solid grounding in the philosophical precepts of

phenomenology. The subjects selected for the study should be individuals who have
actually experienced the phenomenon. The researcher needs to bracket his/her own
experiences, which is difficult to do. The researcher needs to decide as to how and when
his/her personal experiences will be incorporated into the study.

3. Grounded Theory

The intent of grounded theory is to generate or discover a theory. It is an abstract

analytical schema of a philosophy that relates to a particular situation. This situation
could be one in which individuals interact, take actions, or engage in a process in
response to a phenomenon. In open coding, the researcher forms initial categories of
information about the phenomenon being studied by segmenting information. Within
each category (a category represents a unit of information composed of events,
happenings and instances), the researcher finds several properties, or subcategories to
show the extreme possibilities on a continuum of the property.

In addition, the researcher assembles the data in new ways after open coding. The
researcher presents this using a coding paradigm or logic diagram in which he/she
identifies a central phenomenon, explores causal conditions (i.e., categories of
 conditions that influence the phenomenon), specifies strategies (i.e., the actions or
interactions that result from the central phenomenon), identifies the content and
intervening conditions (i.e., the narrow and broad conditions that influence the
strategies), and delineates the consequences (i.e., the outcomes of the strategies) for
this phenomenon.

Finally, the researcher develops and visually portrays a conditional matrix that
elucidates the social, historical, and economic conditions influencing the central
phenomenon. This process results in a theory that is close to a specific problem or
population of study.
However, the researcher needs to set aside, as much as possible, theoretical ideas or
notions so that the analytical, substantive theory can emerge. Despite the evolving,
inductive nature of this form of a qualitative inquiry, the researcher must recognize that
this is a systematic approach to research with specific steps in data analysis. The
researcher faces the difficulty of determining when the theory is sufficiently detailed.

4. Ethnographic Research

Ethnography is a description and interpretation of a cultural or social group or system

(Creswell, 1998). In such a study, the researcher examines the group’s observable and
learned patterns of behavior, customs, and ways of life. Here, the researcher becomes a
participant observer, and gets immersed in the day-to-day lives of the people or through
one-on-one interviews with members of the group.

The researcher focuses on the meanings of behavior, language, and interactions of the
culture-sharing group. The research begins with the researcher looking at people in
interaction in ordinary settings and attempting to discern pervasive patterns such as life
cycles, events, and cultural themes. To establish patterns, the ethnographer engages in
extensive field work, gathering information through observations, interviews, and
materials helpful in developing a portrait and establishing “cultural rules” of the culture-
sharing group.

The researcher is also sensitive about reciprocity between the investigator and the
subjects being studied, so that something will be returned to the subjects being studied
in exchange for their information.

Lastly, the researcher is also sensitive to reactivity, the impact of the researcher on the
site and the people being studied. The researcher also makes every effort to make
his/her intent known from the start to avoid any trace of deception. The researcher
then does a detailed description of the culture-sharing group or individual, an analysis
by themes or perspectives and some interpretation for meanings of social interaction
and generalizations about human social life.
 The researcher needs to have a good grounding in cultural anthropology and the
meanings of social-cultural systems as well as the concepts typically explored by
ethnographers. The time to collect data is extensive, involving prolonged time in the
field. The style of writing, literary (almost story telling approach), may limit audience
and may be challenging for some authors who are used to traditional approaches of
writing social science research. There is the possibility that the researcher would “go
native” and be unable to complete the study or be compromised in the study.

5. In-depth Interview

An in-depth interview is a qualitative research technique that allows a person to person

discussion. It can lead to increased insight into people's thoughts, feelings, and behavior
on important issues. This type of interview is often unstructured and therefore permits
the interviewer to encourage a respondent to talk at length about the topic of interest.

The in-depth interview uses a flexible interview approach. It aims to ask questions to
explain the reasons underlying a problem or practice in a target group. You can use the
technique to gather ideas, to gather information, and to develop materials for drug use
interventions. One effective way to understand the reasons underlying problem
behaviors is in-depth analysis. Areas in which the method can be used include: in pilot
studies to generate ideas, to obtain greater depth of information on a topic of interest
as a supplement to data received from other methods, e.g., structured questionnaire
and to evaluate the impacts of interventions on attitudes or beliefs.

Once the decision to use in-depth interview has been taken, very important planning
decisions and preparations are needed. These include designing the study, identifying
the target group, preparing for the fieldwork, and collecting and analyzing the data.

One of the first planning decisions to consider is the need for a resource person,
particularly if the investigator is not confident enough with the application of the
method. Other things to consider before you decide to seek the assistance of a resource
person are the size of the study and the resources available to it. Identifying
respondents from whom you can obtain the information you need is a very important
part of the study since the sources of information affect the quality of data obtained.
You must therefore identify key informants who can provide useful information for the
study. Another thing to bear in mind is that in-depth interviews take much more time
than structured questionnaires.

Consequent upon the time factor, it is not usually practicable to interview a large
sample. Usually informants are selected for in-depth interviews in a purposive manner,
that is, people with specific demographic/social characteristics are chosen to represent
a defined subgroup. This involves identifying individuals from the target groups who are
and must be knowledgeable about the study topic.
 Depending upon the nature of the problem and composition of the target population,
respondents are selected from various identifiable subgroups. Respondents selected
must be fairly representative of the various groups in the study population for this
technique to be useful.
6. Focus Group Discussions

It is a method designed mainly to gather information about values, beliefs and

understanding in a study population on issues that are central to the researcher. The
use is ideal when the research interest is to seek out the processes and notions behind a
prevailing generalization on a particular issue. It is often used to complement other
sources of data.

Focus groups are a somewhat informal technique that can help you assess user needs
and feelings both before interface design and long after implementation. In a focus
group, you bring together from six to twelve users to discuss issues and concerns about
the features of a user interface. The discussion typically lasts about two hours and is run
by a moderator who maintains the group's focus. Focus groups often bring out users'
spontaneous reactions and ideas and let you observe some group dynamics and
organizational issues.

You can also ask people to discuss how they perform activities that span many days or
weeks. In interactive systems development, the proper role of focus groups is to assess
and to discover what users want from the system. For participants, the focus-group
session should be free-flowing and relatively unstructured, but in reality, the moderator
must follow a preplanned script of specific issues and set goals for the type of
information to be gathered. During the group session, the moderator has the difficult
job of keeping the discussion on track without inhibiting the flow of ideas and
comments. The moderator also must ensure that all group members contribute to the
discussion and must avoid letting one participant's opinions dominate.

Focus groups require several representative users. Because you need a flowing
discussion and various perspectives, the initial focus group should have at least six
users. Typically, you should run more than one focus group, because the outcome of any
single session may not be representative and discussions can get sidetracked.

Types of Focus Group Discussions

a. Two-way Focus Group- One group watches another group and discusses the observed
interactions and conclusion;
b. Dual moderator focus group –One moderator ensures that the session progresses
smoothly, while another ensures that all the topics are covered;
c. Dual moderator focus group – two moderators deliberately take opposite sides on the
issue under discussion;
 d. Respondent moderator focus group- one or more of the respondents are asked to act
as the moderator temporarily;
e. Client participate focus groups- one or more client representatives participate in
discussion, either covertly or overly;
f. Mini focus groups- group are composed of four or five members rather than 6 to 12;
g. Teleconference focus group- Telephone network is used; and
h. Online focus group- Computer connection or the internet is used.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Qualitative Research Method

Advantage

a. It is a primary instrument for data collection and data analysis. Since understanding is
the goal of this research, the human instrument, which is able to be immediately
responsive and adaptive, would seem to be the ideal means of collecting and analyzing
data.
b. The researcher can expand his or her understanding through nonverbal as well as verbal
communication, process information (data) immediately.
c. The researcher can clarify and summarize material, check with respondents for accuracy
of interpretation.

Disadvantage

a. It can entertain biases that might have an impact on the study. Rather than trying to
eliminate these biases, it is important to identify them and monitor them as to how they
may be shaping the collection and interpretation of data.
b. It can produce inaccurate data because users may think they want one thing when they
need another. You can minimize this problem by exposing users to the most concrete
examples of the technology being discussed as possible.

Sampling in qualitative research

Comparatively, there is less focus on sample’s representativeness when it comes to qualitative

research. The focus is rather on the representativeness of concepts in the research, and of
being able to access the social processes in which the researcher is interested; i.e. importance is
given to how the sample or small collection of cases, units, or activities illuminates social life.

The primary purpose of sampling here is to collect specific cases, events, or actions that can
clarify and deepen understanding (Neuman, 2006). The concern of qualitative researchers is to
find cases that w will enhance what they learn about the processes of social life in a given
context. Typically theoretical sampling or snowball sampling is used.
Snowball sampling is used where there is no obvious list to refer to in order to generate a
participant base for a study. It relies on the researcher to obtain a strategically important
contact who can then recommend other possible participants. These participants can then be
approached to take part in the study. Theoretical sampling is entirely governed by the selection
of those respondents who will maximize theoretical development. The sampling should aim to
locate strategic data which may refute emerging hypotheses. Sampling stops when ‘theoretical
saturation’ is reached, that is, when no new analytical insights are forthcoming from a given
situation (Arber, 1993).

Data collection methods of qualitative research

The most established methods of qualitative data collection include:
 Interviews: They are in-depth one to one interactions where the interviewees talk about
the subject in terms of their own frames of reference, i.e. they are open ended
 Observations or ethnography: In depth observations of people, behaviors, institutions,
cultures, and customs etc. Researchers take detailed field notes.
 Case studies: here the researcher examines, in depth, many features (including
psychological characteristics) of a few cases over time. Cases could be individual,
groups, organizations etc and data is collected through observations, interviews or
combination of both.
 Focus group discussions: Here a group of participants are brought together to share and
discuss their views on a topic. These are used when a researcher wants to assess how
several people work out a common view, or the range of views about a particular topic.
The intention is to stimulate discussion among people and bring to the surface
responses that otherwise might lay dormant.

Data analysis in qualitative research

In contrast to quantitative research the data collection in qualitative methods involve

naturalistic, textual or verbal reports. Hence data analysis involves interpretation of what these
textual data means or implies. There are several methods of qualitative data analysis like
thematic/content analysis, grounded theory analysis, discourse analysis, conversation analysis,
interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) and narrative analysis. The interpretation is
conveyed to the scientific community through detailed narrative reports of the participant’s
perceptions, insights of the researcher and understanding about the phenomenon. Visual
presentation of data may be possible like through maps, diagrams or photographs.

Issues in qualitative research

a. Validity: The validity of qualitative researches has always been a question;

whether the results accurately reflect the phenomenon under study.
b. Reliability: qualitative research is criticized both for lacking structure and system,
and for an inability of researchers using this approach to generalize the findings
to the larger population. The replicable of studies is also poor.
 c. Generalizability: implications from a study of few cases can never be generalized
to human behavior per se. but many researchers feel that since the goal of
qualitative research is to describe a specific group in detail and to explain the
patterns that exist, the question of generalizability itself should not be raised.
d. The issue of reactivity: People may consciously or unconsciously alter the way
they behave or modify what they say if they are aware that they are being
researched. This will most likely be the case if the researcher is studying a
sensitive area (Henn et. al., 2006).
e. The subjectivity of the researcher: ultimately it is in the hands of the researcher
what to make of the data collected. It dependents on the researcher what parts
of the data should be considered significant, what is to be filtered out and what
implications is to be derived out of the compiled data.
f. Over-identification with the subjects: this is especially applicable to the
observation method, wherein if the researcher over a long period of close
association with the subjects begins to identify with them then he/she may
become biased and may not be able to analyze objectively.
g. Access to target subjects: often researchers face constraints in reaching out to
the subjects of their interest for e.g. studying juvenile delinquents. They may
face a lot of political and legal barriers.
h. Ethical issues: researchers may have to resort to deception and often not overtly
state their objectives of research since it would compromise their study. And this
betrayal of confidences poses ethical considerations.

Quantitative research

Meaning of Quantitative Research

Quantitative approaches are typically associated with positivist perspectives in social research.
The sample survey and experimental method are the most typical example of quantitative
research. Sample survey is the most commonly used technique with specific tools and methods
to gather information about a particular question

However, qualitative research is often based upon interpretive, constructivism and intuitivism.
It is concerned to explore the subjective meanings through which people interpret the world,
the different ways in which reality is constructed (through language, images and cultural
artifacts) in particular contexts. Social events and phenomena are understood from the
perspective of the actors themselves, avoiding the imposition of the researcher’s own
preconceptions and definitions. There is also often a concern with the exploration of change
and flux in social relationships in context and over time.

Quantitative research generates statistics through the use of large-scale survey research, using
methods such as questionnaires or structured interviews. If a market researcher has stopped
you on the streets, or you have filled in a questionnaire which has arrived through the post, this
falls under the umbrella of quantitative research. This type of research reaches many more
people, but the contact with those people is much quicker than it is in qualitative research.
Quantitative Research involving the collection of data are in numerical form for quantitative
analysis. The numerical data can be durations, scores, counts of incidents, ratings, or scales.

Quantitative data can be collected in either controlled or naturalistic environments, in

laboratories or field studies, from special populations or from samples of the general
population. The defining factor is that numbers result from the process, whether the initial data
collection produced numerical values, o whether non numerical values were subsequently
converted to numbers as part of the analysis process, as in content analysis.

Quantitative research tends to be associated with the realist epistemology, the approach to
knowledge that maintains that the real world exists, is directly knowable (although not
necessarily at this moment) and that the real world causes our experiences. That is, real things
exist, and these can be measured, and have numerical values assigned as an outcome measure,
and these values are meaningful. These values can only be meaningful if researchers accept
some of the criteria associated with the positivist standpoint. Gaining numerical materials
facilitates the measurement of variables and also allows statistical tests to be undertaken.

As earlier indicated, the quantitative approach is typically used to answer questions about the
relationship among measured variables with the purpose of explaining, predicting and
controlling phenomena. The quantitative approach is sometimes referred to as the traditional,
the positivist, the experimental or the empiricist approach.

The quantitative researchers usually start with a preformed hypothesis to be tested. The
relevant variables are isolated, extraneous variables are controlled, standardized data are
collected from a sizeable number of participants and the data are analyzed in such a manner
that the original hypotheses can be rejected or not rejected and conditions that can be
generalized are stated. Often quantitative researchers seek explanations and predictions that
can be generalized. The objective is to establish, confirm or validate relationships and to
develop generalizations that contribute to theory. Careful guidelines exist for conducting
quantitative studies. Concepts, variables and hypotheses are often defined before the study
begins and remain fixed throughout. For quantitative studies, methods are chosen by the
researchers so that they can objectively measure the variables of interest. It is important that
researchers remain detached from their ‘subjects’ in order to make unbiased, universal,
context-free generalizations.

Quantitative researchers often use experimental or co relational designs to reduce error, bias
and extraneous variables. They believe there is a relatively stable reality ‘out there’ that can be
measured by well designed questionnaires or instruments. In all cases, generalizations receive
greater acceptance if the instruments are valid and reliable. Data are normally collected from
whole population or sample that is representative of the population. Quantitative researchers
are always interested in describing the norm of the population sampled. Quantitative studies
tend to rely on deductive form of analysis. This type of analysis moves from general to specific
i.e. from an existing premise (theory, hypothesis) to a logical conclusion.

Quantitative researchers reduce their data to numbers, which they then present as the result of
statistical tests. You are advised not to worry about individual scores, since the power of
interpretation rests in the large number of scores that depict the norm of group performance.
The statistical results are presented in a report that employs a formal scientific style, using
passive voice and impersonal language. Concepts and variables are always operationally
defined. In quantitative research, the observed results are more easily attributable to the
conditions imposed by the researcher and can be described more precisely in terms of the
strength of observed relationships. The control enables the quantitative researcher to predict
the possible status of similar populations and situations. You should be aware of the fact that
all studies could be classified as either qualitative or quantitative.

Quantitative Research is the systematic scientific investigation of quantitative properties and

phenomena and their relationships usually to develop and employ theories and/or hypotheses
pertaining to a phenomenon. It can further be defined as a research that is concerned with the
numeric relevance of various kinds of behavior or the generation of numerical data or that can
be converted into numbers using statistical methods to count and measure outcomes of the
study.

The outcomes are usually objective and predetermined. A large number of participants are
usually involved in quantitative research to ensure that the results are statistically significant.

In other words, quantitative research seeks to establish facts, make predictions, and test
hypotheses that have already been stated. A large part of the data analysis of quantitative
research is statistical, striving to show that the world can be looked at in terms of one reality,
this reality, when isolated in context, can be measured and understood.

Once you have collected your data, you need to make sense of the responses you have got
back. Quantitative data analysis enables you to make sense of data by:
 organizing them
 summarizing them
 doing exploratory analysis
 and to communicate the meaning to others by presenting data as tables, graphical
displays and summary statistics
Definitions
 Hammersly (1993) provides a useful definition of this approach.
“The term quantitative method refers in large part to the adoption of the natural
science experiment as the model for scientific research, its key features being
quantitative measurement of the phenomena studied and systematic control of the
theoretical variables influencing those phenomena”. Thus, the major characteristics of
quantitative research is,
i. Using standardized approaches to collect data.
ii. Explaining casual relationship between variables.
iii. Tests hypotheses or given theory.
iv. High degree of pre-conceptualization.
v. Adopting theory then research approach.

 Quantitative research is empirical research where the data are in the form of numbers.
Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of
numbers. (Punch 2005: 3)
 Cresswell (1994) defines a quantitative research as “an inquiry into a social or human
problem, based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers
and analyzed with statistical procedure, in order to determine whether the predictive
generalizations of the theory hold true”.
 Huysamen (1997) defines it as a cycle of successive phases involving hypothesis
formulation, data collection, analysis and interpretation.

Key components of Quantitative Research Methods

As the next step to understanding quantitative research methods, we need to understand some
of the key terms used in these methods.

1. Units:
The people or things we collect research data on are called units, or research units.
Some examples of units are human such as, children, tribal, working women, college
students, workers in unorganized sector and so on and/or non human entities like
schools, villages, houses, factories, colleges, NGOs, hospitals and so on.
2. Variables:
Variables are the specific characteristics of the units that we are interested in
researching. As suggested by its name, variables have values that vary. They vary in
name, type, degree, number and so on. Some examples of variables are age, gender,
educational level, income, type of occupation, level of awareness, level of participation
and so on. We use research studies to demonstrate how two or more variables relate to
each other. For example – we could measure how education levels of the respondents
influence their income levels.
3. Sample:
A sample is a subset of a total number of
individuals/institutions/villages/towns/households/articles and so on from whom data is
 collected in a research study. In quantitative studies, data generated from a sample is
used to make observations and inferences about the larger population.
4. Hypothesis:
A hypothesis is a statement that explains the relationship between two or more
variables, the validity of which needs to be tested with the help of empirical data.. This
statement is tested during the research study. In quantitative research, a hypothesis is
usually based on previous research findings. An example of a hypothesis is “The higher
the educational level of the women, the higher their income level.”

Sources of Data for Quantitative Research

We can gather quantitative data in a variety of ways and from a number of different sources.
Many of these are similar to sources of qualitative data, for example:
1. Questionnaires - a series of questions are formulated for the purpose of gathering
information from respondents ;
2. Interviews - a conversation between two or more people (the interviewer and the
interviewee) ensues. Where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain
information from the interviewee, a more structured approach would be used to gather
quantitative data.
3. Observation - a group or single participants are manipulated by the researcher, for
example, asked to perform a specific task or action. Observations are then made of their
user behavior, user processes, workflows etc, either in a controlled situation (e.g. lab
based) or in a real-world situation (e.g. the workplace);
4. Transaction logs - recordings or logs of system or website activity
5. Documentary research - analysis of documents belonging to an organization

Characteristics of a Good Quantitative Research

 The aim is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an
attempt to explain what is observed.
 Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is looking for.
 Recommended during latter phases of research projects.
 All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data collection.
 Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires to collect numerical data.
 Data is in the form of numbers and statistics.
 Objective – seeks precise measurement & analysis of target concepts, e.g., uses surveys,
questionnaires etc.
 Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual
detail.
 Researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the subject matter.
Types of Quantitative Research
There are four primary types of quantitative research. It is important to understand the
differences between these so that you can choose one that is most appropriate to your study.
1. Descriptive
Descriptive research describes or quantifies identified variables. They typically seek to answer
questions that describe certain phenomena. They sometimes involve questions such as “how
much?” or “what percentage?” or “how often?” Descriptive research collects data on the status
of things and uses this data to analyze the research question.

Some examples of descriptive research questions are:

 What percentage of rag pickers are girls?
 How often do adolescents use social networks on a monthly basis?
 How frequently do children employed in home-based factories go to school each
month?
 What is the extent of cigarette smoking among 18-25 year old Nepalese?
Descriptive research designs generally attempt to test variable relationships or causality
between variables.

2. Co relational
Co relational research attempts to determine to what extent two or more variables are
related to each other. This type of study explores patterns and trends in the data, but
may not be able to prove any causal links between the variables. Because of this,
generally speaking, there is no manipulation of variables in this type of study– they are
only studied in their existing states. Some examples of co relational research themes
are:
 What is the relationship between volunteering and self-esteem?
 What is the relationship between smoking and age of the person?
 What is the relationship between maternal education levels and family size?
 What is the relationship between malnutrition and family income levels?

Remember that in this type of study, although we can determine whether a relationship
(positive or negative) exists between two or more variables, we cannot prove any causal
connections. In order to do that, we would need to select a different type of study design.

3. Cause-Comparative
Cause-comparative studies aim to establish a causal relationship between two or more
variables. They are also known as quasi-experimental research designs. Although this
types of study shares some similarities with Experimental research design, it is different
because in this type of study, there is no randomized assignment of subjects in sample
to control and experimental groups. Instead, researchers focus on comparing groups
who have been exposed to certain treatments/interventions to other groups that have
not had this exposure. Additionally, some quasi-experimental studies do not require the
manipulation of the independent variable. By manipulation of a variable, we mean that
a researcher change the value of the independent variable in a systematic way, in order
 to observe how these change effects a change in the dependent variable. Researchers
undertaking this type of study have to be very careful in attributing causal relationships
between variables because there may be external variables (which may or may not be
evident to the researchers) which may be influencing the causal relationship.

Some examples of cause-comparative research:

 The influence of preschool education on primary school completion
 The effect of smoking on lung cancer
 The effect of education levels on income
 The effect of poverty on mental health
 The effect of tutoring on the academic grades of children in Class 5.

Quasi-experimental designs are particularly useful in those cases where it is not practical or is
unethical to conduct an Experimental research. However, quasi-experimental research studies
are also subject to issues of internal validity because the control and experiment group (or pre
intervention group and post intervention group, as they are sometimes known) may not have
been exactly comparable or equal in their characteristics, and this may have influenced the
study’s results and the causal relationship between the variables.

4. Experimental
Experimental research is often called “true experimentation” or the gold standard of
empirical studies. In these types of studies, the independent variable is manipulated to
assess causal relationships, and to determine that any variation in the dependent
variable is actually caused by the identified variable, and not by some external variables.
Another unique aspect of this type of study is that subjects are randomly assigned to
control or experiment groups. At the start of the experiment, the identified subjects are
as identical in their characteristics as possible, and then they are randomly assigned to a
group that will receive a treatment or intervention (known as the experimental group)
or to a group that does not receive a treatment or intervention (known as the control
group). This strategy helps to limit or eliminate the presence of any hidden or pre-
existing characteristics (or variables) that may influence the study without the
researchers’ knowledge.

Some examples of experimental research are as follows:

 The effect of classroom teaching and one-on-one teaching on children’s academic
grades
 The effect of “punishment free” education on children’s self-esteem
 The effect of a new drug on HIV positive patients

Experimental research is challenging to conduct in field settings because of its requirements for
equivalent subjects, and because the strict control required ruling out any external influences
may be difficult to achieve outside of a laboratory. Further, results obtained in a laboratory
setting may not be generalizable outside the laboratory. Nevertheless, experimental research is
considered the gold standard precisely because it uses these conditions to rule out an outside
influences on a causal relationship. This makes it possible to generalize the results of the study
to the larger population with a high level of confidence. Thus, if a certain drug is found to
benefit an experimental group of HIV positive patients, chances are that the drug may prove
beneficial to populations who share the overall characteristics of the subjects in the sample.
Because experimental research has the advantage of proving causality to an extent that other
research designs cannot, social scientists are increasingly using this design to study causal
relationships.

Advantages of Quantitative Research Methods

Based on this understanding of quantitative research, we now reflect on what are some of the
advantages of this approach:

1. The greatest advantage of this type of research is its ability to produce quantitative,
precise data.
2. Quantitative studies can produce defined results and can even specify the degree of
certainty or probability of its results.
3. Quantitative studies are designed and implemented using scientific methods. This
results in data that is reliable and accurate since it minimizes research biases.
4. Quantitative research produces data that can be generalized to a larger population –
this is especially useful when designing policies or program interventions.
5. Quantitative analysis permits the testing of various hypotheses to verify if they hold true
in a certain context.
6. Quantitative studies are designed and implemented using scientific methods. This
results in data that is reliable and accurate since it minimizes research biases.
7. Quantitative research can be replicated in other contexts or time periods, and this
facilitates a better understanding of a phenomenon in different contexts.
8. Quantitative Research uses various statistical techniques, including the tests of
significance, correlation, and variance and so on. Since the methods of calculating these
are exactly the same world over, it permits the comparison of results in cross-cultural
studies.
9. Data analysis can be easily done using statistical software, and hence is less time-
consuming.
10. Quantitative research methods make it simple to collect data from large samples in
relatively short time durations.
11. Due to the accuracy and generalizable data produced, quantitative research methods
are preferred by policy makers, funders and donors.

Limitations of Quantitative Research Methods

All research methods have their inherent limitations and it is important to understand these in
advance so that you can make the best decision on what method/approach works best for your
study. While quantitative methods have significant advantages, they also have certain
limitations.
 1. One disadvantage is that because of its numerical focus, quantitative research does not
provide any contextual insights. It may thus ignore certain factors that influence
subjects to think or act in a particular way.
2. Quantitative research may not allow for subjects to provide explanations or narrative
data, which might imply an incomplete picture.
3. Quantitative research tools are sometimes designed in fixed ways – for example, closed-
end surveys. Since these response options are decided by the researcher, the tool and
data collected may often reflect the biases of the researchers.
4. Quantitative studies may be conducted in artificial or laboratory settings to maintain
strict control of the process. This may imply that replicating these studies in the real life
context may either not be possible, or may not yield similar results.
5. Because quantitative studies require some special conditions, they may prove to be
expensive. For example, experimental studies require the identification of equivalent
subjects, and this may challenging and expensive.

When should we use Quantitative Research Methods? (Reasons for conducting quantitative
research

By this point, you have understood the basics of quantitative research methods, including the
types, advantages and limitations of these types of research methods. Making the correct
choice of research methods is an integral part of the research design process. Therefore, we
now consider in what situations quantitative research methods are the appropriate choice.
1. Quantitative research provides definitive and accurate numerical answers. Therefore, if
your study requires numerical data, quantitative methods might be the right choice for
your project.
2. Since quantitative data is easily replicable across different settings, if you need to obtain
information from different contexts, these methods may be the right choice.
3. If you have certain hypotheses you want to test (for example: ensuring children
complete schooling will mean they earn higher incomes as adults) or if you want to
check the relationships between two or more variables (for example: smoking and lung
cancer), then your study may benefit from the use of quantitative methods.
4. Quantitative data is generalizable to large populations. Therefore, if your research
study is going to be used to design policies or interventions for a large group of people,
then quantitative studies may be the right choice for your project.
5. Situations where you need to explore the personal life experiences of an individual,
quantitative methodology may not be appropriate. Similarly when one wants to
document a community process/ a group discussion/ the collective experiences of a
social group and so on survey may not be very useful.
6. Further, because quantitative methods require a careful consideration of samples in
order to be valid research, you may need to take into account budgetary considerations
while planning your research study. Quantitative research methods are therefore very
useful when you are need data that is numerical, or results that can be generalized to
larger populations.
Comparison between qualitative and quantitative research methods

‘From Latin, qualitas refers to a primary focus on qualities, the features, of entities – to
distinctions in kind – while the contrasting term quantitas refers to a primary focus on
differences in amount.’

Quantitative Qualitative
1. It measures objective facts 1. It constructs social reality. It looks into
what is normal behavior and what is
abnormal. So there is a lot of
subjectivity.

2. The focus is on variables, which are 2. Focus is on individual cases, interplay

properly and finely defined. of processes, events etc.

3. Reliability is the key. 3. Authenticity is the key.

4. It is value free. It is not based on any 4. Values are present and explicit. The
moral principles researchers’ subjective principles have
a bearing on the research.

5. Theory and data are separate. There is 5. The theory and data are fused. There is
a distinction between the two and a fine line between the two and theory
theory is stated before data is begun evolves along with the process of data
to be collected. collection.

6. It is independent of context. The 6. It is situational constrained. The

context of the society, events or context is critical.
history has no bearing.

7. There are many cases or subjects. 7. There are few individual cases done at
Research is done on a large scale and a time and the data collected is in
the method is equipped to deal with detail and very exhaustive.
large numbers.

8. Statistical analysis is done on the data 8. Qualitative methods of analysis include

and it uses tests like t and F tests and thematic, discourse, grounded theory,
correlation analysis. narrative etc and the main feature is
the culling out of the main emerging
themes.
9. The researcher is detached. Often
data collection is carried out by
assistants who can be easily briefed
about it.
10. The major step involved are: selection
of topic, focusing of the question,
which involves formulation of
hypothesis and operatively defining
variables, then making the research
design, data collection, analysis and
interpretation.
11. The research question is preplanned.
12. The hypotheses are enumerated and
stated along with the formulation of
the research question.
13. The concepts are in terms of variables
and are concrete.
14. The data is hard and in the form of
numbers which can be made into
computer readable formats.
15. The data is visually presented in terms
of charts, tables etc with statistical
implications.
16. Methods of data collection include
structured questionnaires,
instruments, scales like the likert etc
17. The theory is stated before hand and
the data sort of substantiates the
theory. It is a deductive approach.
9. The researcher is actively involved in
the data collection and interacts fully
with the participant.
10. The major steps are acknowledging the
self, adopting a perspective, study
design formation, data collection,
analysis, interpretation and then
reporting. There is no formulation of
hypothesis.
11. The research question is emergent.
12. No hypothesis is stated. The researcher
has no idea as to how the data will
emerge.
13. The concepts are in terms of motifs,
themes, generalizations etc.
14. The data is soft since it is made up of
words, sentences, gestures, symbols,
non verbal cues etc
15. The data can’t be put into tables since
they take the form of verbatim,
transcriptions etc. visual presentation
may include photos, maps or
diagrams.
16. Methods of data collection include
structured questionnaires,
instruments, scales like the likert etc.
open ended interviews, observations,
taking narrative accounts etc.
17. There is no theory to begin with. It is
an inductive approach and theory
emerges along with data and its
 analysis.

18. The theory is mostly causal. 18. Theory may be causal or non causal.

19. There is a reconstructed logic 19. It uses logic in practice. There is

approach. There are precise rules, bricolage and a practical orientation to
procedures, systematic and completion of task. No norms or set
standardized way of research rules exist.

20. The way is linear; every step is clear 20. It is a non linear way of research. It is
cut, straight and defined. Circular, iterative, back and forth.

21. Objectivity is the emphasis. The 21. Emphasis is on the trustworthiness and
validity and reliability vouch for the Integrity of the researcher.
research.

22. There is stress on detailed 22. The emphasis is on getting rich data.
preplanning.

23. The concern is on the measurement 23. Concern is on the richness, texture and
of variables. feelings of the raw data.

24. Procedures are standard and 24. Procedures are particular and
replication can be done. replication is rare.

25. There is a positivist approach to social 26. There is a constructivist, interpretative

research. approach.

27. An individual element has an 27. It is all about individual differences.

importance of next to nothing.

28. Generalizations are easily made to the 28. Since emphasis is on individual
global human behavior. difference it is not equipped to make
generalizations.

29. Certain things or phenomena that 29. Such events can be studied only
can’t be quantified can’t be studied by through this approach. E.g. trauma
this.

30. It cannot provide causative 30. It answers the why of behavior; the
explanations or the why of behavior. causes and the reasons.

:
The similarities between qualitative and quantitative research
 While quantitative research may be used mostly for testing theory, it can also be used
for exploring an area and generating hypotheses and theory.
 Similarly, qualitative research can be used for testing hypotheses and theories, even
though it is used mostly for theory generation.
 Qualitative data often includes quantification (e.g. statements such as more than, less
than, most, as well as specific numbers).
 Quantitative approaches (e.g. large-scale surveys) can collect qualitative (non-numeric)
data through open-ended questions.
 The underlying philosophical positions are not necessarily as distinct as the stereotypes
suggest.
 Chapter eight- research proposal and its components
RESEARCH PROPOSAL: ITS MEANING AND NEED

Preparing the research proposal is an important step because at this stage, entire research
project gets a concrete shape. Researcher‘s insight and inspiration are translated into a step by
step plan for discovering new knowledge.

A research proposal describes a research problem that is going to be investigated, the scope
and rationale of this investigation, the methods used during the investigation, the
implementation process and resources required to conduct the investigation. A research
proposal outlines the entire purpose and implementation of a research project. Researchers
write research proposals for all types of research projects – those carried out based on research
into written sources; others may be on research conducted in the field, and still others on
experiments carried out in laboratories.

Proposal is more than research design. Research design is a subset of proposal. Ordinarily
research design will not talk much about theoretical frame work of the study. It will be also
silent about the review of related studies. A strong rationale for conducting research is also not
part of research design. At the stage of writing proposal, the entire research work shapes into
concrete form. In the proposal, the researcher demonstrates that he is familiar with what he is
doing.

Following are a few purposes of a research proposal:

The proposal is like the blue print which the architect designs before construction of a house. It
conveys the plan of entire research work along with justification of conducting the same.
The proposal is to be presented to funding agency or a departmental research committee. Now
presentation of research proposal is compulsory before the committee as per U.G.C. guidelines
or the format as given by university department. In such a committee, a number of experts
participate and suggest important points to help and guide researcher.
During such presentation, strengths and limitations of proposal will be come out. Funding
agency also provides funds based on strength and quality of proposal.
Research proposal serves as a plan of action. It conveys researcher and others as to how study
will be conducted. There is indication of time schedule and budget estimates in the proposal
which guides researcher to complete the task in time with in sanctioned budget.
The proposal approved by committee serves as a bond of agreement between researcher and
guide. Entire proposal becomes a mirror for both to execute the study further.
Thus, a research proposal serves mainly following purposes.
(i) It communicates researcher‘s plan to all others interested.
(ii) It serves as a plan of action.
(iii) It is an agreement between researcher and the guide.
(iv) Its presentation before experts provides further rethinking on the entire work.

A research proposal therefore serves the following functions:

1. To define and describe your research project to an external audience.
2. To highlight the knowledge gap your project addresses.
3. To develop a plan of action for implementing your research project.
4. To demonstrate that a project has been conceptualized and planned in detail
5. To define the resources (financial, human, material and technical) that would be
required to accomplish the research project.
6. To establish the researcher’s qualifications, expertise and credibility in the concerned
area of research.
7. Serves as the basis for requesting grant funding and seeking approval for academic
research such as Masters and PhD theses.

Components of research proposal

Although the format of a research proposal may vary by the institution/organization that you
are submitting it to, this section describes the key components of a research proposal.
However, ensure that you review and follow the guidelines prescribed by your
institution/organization carefully, as not doing so can imply a rejection of your proposal. Also,
note that different institutions may label components differently – for example, some people
refer to the Introduction section as the Background section. Be aware of this as you review your
institution’s guidelines, or read additional resources in books or on the internet. Some
institutions also have fixed page number requirements – make sure you follow these.

Following components are generally included in the research proposal. It is not necessary to
follow this list rigidly. It should provide useful outline for writing of any research proposal.
Normally, a research proposal begins with an Introduction, this gives clearly the background or
history of the problem selected. Some also calls this as a theoretical / conceptual framework.
This will include various theories / concepts related to problem selected. Theoretical frame
work should have logical sequence.

Generally any proposal begins with this type of introduction.

A. Identification of Research Topic and title page - As discussed earlier, researcher will
spell out as to how the problem emerged, its social and educational context and its
importance to the field. Some researchers name this caption as background of the study
or Theoretical / Conceptual frame work of the study. In short, here the entire topic of
the research is briefly introduced along with related concepts and theories in the field.
After selection of title one should write the title page that must have the following
information:
i. Personal details: Your name, your academic title or designation, date of submission, the
name of your supervisor (if any), name of your university/institution (if any) and the
name of the organization/entity to whom you are submitting the proposal.
ii. Title of the study: The title should be concise, relevant, and descriptive of the major
focus of the study. By reading the title one should get a clear idea about what and who
are studied. An effective title not only catches the reader's interest, but also predisposes
him/her favorably towards the proposal. Since the title reflects the nature of your entire
research project, sometimes it may be useful to finalize this only once you have
completed writing the entire proposal.

B. Abstract
An abstract is an executive summary of your research proposal, and is usually written in
150-300 words. It should include a brief mention of the research question and
objectives, hypothesis if any, and the methodology to be used. Descriptions of the
methodology may include the design, the sample and research tools. Describe your
project as clearly and concisely as you can – remember you have word restrictions!

C. Table of Contents

The Table of Contents is a listing of all the different sections of the proposal along with
their page numbers. This may not be required for short proposals with two or three
pages.

D. Introduction

This section introduces the reader to the main area of your project. Therefore, it is
important to use this section to catch your reader’s attention. Provide a brief overview
of the theme/area of your research study and then describe what specific goal or
question your study will address within this broad area. Research question is studied
with the help of specific study objectives and hypotheses (in some cases) and they have
to be clearly spelt out. This section should also provide the justifications or rationale for
your study. Also, indicate why your study is significant, or what contributions it will
make to the body of literature. This part will be of special interest to reviewers and
funders alike, because they may want to know in what way your research is unique and
also worth granting approval and/or funds.
 Since the Introduction lays out the key points of the full proposal, some people find it
helpful to write this section last, because it helps to synchronize the information
presented in the complete proposal.

E. Literature review
The literature review is an essential part of a proposal because it defines what
information /research is available on a specific topic, and how your proposed study will
address a gap in the available research. The purpose of this section is to review previous
research conducted on your research topic. Remember to make note of research
findings as well as research gaps. You must also explain your research question(s) and
objectives within the context of these gaps as this will also help you explain how your
study adds to the existing body of knowledge.

In this section, one presents what is so far known about the problem under
investigation. Generally theoretical / conceptual frame work is already reported in
earlier section. But some writer says that conceptual framework can discussed here in
details. In this section researcher concentrates on studies conducted in the area of
interest. Here, a researcher will locate various studies conducted in his area and
interest. Try to justify that all such located studies are related to your work.

In research proposal, the review of studies conducted earlier is reported briefly. There
are two was of reporting the same. One way could be all such related studies are
reported chronologically in brief indicating purpose, sample, tools and major findings. Of
course, this will increase the volume of research proposal. Second studies with similar
trends are put together and it’s important trend/s be highlighted. This is bit difficult, but
innovative. Normally in review the surname of author and year in bracket is mentioned.
There is also a trend to report studies conducted in other countries separately. It is left
to guide and researcher whether such separate caption is necessary or not. At the end
of review, in research proposal, there should be conclusion. (Of course a separate
caption like conclusion is avoided.) Here, the researcher shares the insights he has
gained from the review. Also, on the basis of review he gives justice on the need of
conducting present study.

The researcher should conclude with following points:

1. What has been done so far in this area?
2. Where? (Area wise)
3. When? (Year wise)
4. How? (Methodology wise)
5. What needs to be done?
Thus, the researcher will identify the - Research Gap
 F. Rationale and Need of the Study: Rationale should answer the question –‘why’ this
study is conducted? If ‘why’ is answered properly, then rationale a strong one. For
strong rationale, the earlier section of review will be of much help. Identified research
gaps will convey as to why this study is conducted.

D. Definition of Terms: Every research study involves certain key or technical terms which have
some special connotation in the context of study; hence it is always desirable to define such key
words.

E. Variables: Variables involved in the research need to be identified here. Their operational
definitions should be given in the research proposal. Especially in study where experimental
research is conducted, variables be specified with enough care. Their classification should be
done in terms and dependent variables, independent variables, intervening variables,
extraneous variables etc. Controlling of some variables need to be discussed at an appropriate
stage in proposal.

F. Research questions, objectives and hypotheses:

While reading the statement of the problem, there may be bit confusion to avoid such
confusions there is a need to have specification of a research problem. This specification can be
done by writing research questions, objectives, and hypotheses, by writing operational
definitions thus, objectives give more clarity to researchers and reactors objectives are the
foundations of the research, as they will guide the entire process of research. List of objectives
should not be too lengthy not ambiguous. The objectives we stated clearly to indicate what the
researcher is trying to investigate.

While conducting any research, researcher would definitely aim at assuring certain questions.
The researcher should frame such questions in a praise way. Some researchers simply put the
objectives in the question form, which is just duplication of objectives, which be avoided.
Depending on the nature of study, the researcher would formulate hypotheses, the proposition
of a hypothesis is derived from theoretical constructs, previous researches on earlier
researches, the researcher can write research or will hypothesis will be more suitable however
as per evidences from previous researches one can decide the nature of hypothesis.
Formulation of hypothesis is an indication that researcher has sufficient knowledge in the area
and it also gives direction for data collection and analysis. A hypothesis has to be: (I) testable,
(ii) have explanatory power; (iii) state expected relationship between variables. (IV) Consistent
with existing body of knowledge.

G. Scope, Limitations and Delimitations:

In any research, it is not possible to cover all aspects of the area of interest, variables,
population and so on. Thus, a study has always certain limitations. Limitations are those
conditions beyond the control of the researcher that may play restriction on conclusions.
Sometimes, the tool used is not revalidated. Then it becomes limitation of the study. Thus
limitation is a broad term, but delimitation is a narrow term. It indicates boundaries of the
study.

H. Method, Sample and Tools:

Methods

The methodology section is an important part of your proposal because it tells the
readers and reviewers how you plan to study your research problem. It describes your
work plan and the activities necessary for the completion of your project. While writing
this section, maintain a focus on the research question(s), objectives and hypotheses
and use the section to describe how you would go about collecting the data that is
required to answer them. It is also important to make sure that the research questions,
objectives and methods all link up to each other, and flow smoothly. The Methods
section will undoubtedly be the one that will receive the closest attention from
reviewers, so it is important to demonstrate here your skills in planning and organizing
research related activities.

As you describe your methods, it is important to state the reasons why you feel that
your approach is the most appropriate to address your research questions. This will
demonstrate to the reviewers and readers that you have given considerable thought to
the choice of your methods. If you have conducted any preliminary research, then it
would be a good idea to mention this in this section and also describe how that has
influence your choice of methods in your current project.

Depending on whether you choose to use quantitative, qualitative or mixed methods,

the contents of your methods section may vary.

Quantitative Methods

For quantitative studies, the method section usually consists of the following sections:
i. Design - What kind of design do you choose? (Is it an experimental, descriptive or
causal design? For example, a study on the average time patients have to wait in a
health care clinic in a village can be quantitative if the only variable you are
measuring is the amount of time the participants of the study waited in the clinic.
However, you could also include a descriptive element by interviewing the patients
on what they felt about having to wait in a health care clinic, or how this waiting
time affected them. An experimental design might test and see whether the number
 of medical and Para medical staff available in the clinic determines the waiting time
for the patients, with a hypothesis that ‘higher the number of clinical staff available,
lower the waiting time for the patient’.
ii. Subjects or participants - Who will participate in your study, why have you chosen
this particular target group? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
choosing this group? What kind of sampling procedure do you use – for example,
probability sampling? What geographical areas do you intend to cover? Is the
approach to respondent selection feasible given the resources you have?
iii. Ethics – when researching with human participants, we need to make sure we follow
ethical practices. Therefore, explain how you would be ethical in your project – how
will you obtain informed consent from participants? Will there be any possible
harm/ adverse impact to your participants by virtue of their participation in your
study? If so, how do you intend to manage this risk?
iv. Instruments - What kind of tools of data collection and measuring instruments are
being used in the study? It can be Questionnaire, Interview schedule and guide,
Observational schedules, Format for recording secondary data and guidelines for
conducting Focus Group Discussion .Further particular instruments of measurement
such as scales and psychological testing inventories can be incorporated in a tool.
These details have to be mentioned in this part. Also necessary to mention whether
the tool/s are pretested and necessary permissions are obtained for using an
available scale or inventory. You may also have to state about the reliability of your
tool/s and the validity of the measurement instruments such as scales if used.
v. Procedure - How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved?
For example, will you conduct the survey door-to-door, or will the participants be
invited to a central location? How will the data be compiled and organized? These
have to be mentioned here.
vi. Data Analysis – what variables do you intend to analyze? How do you plan to analyze
the data? Do you plan to do this manually or by using software such as STATA or
SPSS? Are you planning to do the analysis yourself, or also involve other technical
specialists? What data tests do you intend to use? How would you justify them? If
there are multiple people involved in the analysis of the data, how would you ensure
the accuracy of data analysis?

Qualitative methods

In qualitative research, the research design develops further as a process unfolds.

For qualitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following
sections:

i. Design –What is your research design? Is it ethnographical design, or a

phenomenological study, or a study based on the grounded theory approach?
Again, provide a justification for your choice, and note any disadvantages
inherent in this approach.
 ii. Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study? Why have you
chosen this particular target group? What are the advantages and disadvantages
of choosing this group? What kind of sampling procedure do you use? What
geographical areas do you intend to cover? How feasible is this approach given
the available resources?
iii. Ethics – when researching with human participants, we need to make sure we
follow ethical practices. Therefore, explain how you would be ethical in your
project – how will you obtain informed consent from participants? Is there any
harm to your /participants? If so, how do you intend to manage this risk?
iv. Data Collection procedures – how will you conduct the data collection? Example
of qualitative data collection methods are interview, focus group discussion, field
observation use of biographical and historical data and so on. How many
interviews or focus group discussions will you conduct? What variables will be
studied through a particular method of data collection?
v. Data Processing - Since qualitative research is an inductive process, it depends
heavily on documents such as process notes, field notes, and journals and so on.
Therefore, in your proposal you need to indicate what documents you will be
maintain, and how you intend to use and analyze those.
vi. Data analysis procedures – how will you analyze the data? Are you planning to
use manual methods or software? This has to be specified.

Mixed methods

Mixed method studies are those studies that combine quantitative and
qualitative methods. For example, a study focused on exploring child labor in the
rag picking industry could include a survey of child laborers (quantitative) and a
focus group discussion (qualitative) to gain a more in-depth understanding of the
perspectives of child laborers. While mixed methods have the advantage of
combining the best of both worlds, they are resource-intensive.

If you plan to use mixed methods in your study, you could include the following components:
i. Design – explain why you are using a mixed methods approach and why this is necessary
for your project.
ii. Sample size – describe the overall sample population (combining both quantitative and
qualitative methods) and describe how/where you will identify this group.
iii. Methods – describe each method using the above sections on quantitative/qualitative
methods as a guide.
iv. Data analysis – describe how you will integrate the data analysis of the different
methods. This component is important because it is here that you will use integrated
data to answer your research question(s).

Sample: You might have already studied about sampling in details. This section of research
proposal will mention about selection of sample. First, the researcher should mention about
would like to in for. One must describe the population along with total size. This is especially
needed in case of randomization and stratification. Researcher should mention about
probability non probability sampling design. Accordingly selection of sample needs to be
detailed out along with its justification. Many researchers write about randomization without
mentioning size of population. The researcher also writes about stratified sampling without
details of various strata along with its size. As from the sample statistics, population parameter
is to be estimated, solution of sample be done with enough care.

In case of qualitative research, investigator may go for theoretical sampling. It is necessary to

derailed out have, it need be, description of field is necessary.

Tools:

You have already shared about various tools of data collection. In this section of proposal
selection and description of tool is for be reported with proper justification. Steps of
construction of particular tool need to be reported in brief. If readymade tools are used then its
related details need to be reported. Details like author of the tool, its reliability, validity, and
norms, along with scoring procedure need to be reported. It has been found that many
researchers fail to report the year when tool was constructed. As far as possible, very old tools
need to be avoided. In case of readymade tools, always look for which population it was
desirable to use valid and reliable tools.

I. Significance of the Study: If we have already reported strong rationale then, hardly
there is any need to go for significance. In rationale part, one must describe as to how
this study will contribute to the field of education. How the findings / results of
particular research will influence educational process in general need to be reported in
the rationale only.

(Note: There are various models for writing research proposal. It differs from university to
university. Many funding agencies have their own format for proposal.)

J. Technique/s of Data Analysis:

This is crucial step in proposal. As to how collected data will be tabulated and organized for the
purpose of further analysis is to be reported in this section. If it is a quantitative research,
parametric or non-parametric statistical techniques will be used need to be reported. Before
applying any technique for data analysis, verify the needed assumptions about that particular
technique. Suppose if one wants to go for ANOVA, verify about assumption for normality,
nature of data – especially in interval or ratio scale, homogeneity of variances and
randomization. If it is qualitative analysis, detailed out about nature of data, its tabulation,
organization and description. If data are to be analyzed with the help of content analysis, how
exactly it will be done needs to be detailed out. Whichever technique one is using, it needs to
be in tune with objectives and hypotheses of study.

K. Bibliography: During preparation of proposal, researcher consults various sources like

books, journals, reports, Ph.D. theses etc. All such primary / secondary sources need to be
reported in the bibliography. Generally American Psychological Association – Publication
Manual be followed to write references. All authors quoted in proposal need to be listed in
bibliography. Authors who are not quoted but they are useful for further reading be also listed.
Consistency and uniformity be observed in reporting references.

L. Time Frame: The proposal submitted for M.Phil or Ph.D. degrees generally do not require
time frame in all universities, but there is a fixed limit for these courses. It is always advisable to
give detailed schedule if research work, as it helps to keep researcher alert. Proposals to be
submitted to funding agency definitely ask for time frame. Time frame need to be reported
keeping following points in view. Time / duration mentioned by funding agency are properly
dividend.

1. Time required for preliminary work like review of literature.

2. Time required for preparing tool/s.
3. Time require for data collection, field visits etc.
4. Time required for data analysis and report writing.

M. Budget:

The proposal submitted to the funding agency needs details regarding financial estimates. It
may include expected expenditure keeping various budget needs. Following budget needs be
kept in view along with amount.

1. Remuneration for project team, i.e. principal investigator and project team
2. Remuneration for secretarial staff like clerk, data entry operator, accountants, helpers
etc.
3. Remuneration for appointing project fellow, field investigators etc.
4. Expenditure towards purchase of books, journals, tools etc.
5. Expenditure towards printing, Xeroxing, stationery etc.
6. Expenditure for data entry, tabulation and analysis of data.
7. Expenditure for field work, travel for monitoring purpose etc.
 8. Expenditure for preparing final report.

While preparing budget, examine the guidelines given by particular funding agency.

N. Personnel or research team

This section provides information on all the key staff associated with the project. One
element of this section is to describe the personnel arrangements for this project. This
includes a list of different positions and a brief description of the duties of the positions.
You may also want to indicate what percentage of time each individual may be spending
on the project. If the personnel have any specific training or qualifications that make
them especially valuable to this project, be sure to mention that in this section. Finally,
also include CVs/resumes of the key staff.

O. structure of thesis/ division of chapters

Generally scheme of chapterization is given in synopsis. If all chapters are to be reported in

research proposal write down various caption, sub captions in each chapter, format for thesis is
given by few universities, same be followed.

Tips for writing effective research proposals

Content tips
 Provide an adequate context to your study by citing seminal works/landmark studies.
 Present the work of other researchers accurately.
 Stay focused on your research question.
 Present clearly the boundaries and limitations of your research project.
 Make your arguments fact-based and persuasive.
 Define clearly and concisely the contributions made by your project.
 Make sure all the sections of your proposal flow smoothly and strengthen the case for
your project.
 If you are required to include a budget, make sure all the given amounts total and tally
correctly.
 Once you have completed a draft version, go over it in details and edit! Enlist the
support of a friend to read it and provide feedback, as this can really help in improving
the quality and clarity of your proposal.

Writing/style tips

 Don’t forget to add a cover page and a table of contents

 Don’t forget to include page numbers – research proposals tend to be long documents
and your reviewers may need to print/photocopy multiple copies. Page numbers will
ensure everything is in order!
 Check for spelling and grammar errors.
 If you are required to submit a bibliography, make sure you use the correct citation
style as per the requirements.
 Do not plagiarize -- make sure you cite correctly in the text.
 Make sure your proposal is within the prescribed word limit. For example: if the
specified limit is 5 pages or 2500 words, sending a proposal that is 8 pages long or that
is about 3500 words could result in its rejection.
 Use a formal font such as Times New Roman or Ariel.
 Font sizes should be between 10 to 12
 CHAPTER NINE

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Introduction

The research process will consist of particular objective which should be clearly stated and
there should be a hypothesis which has to be proceeding right or wrong. In addition to this
each research project will have research design which indicates as to how required data will be
collected, analyzed and interpreted.

The research process consists of series of various actions, which are necessary to effective
research work. It includes all such stages required to carry out research work. This must specify
desired steps involved in conducting research work.

It is necessary to understand that there is no specific sequence or established order in which

research work is carried out. Therefore in research process there are certain guidelines
regarding steps involved in research work. The stages in research process are listed as, selecting
research problems and stating of hypothesis, formulating of research design, collecting,
analyzing and interpreting of data.

The research process is the paradigm of research project. In a research project, researcher
engages himself / herself in various scientific activities in order to produce knowledge. Although
each research project is unique in some ways, all projects, regardless of the phenomenon being
studied, involve, by and large, some common activities. Each of these activities is
interdependent. The research process is a system of these interrelated activities. The various
activities are conveniently grouped into six stages as shown below i.e. Research process
consists of a series of steps or actions required for effectively conducting research.

The following are the steps that provide useful procedural guidelines regarding the conduct of
research:

1. Formulation/ identification of research problem,

2. Review of the literature
3. formulation of research objectives,
 4. developing hypothesis or research questions,
5. research design and methodology,
6. identification of variables,
7. sampling design,
8. data collection tools and methods,
9. data processing, data analysis, data interpretation,
10. Report writing and presentation of findings and recommendations.

The stages of research are interdependent. The researcher usually enters the research process
at stage I. However, when he/she enters second stage, he/she has to draw on past studies to
formulate his/her hypothesis. Similarly, to select a research design the researcher has to keep
in mind the problem and the hypothesis.

A researcher, who has no knowledge of how to collect and analyze data, may find him/her
unable to formulate a testable hypothesis, or formulate the research design. This brief
discussion on the research process makes it very clear that each of these six stages of research
process is dependent upon others. The research process is also cyclic in nature (as shown in
Figure). In fact, the research process is not complete at the stage VI. The process leads to two
situations: The first situation may be that the data did not support or partially support the
hypothesis. In this situation the researcher must return to the stage I. She/he, then, may decide
to reformulate the problem and hypothesis and then list it exactly as before.

In the second situation, that is, even if the research is successful and the findings of stage VI
confirm the hypothesis of stage II, it is advisable to repeat the study preferably with a different
sample as to reconfirm the findings. This will also support the contention that the hypothesis
cannot be rejected. The exact repetition of a study is called replication.

Another characteristic feature of the research process is ‘self correction’. In a situation, when
the data did not support or only partially support the hypothesis and the researcher has
sufficient reasons to decide that the hypothesis is adequate then he/she may decide that the
failure to confirm the hypothesis is due to error in selecting a sampling design or in
measurement of the key concepts or in analysis of data. In these situations the researcher may
decide to repeat the study beginning with the faulty stage after rectifying the faults. Finally, the
six stages of the research process make the study potentially replicable. The researcher designs
his/her study in such a way that either the researcher or others can replicate it. The replication
of study substantiates the fact further that the findings are not due to mere coincidence.
STAGE 1-FORMULATION/ IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Formulation of research problem constitutes the first stage in the research process. Essentially,
two issues are involved in formulation of research problem viz., understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

The formulation of a research problem is like the identification of a destination before

undertaking a journey. As in the absence of a destination, it is impossible to identify the
shortest route, so also in the absence of a clear research problem, a clear and economical plan
is impossible.

A research problem is like the foundation of a building. The type and design of the building is
dependent upon the foundation. If the foundation is well designed and strong you can expect
the building to be also strong and well designed. In the case of research, the research problem
serves as the foundation of a research study. If it is well formulated, you can expect a good
study to follow.

According to Kerlinger(1986), if one wants to solve a problem, one must generally know what
the problem is. It can be said that a large part of the problem lies in knowing what one is trying
to do.

You must have a clear idea with regard to what it is that you want to find out about and not
what you think you must find.

A research problem may take a number of forms, from the very simple to the very complex. The
way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows, that is
i. the type of study design that can be used,
ii. the type of sampling strategy that can be employed,
iii. the research instrument that can be used or developed
iv. And the type of analysis that can be undertaken.

The formulation to a problem is like the ‘input’ into a study, and the ‘output’ – the quality of
the contents of the research report and the validity of the associations or causation established
– is entirely dependent upon it. Hence the famous saying about computers – ‘garbage in,
garbage out’ – is equally applicable to a research problem.

Ways of Identifying a Research Problem

The identification of a research problem may be accomplished in a variety of ways -

 observations of everyday life,

 thinking or brainstorming sessions
 theoretical predictions and explanations,
  technological developments which make new research possible
 Problems suggested in the research literature; or any combination of these methods.

What is Problem (Research Problem?)

The problems lie everywhere around us. They even lie at our door step and in our
backyards. Human nature is so complicated, that a problem solved for one individual
may still exist for another individual, a problem solved for one class/ school/teacher/
situation/ system/time etc., still remains a problem for another class/ school/ teacher/
situation/system/time or a problem solved for the time being may reappear with a lapse
of time. We become habitual of living in the age of problems i.e. we are so much
surrounded by the problem that we suffers from ,”problem blindness”. But in order to
solve the problem or making research we need to delimit the problem.

Selection of problem is not the first step in research but identification of the problem is
the first step in research. Selection of problem is governed by reflective thinking. It is
wrong to think that identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research or
statement of the problem.

A topic or statement of the problem and research problem are not the synonyms but
they are inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the broader area of
field studied, whereas a topic or title or statement of the problem is the verbal
statement of the problem. The topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or
pin points the task of a researcher.

It is the usual practice of the researcher that they select the topic of the study from
different sources especially from research abstracts. They do not identify the problem,
but a problem is made on the basis of the topic. It results that they have no active
involvement in their research activities, whatever, they do, do mechanically.

Definitions of the Problem:

Once a research problem has been identified, the research problem needs to be defined. The
definition of a problem amounts to specifying it in detail and narrowing it down to workable
size. The obstacles which hinder our path are regarded as problem. Different definitions of the
problem are given below;
1. “Problem is the obstacle in the path of satisfying our needs.” -John Geoffery
2. “Problem is a question which is to be solved.” - John. G. Tornsand
 3. “To define a problem means to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful
distinctions from like questions found in related situations of need.” -Whitney
4. “A problem is a question proposed for a solution generally speaking a problem exists
when there is a no available answer to same question.” -J.C. Townsend
5. “A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: What relation exists
between two or more variables?” -F.N. Kerlinger
6. “To define a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision each question and
subordinate question to be answered is to be specified, the limits of the investigation
must be determined. Frequently, it is necessary to review previous studies in order to
determine just what is to be done. Sometimes it is necessary to formulate the point of
view or educational theory on which the investigation is to be based. If certain
assumptions are made, they must be explicitly noted.” -Monero and Engelhart
7. ‘A solvable problem is one that posses a question that can be answered with the use of
man’s normal capacities’.- McGuigan (1964)

Ways in which a Problem is manifested

A problem is said to exist when we know enough that there is something we do not know
really.

There are at least three ways in which a problem is said to be manifested:

1. Gap in knowledge: A problem is manifested when there is a noticeable gap or absence
of information. Suppose a community or group intends to provide psychotherapeutic
services, two questions arise, viz.,
i. What kind of psychotherapy they should offer and
ii. Which one of the different forms of therapeutic methods is most effective for a
given type of mental disease?

In this example, there exists a noticeable gap in the knowledge, and hence the collection of
necessary data and their explanation are needed for filling the gap in knowledge.

2. Contradictory results: When several investigations done in the same field are not
consistent and therefore, at times, contradictory, a problem is to find out a new answer
and settle the controversy.

3. Explaining a Fact: Another way in which we become aware of a problem is when we are
in possession of a ‘fact’, and we ask ourselves, “Why is this so?” When the facts in any
field are found in terms of unexplained information, a problem is said to exist.

Steps in Identification of a Research Problem:

The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem;

1. Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the research work.
2. The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the field of his
Specialization.
3. He should review the research conducted in area to know the recent trend and studies
are being conducted in the area.
4. On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study.
5. He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ his personal
experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of supervisor or expert
of the field.
6. He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be investigated.

The Sources of the Problem:

I. The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education are
obvious sources.
II. Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth new
problems and opportunities for research.
III. Record of previous research such specialized sources as the encyclopedias of
educational, research abstracts, research bulletins, research reports, journals of
researches, dissertations and many similar publications are rich sources of research
problems.
IV. Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and term papers will suggest
additional areas of needed research.
V. Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with faculty
members and fellow scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems
to be solved, close professional relationships, academic discussions and constructive
academic climate are especially advantageous opportunities.
VI. Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing practices and
research oriented academic experience will effectively promote problem awareness.
VII. The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field
and most experienced persons of the field. They may suggest most significant
problems of the area. He can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem.

Although research problems should not be assigned or they should not be proposed
and allotted by a guide but consultation with the more experienced faculty member
or research worker is a desirable practice.
 One of the most important functions of the research guide is to help the student
clarify his thinking, achieve a sense of focus and develop a manageable problem
from one that may be vague and too complex.

Statement of Problem:

Kerlinger has identified following three criteria of good problem statements;

1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more variables.
2. It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question form’.
3. It should be amenable to empirical testing.

Meeting these criteria in his problem statement will result, in a clear and concise idea of what
the researcher wants to do. This sets the state for further planning.

Objectives of Assumptions about the Problem:

1. To make the research work feasible.
2. To delimit the scope of the problem.
3. To establish the proper frame of reference.

Aspects of Delimiting a Problem:

1. Delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in the problem.
2. Delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level, college or university level.
3. Delimited to size of sample, considering the time, energy and money.
4. Delimited to the best method only.
5. Delimited to the best available tool for measuring the variable.
6. Delimited to the most appropriate techniques.
7. Other delimitations particular to a problem.

As the above delimitations help the researcher for conducting the study, the findings of studies
also confine to these delimitations.

Evaluation of the Problem:

When considering a problem a researcher is required to ask himself a series of questions about
it. These are helpful in the evaluation of the problem on the basis of personal suitability of the
researcher and social value of the problem.

Following questions must be answered affirmatively before the study is under Taken:
1. Is the Problem Researchable?
2. Is the Problem New?
3. Is the Problem Significant?
4. Is the Problem Feasible for the Particular Researcher?

In order to be feasible, a problem should agree with the following:

a. Research competencies of the Researcher
b. Interest and enthusiasm of the Researcher
c. Financial consideration in the Project
d. Time requirement for the Project

Characteristics of a Scientific Problem

After analyzing above written definitions of a problem statement, it can be said there are
certain characteristics of a problem statement:
I. A problem statement is written clearly and unambiguously, usually in question
form.

A few examples of problem statement are given below:

a. What is the relationship between IQ and class-room achievement?
b. What is the relationship between anxiety and adjustment among school going children?
c. Do students learn more from a lecture method than from discussion method?

i. A problem expresses the relationship between two or more than two variables.

This kind of problem permits the investigator to manipulate two or more than two
variables to examine the effects upon the other variables. For example: Do teacher
reinforcement cause improvement in student performance? In this example, one
variable is teacher reinforcement and the other variable is student performance. It
illustrates the problem found in a scientific study because the problem statement
explores the effect of teacher’s reinforcements on student performance.

The conditions for a problem statement are:

a. The problem should be testable by empirical methods
b. A problem statement should be solvable.
c. The data of a scientific problem should be quantitative.
d. The variable relating to the problem should be clear and definite.
STAGE II- REVIEW OF LITERATURE (Literature review)

Definition of Literature Review

The review of literature is defined as a broad, comprehensive in depth, systematic and critical
review of scholarly publications, unpublished print materials, audio-visual matter and personal
communications.

According to Nkpa (1997), literature review is the systematic study of all existing work that is
relevant to the research work. It is concerned with locating, reading, evaluating and citing
reports of related research.

In his own definition, Ali (1996) described literature review as the careful and systematic
identification and or location, documentation, analysis and reporting of information which are
relevant, related and useful to the present study. In other words, it means making an extensive
searching, reading and assessment of all available materials written and related to the problem
of investigation. It could also involve some consultations with colleagues, lecturers, supervisors,
known experts in the area of study as well as the library and internet sources so as to identify
sources from which review information can be obtained.

Purpose and Value of Literature Review

Literature review serves the following purposes in research:

1. It can reveal to you sources of data that you may not have known about their existence;
2. It can describe methods of dealing with problem situations that may be similar to your
own;
3. It can reveal to you how other researchers have handled methodological and design
issues similar to yours;
4. It can introduce you to important research personalities whose works and findings you
may not have come across;
5. It can help you to evaluate your own research efforts comparing your work with similar
efforts of others;
6. It can provide you with new ideas and approaches that may not have occurred to you;
7. It can increase your confidence in selected topic if you find that others have interest in
the topic or have found value in investing time, effort and resources into its study; and
8. It can help you determine the sampling strategies that should be used in order to avoid
sampling problems encountered by other researchers.

Olaitan & Nwoke (1988) summarised these purposes as:

1. uncover, discover and evaluate information;
2. establish new relationships by analyzing and synthesizing established evidence or
discovering new ones;
 3. replace an existing concept or completely create a new concept in an attempt to
translate them into practical use; and
4. Verify existing concepts by re-examining the premises on which the concepts were
created.

Tuckman (1978) also summarised the purposes saying that Literature review uncovers:-

1. ideas about variables that have been proven important and unimportant in a given field
of study;
2. information about work that had already been done and which can be meaningfully
extended or applied;
3. the status of work in a field in terms of conclusion and application; and
4. Meanings and relationships between variables that a researcher has chosen to study
and wish to hypothesis about.

Steps in Reviewing Related Literature

Over the years, the library has been the stock house for encyclopedia, dictionaries, textbooks,
journals and periodicals, magazines and newspapers, projects, theses or dissertations. It has
been a repository of writings, books and manuscripts. It has also been a kind of literary museum
for books and manuscripts. If you have been to a big library like the National or State Libraries
or even University Libraries and Company Libraries, the British Council Libraries, you would see
that the ability to use the library is an indispensable asset to effective review of literature.

However, with the explosion of information and/or of knowledge, ideas in every human
interest have been altered as a result of research findings and applications of information and
communication technology (ICT).

Since libraries can no longer hold all the required information and again since the users of
libraries have become more sophisticated in their wants and desires for knowledge and since
ease and speed of access to information are very important priorities in library search, two
types of libraries have evolved. These are the physical libraries and the e -libraries.

The e-libraries or virtual libraries provide new ways of storing and accessing vast amount of
information from any part of the world. The use of computer, CD-ROMs, floppy disc, flash drive,
etc. are fast replacing and supplementing the shelves of texts and periodicals.

In other words, with the computer, you can access any type of vast amounts of information,
countless online data bases and manipulated factual information with increased accuracy,
efficiency and little or no time.

A summary of the steps you can use in conducting your literature review are as follows:
1. Identify, select and list the key words or concepts which are associated with the topic of
investigation.
 2. Use the selected key words or concepts to access relevant references from such
preliminary sources of information as the catalogue, the index and dissertation abstracts
or computerized referencing services.
3. When you have obtained the list of useful references you can now consult libraries and
other information depositories in order to access references materials. You can also
make use of the internet to access the materials.
4. Before you start reading, you should be able to get index cards on which to record the
information, prepare a note card or index card for each reference material consulted,
such that at the end you arrange them sequentially according to subheadings in the
literature review.
5. Read the reference materials and as you read make brief notes and pay attention to the
problem, procedure, design, result or just the summary for theoretical opinions.
6. For quick identification, each entry on an index card should be clearly coded at the top
using the key words for the broad topic. After this, the author’s names and date of
publication come next, followed by the title of the work and the full citation of the work
and the ideas which you find useful.
7. In writing out the references in the index cards, you have to choose a referencing style
and be consistent with it.
8. Ensure that you review or dwell more on the primary sources of information than the
secondary sources. This will enhance the authenticity of your work, and provide you
with comprehensive, unadulterated and un-mutilated first hand information.
9. Consult the most recent references first. This will help you to save time, get the most
recent materials and avoid redundant and unnecessary materials.
10. You will save a lot of time by first reading through the abstract and/or summary of any
referenced material. This will enable you to quickly ascertain the relevance of the
materials.
11. Lastly, organize and write-up all the insights you received while reading. This should be a
critical appraisal of the state of the art in the area of investigation. You have to ensure
that you understand all the related issues. The ideas must flow in accordance with the
trend of thought.

Types of Reviews

When beginning a review, researcher may decide on a topic or field of knowledge to examine,
how much depth to go into, and the kind of review to conduct. There are six types of review:

1. Self-study reviews increase the reader’s confidence. A review that only demonstrates
familiarity with an area is rarely published but it often is part of an educational program.
In addition to giving others confidence in a reviewer’s command of field, it has the side
benefit of building the reviewer’s self confidence.
2. Context reviews place a specific project in the big picture. One of the goals of review is
creating a link to a developing body of knowledge. This is a background or context
 review. It introduces the rest of a research and establishes the significance and
relevance of a research question. It tells the reader how a project fits into the big
picture and its implications for a field of knowledge. The review can summarize how the
current research continues a developing line of thought, or it can point to a question or
unresolved conflict in prior research to be addressed.
3. Historical review traces the development of an issue over time. It traces the
development of an idea or shows how a particular issue or theory has evolved over
time. Researchers conduct historical review only on the most important ideas in a field.
4. Theoretical reviews compare how different theories address an issue. It present
different theories that purport to explain the same thing, then evaluates how well each
accounts for findings. In addition to examining the consistency of predictions with
findings, a theoretical review may compare theories for the soundness of their
assumptions, logical consistency, and scope of explanation. Researchers also use it to
integrate two theories or extend a theory to new issues. It sometimes forms a hybrid –
the historical theoretical review.
5. Integrative review summarizes what is known at a point in time. It presents the current
state of knowledge and pulls together disparate research reports in a fast growing area
of knowledge.
6. Methodological reviews point out how methodology varies by study. In it researcher
evaluate the methodological strength of past studies. It describes conflicting results and
shows how different research designs, samples, measures, and so on the account for
different results.

Objectives of literature review

The main objectives of the review of literature are as follows:

1. To determine what is known and not known about a subject, concepts or problem
2. To determine gaps, consistencies, and inconsistencies in the literature about a subject,
concept or problem
3. To discover unanswered questions about a subject, concepts or problems
4. To discover the strength and weakness of designs/ methods of inquiry and /or
instruments used in earlier works
5. To discover conceptual tradition used to examine problems
6. To generate useful research questions or projects activities for the discipline
7. To determine the appropriate research design/ method( instruments, data collection
and analysis method) for answering research question
8. To determine the need for replication of well designed study or refreshments of a study
9. To promote developments of protocols and policies related to social work practices(
service, administration, education, and research)
 10. To uncover a new practice intervention of gain support for changing a practice
intervention

Sources of literature review

The types of information sources for a review of literature are conceptual and data based
literature. The common sources of both these literatures are books, journal articles, abstracts,
critique reviews, abstracts published in conference proceedings, professional and governmental
reports, and unpublished doctoral dissertations.

The kinds of information available in written documents can be categorized into broad classes.

1. Facts, findings or results

2. Theory
3. Research procedure or methods
4. Opinions, points of view or personal commentaries
5. Anecdotes or impression on a particular event or situation.
6. Computer: on line systems.
7. Scholarly journals.
8. Books – containing reports of original research, or collection of research articles.
READERS or Book of Readings.
9. Dissertations.
10. Government documents.
11. Policy reports and presented papers.
12. Bibliographic indexes.

The above mentioned references can be categorized and has being either primary or
secondary sources.

a. Primary Sources
A primary source is written by a person who developed the theory or conducted the
research or is the description of an investigation written by the person who conducted
it. Most primary sources are found in published literature. Eg are Social work research
articles, social work research article etc. A credible literature review reflects the use of
mainly primary sources.

b. Secondary Sources
A secondary source is written by a person other than the individual who developed the
theory or conducted research. Otherwise, it is known as description of study or studies
prepared by someone other than the original researcher. Often secondary source
represents a response to, or a summary and critique of a theorist or researcher’s work.
 The secondary sources may be used when unavailability of primary sources, and if we
want to know different ways of looking at an issue or problem.

The following recommendation to increase critical evaluation skills when reading above
primary and secondary sources of literature-

 Read the primary sources of a study or theory- not just secondary source
 Seek assistance about the critique researcher
 Read secondary sources from referred or pre-reviewed journals
 Discuss your response to secondary source articles
 Variables those were defined.

In searching literature, the researcher should note certain important elements given below:
 Reports of studies closely related problems that have been investigate
 Design of the study
 Population of the study
 Faults that could have been avoided
 Recommendation for further research.

Some Selected Sources for Review of Literature

1. Journals
2. Abstracts and excerpts
3. Bibliography
4. Encyclopedias
5. Handbooks
6. Indexes
7. Inventories etc
Tips on How to Do a Good Literature Review

In order to get most relevant and appropriate material for study the researcher should learn
the correct techniques of literature reviews. Here are a few tips for the beginner-
 Be selective
 SCAN the summaries and abstracts of the articles first and then “LIFT of LEAVE” the
journal depending on whether the material meets your needs.
 Take prompt notes. Do not postpone note taking.
 Use small index cards to take notes and write journal references on the reverse side.
 Use one card for each reference.
 Arrange and store the cards carefully (you can use an empty 1 liter ice cream box for this
purpose).
 Example of an Index Card Serial No
___________________________________________________
Author(s)____________________________________________________
Title of article ________________________________________________
Journal Title _________________________________________________
Vol............ No............ Month................... Year............... Pages.............
publishers, place of publication, date, year (for Books)
____________________________________________________________
Library where found........................... Call Number....................................
Source of bibliographic information: ............................................................

(On the reveres, note the content of the article that is related to the research problem in hand).
For a serious student we advise that cards be prepared in duplicate and kept in two packs
(bundles or files). One is where the cards are arranged in order of their serial number, the other
where these are in alphabetical order. Both these collections will have their uses and save
hours of search for a forgotten reference.

The literature review is best done and presented in the form of an inverted pyramid, the broad,
general, global areas first and specific later.

When to Review
Beginners in research usually postpone review of literature till the time of report writing. This is
a common mistake. Literature review is a continuous and, unending process. A researcher
needs to cultivate the habit of reading important literature.

Expressed in arbitrary proportions, the beginners should allocate time to this activity
approximately as follows-

I. Before undertaking research work 60-75%

II. During the research work 10-20%
III. After completing data analysis but 20-25% before writing the research report.

STAGE III- FORMULATION OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Once the problem, the theoretical background, and the concepts have been explained, it is time
to address the aim and objectives of the study. At this stage you are required to present the
aim and the objectives of the study in brief to justify your study in terms of both its rationale
and the implications that it might raise.
It is important to examine whether the researcher has raised very clearly the questions to
which he/she is looking for a solution. These questions should be explicit – the researcher
should categorically put down the questions on paper. This set of questions can be converted
into objectives. Objectives are the foundations of a research project. Eventually the objectives
guide the entire process of research.
The major attributes of well-written objectives are:

 Clarity of expression and direction

The objectives must have been stated clearly enough to indicate what the
researcher is trying to investigate. It is equally important to avoid overlaps in
stating objectives.
 Measurability
The objectives must be stated in a manner that they are measurable; in case of
qualitative research it should be possible to at least codify the data and
information so that assessment can be made whether the objectives have been
achieved or not.
 Comprehensiveness
The objectives provide the guiding framework for a research project. Hence, the
statement of objectives should be comprehensive enough to cover each and
every aspect of the research study. Stating differently, nothing should be outside
the purview of the stated objectives.
 Judiciousness
Another important attribute is the judiciousness in and justifiability of choosing and
stating objectives. For example, many young scholars, in their postgraduate
dissertations and doctoral theses mention “recommending future research” as one of
the objectives. In all fairness, this is not feasible. Similarly, in a short time-bound project,
a research objective that actually calls for sustained and long-term study becomes less
feasible.

Here it is important to note that rationale for doing the project will be accomplished
only if the study is done well. Preparing a proposal of your study will show that you have
devised a plan to study your problem that seems feasible; you reinforce the sense that
the aims and objectives of the study will be achieved. The value of the study lies not
only in what it alone will produce, but also in how it may add to or challenge other
research in the area.

STAGE IV - FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

After the selection and formulation of research problem, the formulation of hypothesis (es) is
the next important step in the research process. It is usually considered as the principal
instrument in research. The hypothesis is a powerful tool in research process to achieve
dependable knowledge. It helps the researcher to relate theory to observation and observation
to theory.
The word hypothesis consists of two words – Hypo+ Thesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject
to the verification. ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of the problem. Thus the literal
meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem.
Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some
rationale. Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more variables which are to be
verified and ‘thesis’ means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference.

A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory. It is used as a guide
in the investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet unknown. Its formulation is one of
the most difficult and most crucial steps in the entire scientific process. A poorly chosen or
poorly worded hypothesis can prevent the following:
1. The obtaining of enough pertinent data,
2. The drawing of conclusions and generalizations ,and
3. The application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result.

Hypothesis is the central core of study that directs the selection of the data to be gathered, the
experimental design, the statistical analysis and the conclusions drawn from the study.

A study may be devoted to the testing of one major hypothesis, a number of subsidiary
hypothesis, or both major and subsidiary hypotheses. When several hypotheses are used, each
should be stated separately in order to anticipate the type of analysis required and in order to
definitely accept or reject each hypothesis on its own merit. Irrespective of number or type
used each hypothesis should be testable and based upon a logical foundation.

Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis:

Moving from the operational to the conceptual level and vice –versa is a critical ingredient of
the research to demonstration process. The following are the difficulties in the formulation of
hypothesis:

1. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework.

2. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically.
3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to be able to
phrase the hypothesis properly.

Definition

a. Goode and Hatt defined it as “a proposition which can be put to test to determined
validity”.
 b. Rummel- “a hypothesis is a statement capable of being tested and there by verified or
rejected”.
c. “A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested in
its most demeatary stage, the hypothesis may be a mere hunch guess imaginative data,
which becomes the basis s for action investigation” - George a Lundberg
d. “Any supposition which we make in order to endeavor to deduce conclusions in
accordance with facts which are known to be real under the idea that if the conclusions
to which the hypothesis leads are known truths, the hypothesis itself either must be or
at least likely to be true.” -J.S. Mill
e. “It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to
explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.” -John W.
Best
f. “A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the
time, known about a phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action in the search
for new, truth, when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of facts,
principles and theories.” -Barr and Scates
g. “Hypothesis is an assumption whose testability is to be tested on the basis of the
compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence and previous knowledge.” -
Gorge J. Mouly

Characteristics of a Good hypothesis

What is a good hypothesis? What are the criteria of for judging it?

To fulfill the answer of these questions, an acceptable hypothesis should fulfill certain
conditions.

1. Conceptual Clarity
A hypothesis should be conceptually clear. It should consist of clearly defined and
understandable concepts
2. Specificity
A hypothesis should be specific and explain the expected relation b/w variables and the
conditions under which these relations will hold.
3. Testability
A hypothesis should be testable and should not be a moral judgment. It should be
possible to collect empirical evidences to test techniques.
4. Availability of techniques
Hypothesis should be related to available techniques. Otherwise they will not be
researchable therefore the research must make sure that methods are available for
testing his proposed hypothesis.
 5. Consistency
Hypothesis should be logically consistent. The propositions derived should not be
contradictory
6. Objectivity
Scientific hypothesis should be free from value judgment. The researcher system of
values has n o placing Research.
7. Simplicity
A hypothesis should be as simple as possible. Simplicity demands insight. The more
insight the researcher has into a problem, the simpler will be his hypothesis.

Types of Hypothesis

1. Descriptive Hypothesis
These are propositions; they described the characteristics of a variable. The variable
may be an object, person, organization, situation or event. For ex. “The rate of
unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates”.
2. Relational Hypothesis
These are propositions which describe the relationship between two variables. The
relation suggested many be positive or negative for ex. ‘Families with higher income
spent more for recreation’. ‘Upper class people have more children than lower class
people’.
3. Causal Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis states that the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes for
leads to an effect on other variable. The 1st variables are called independent variable
later the dependent variable.
4. Common Sense Hypothesis
These represent the commonsense ideas. They state the existence of empirical
uniformities received through day to day observations.
5. Question form:

A hypothesis stated as a question represents the simplest level of empirical observation.

It fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It frequently appears in the list. There are
cases of simple investigation which can be adequately implemented by raising a
question, rather than dichotomizing the hypothesis forms into acceptable / reject able
categories.
6. Non –Directional Hypothesis or Null Hypothesis:
This hypothesis is stated in the null form which is an assertion that no relationship or no
difference exists between or among the variables. Null hypothesis is a statistical
 hypothesis testable within the framework of probability theory. It is a non-directional
form of hypothesis.

There is a trend to employ or develop null hypothesis in research in most of the

disciplines. A null hypothesis tentatively states that on the basis of evidence tested
there is no difference. If the null hypothesis is rejected, there is a difference but we do
not know the alternative or the differences. In this the researcher has not to anticipate
or give the rational for the declaration or directional form. It does not make researcher
biased or prejudiced. He may be objective about the expected outcomes of the research
or findings.

Actually this is a statistical hypothesis which is self- explanatory. Null hypothesis means
zero hypotheses. A researcher has not to do anything in developing it while research
hypothesis is second step in the process of reflective thinking.

A null hypothesis in an appropriate form is order to accommodate the object of inquiry

for extracting this information. It does not necessarily reflect the expectations of the
researcher so much as the utility of the null form as the best fitted to the logic of chance
in statistical knowledge or science.

It is the no difference form, i.e. there is no difference or relationship between or among

variables under certain conditions.

Statistical tests of significance are used to accept and reject the null hypothesis. If it is
rejected, the general hypothesis is accepted.

Non-directional hypothesis is known as null hypothesis because it ‘nullifies’ the positive

argument of the findings or non-directional statement of the generalization. It is also
termed as statistical or zero hypothesis because it denies the existence of any
systematic principles apart from the effect of chance. It assumes that none or zero
difference exists between the two population means or the treatments.

Null means ‘Zero’ when a hypothesis is stated negatively. It is called Null Hypothesis.
The object of this hypothesis is to avoid the personal bias of the investigator. In the
matter of collection of data a null hypothesis is used to collect additional support for the
known hypothesis.

7. Directional Hypothesis :
 A directional hypothesis connotes an expected direction in the relationship or difference
between variables. This type of hypothesis developer appears more certain of
anticipated evidence. If seeking a tenable hypothesis is the general interest of the
researcher, this hypothesis is less safe than the others because it reveals two possible
conditions. First that the problem of seeking relationship between variables is so
obvious that additional evidence is scarcely needed. Secondly, researcher has examined
the variables very thoroughly and the available evidence supports the statement of a
particular anticipated outcome.

8. False Hypothesis
A hypothesis which is bound to be unsatisfactory when verified is called a false
hypothesis.
9. Barren Hypothesis
A hypothesis from which no consequences can be deducted is called a Barren
Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis which cannot be tested scientifically.
E.g. the child fell ill because a wicked women’s eye felt upon it. This is a baseless
hypothesis because it cannot be verified.

1. Declarative hypothesis
A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement provides an anticipated relationship
or difference between variables. Such a hypothesis developer has examined existing
evidence which led him to believe that a difference may be anticipated as additional
evidence. It is merely a declaration of the independent variables effect on the criterion
variable.

Sources of Hypothesis

Hypothesis can be derived from various sources.

1. Theory
This is one of the main sources of hypothesis. It gives direction to research by stating
what is known. Logical deduction from theory leads to new hypothesis.
2. Observation
Hypothesis can be derived from observation. For example, from observation of price
behavior in a market the relationship b/w price and demand of an article can be
hypothesized.
3. Analogies
 Analogies are other sources of hypothesis. Julian Hexley has pointed out that causal
observation in nature or in the framework of another science may be a fertile source of
Hypothesis.
4. Intuition and personal experiences
Intuition and personal experiences may also contribute to the formulation of
hypothesis. Personal life and experience of person determine their perception and
conception these may, in term direct a person to certain hypothesis more quickly. The
story Newton and falling apple, the flash of wisdom to Sree Buddha under Banyan tree
illustrate this accidental process
5. Findings and Studies
Hypothesis may be developed out of the findings of other studies in order to repeat the
test.
6. Culture
Another source of hypothesis is the culture in which the researcher is nurtured. For
example social work as an academic discipline originated from western culture. Over the
past decade a large part of the hypothesis on American society examined by researchers
were connected with violence. Nepalese society is caste-ridden. It is riddled with
inequalities and privileges.

Functions of Hypothesis:

H.H. Mc Ashan has mentioned the following functions of hypothesis-

a. It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables an

investigator to start his research works.
b. It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may provide possible
solutions to the problem.
c. It may lead to formulate another hypothesis.
d. A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.
e. Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be
objectively tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting results and
drawing conclusions that is related to original purpose.
f. It delimits field of the investigation.
g. It sensitizes the researcher so that he should work selectively, and have very realistic
approach to the problem.
h. It offers the simple means for collecting evidences for verification.
Importance of a Hypothesis:
1. Investigator’s eyes: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator in further
investigation hypothesis serves as the investigator’s eyes in seeking answers to
tentatively adopted generalization.
2. Focuses research: Without hypothesis, a research is unfocussed research and remains
like a random empirical wandering. Hypothesis serves as necessary link between theory
and the investigation.
3. Clear and specific goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis places clear and specific
goals before the research worker and provides him with a basis for selecting sample and
research procedure to meet these goals.
4. Links together: According to Barr and Scates, “It serves the important function of
linking together related facts and information and organizing them into wholes.”
5. Prevents blind research: In the words of P.V. Young, ”The use of hypothesis prevents a
blind search and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data which may later prove
irrelevant to the problem under study."
6. Guiding Light: ”A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that lights the way for the
research work.”
7. It provides direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature and the
collection of useful or excess data.
8. It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from the
standpoint of problem at hand.
9. It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and its
ramification.
10. It is an indispensible research instrument, for it builds a bridge between the problem
and the location of empirical evidence that may solve the problem.
11. It provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument for exploring and
explaining the unknown facts.
12. It provides a frame work for drawing conclusion.
13. It stimulates the investigator for further research.

Fundamental Basis of Hypothesis:

The researcher deals with reality on two levels;
1. The Operational Level:
On the operational level researcher must define events in observable terms in order to
operate with the reality necessary to do researches.
2. The Conceptual Level:
On the conceptual level the researcher must define events in terms of underlying
communality with other events. Defining at a conceptual level, the researcher can
 abstract from single specific to general instance and begin to understand how
phenomena operate and variables interrelate. The formulation of a hypothesis very
frequently requires going from an operational or concrete level to the conceptual or
abstract level. This movement to the conceptual level enables the result to be
generalized beyond the specific conditions of a particular study and thus to be of wider
applicability.

Research requires the ability to move from the operational to the conceptual level and
vice–versa. This ability is required not only in constructing experiments but in applying
their findings as well. The process of making conceptual contrasts between operational
programs is called conceptualization or dimensionalization.

Formulation of research Question in research process

Research question refers to, what is it you are trying to find out? These questions arouse
curiosity in the mind of researcher and tempted researcher to find the answer for the same.
Research question is at center point of any research.

Always researchers’ confuse themselves in research topic and research problem. From purview
of scientific research; it is the research problem which is most important than a topic. Research
problem always talks about research question under investigation.

Research question should not be too broad creating an ambiguity in mind of researcher and it
should not be too narrow so that nothing is left to carry out research.

Steps to develop a research question:

1. Social/managerial issues or problem: understand the social or managerial problem or

issues. The problem or an issue observed from the field directly or read in the sources.
2. Collection of secondary data; if available regarding issue or problem observed.
3. Raise as many questions as possible around social or managerial problem observed.
4. Analyze and prioritize questions raised.
5. Select best question for research.
6. Convert best selected question into hypothesis.

For example:
Education was a taboo decades back for female in Nepal. Nepalese have witnessed many
revolutions for female education. Growing percentage of female education reveals that female
are entering in every economic sector whether it is business, service or profession. Female are
securing highest ranks and merits in academics in specific. This general observation leads to
many questions in mind of researcher.
1. Are female more intelligent?
 2. Is female IQ more?
3. Are female more ambitious?
4. Do female imbibe qualities and competencies that make them so successful?

The list of questions would be even more. For this example question number one raised above
has been taken.

Research question: Are female students more intelligent than male students?
Now this questions is relatively broad in nature since it does not talk about students of which
age, which class etc. besides this; the question does not reveal how intelligence is going to be
measured?

Revised Research Question: Do female student’s score higher than male students in final
examination of MSW course in Tribhuvan University?
The stated revised question is specific enough and does not leave any ambiguity.
Research question talks about testing intelligence with the help of scores of final examination.
Examination is also specified i.e. MSW examination conducted by Tribhuvan University.

Stage V-Research Design

After the research problem and its aims and objectives are stated and hypotheses are
formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher is required to prepare a research design, i.e.,
he/she will have to state them conceptual framework within which research would be
conducted.

Meaning
“A Research Design is the logical and systematic planning in directing the research. The
research design works from translating a general scientific model into varied research problem.
But in practices in most of the basis it is just a plan of study. The research design can either be
formal or informal.

Definition
1. “It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data” -
Philips Bernard S
2. It “provides a systematic plan of procedure for the researcher to follow” --Best John N
3. “The design research from controlling general scientific model into varied research
procedure”- P.V. Young
4. “A research design is “the program that guides the investigator in the process of
collecting, analysis and interpreting observations”. – David and Shava

A research design addressers itself to certain key issues such as:

i. What is the problem of the study?
 j. What is the major research question?
k. What is the area of the study?
l. How many people will be study?
m. How this people will be selected?
n. What methods and techniques will be used to collect data from them?

Features of Research Design

a. It is a plan that specifies the objectives of study and the hypothesis to be tested.
b. It is an outline that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research question.
c. It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering and analysis of
data.
d. It is a scheme defining the procedure involved in a research process.

Importance/ need of research design

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Just as for better, economical and attractive
construction of a house, we need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the map of the
house) well thought out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly we need a research
design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our research project.

Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of
the research and the availability of staff, time and money. Preparation of the research design
should be done with great care as any error in it may upset the entire project. Research design,
in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at and as such constitutes the
firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work. Even then the need for a well
thought out research design is at times not realized by many. The importance which this
problem deserves is not given to it. As a result many researches do not serve the purpose for
which they are undertaken. In fact, they may even give misleading conclusions.

Thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result in rendering the research exercise
futile. It is, therefore, imperative that an efficient and appropriate design must be prepared
before starting research operations. The design helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a
form whereby it will be possible for him to look for flaws and inadequacies. Such a design can
even be given to others for their comments and critical evaluation. In the absence of such a
course of action, it will be difficult for the critic to provide a comprehensive review of the
proposed study.

Now based on the above discussion, the importance or need of research design can be listed as
the followings.
 1. Research Design is needed because it helps in the smooth sailing of Research
operations. A Research without a pre-drawn plan is like an ocean voyage without
mariners compass.
2. The Research Design helps in providing direction our study.
3. It prevents welter in a study.
4. The use of Research Design prevents blind search.
5. A Research Design fixes clear cut boundaries to a research.
6. It makes the research systematic
7. It helps us to meet unexpected events.

Contents of a Research Design

Usually a Research Design consist of the following details

o. What is the study about?
p. Why is the study being made?
q. Where will the study be carried out?
r. What type of data is required?
s. Where can the required data be found?
t. What period of time will the studied include?
u. What will be the sample design?
v. What technique of data collection will be used?
w. How will the data we analyze?
x. In what style the report will be prepared?

By way of conclusion it can be said that research design must contain at least:
a. Statement of a problem
b. Procedure and techniques
c. Sampling frame
d. Processing and analysis of data

Hence research design is defined as a comprehensive plan for data collection in an empirical
research project. It is a “blueprint” for empirical research aimed at answering specific research
questions or testing specific hypotheses, and must specify at least three processes: (1) the data
collection process, (2) the instrument development process, and (3) the sampling process.

Keeping in view the above stated design decisions; one may split the overall research design
into the following parts:
a. The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the given study;
b. The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made;
c. The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and
 d. The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design as
under:
1. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem.
2. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the
data.
3. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints

Types of research design

There are different types of research design. But overall research design is qualitative,
quantitative and mixed method research design.

The research design are also differentiated on the basis of

A. Nature of investigation,
B. Data collection methods,
C. Number of contacts made with the subjects

A. Nature of investigation: In this section of research design, sub types includes

i. Exploratory;
ii. Descriptive;
iii. Experimental;
iv. Semi or Quasi- experimental;
v. Non- experimental; and
vi. Field research.

B. Data Collection Methods:

I. Survey;
II. Case studies; and
III. Content analysis;

C. Number of Contacts made with the Subjects:

I. Cross-sectional;
II. Before- and- after; and
III. Longitudinal

D. Reference Period Research Design

I. Retrospective;
 II. Prospective; and
III. Retrospective – Prospective
IV.

Now let us define major research design in details-

1. Exploratory research design-

Definitions of exploratory research designs are,

 Exploratory Research Design refers to, “Formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or of developing the working hypothesis from an operational point of
view.” – Garg , C. R. (2014)
 Exploratory Research Design refers to, “Conducted as a preliminary step to clarify and
define the nature of a problem.”- Zikmund, W. G.
 “A Flexible design which must provide opportunity for considering different aspects of
the problems.” –B.D.Kulkarni, D. (1996)
 “It is systematic scientific and at times the only when through which a social scientists
can check whether an idea, that sounds promising to him, has much appeal in reality or
not.” –Hasouneh, A. B. (2003)

These are also termed as formulative research studies. Exploratory research aims at focused
investigation for developing working hypotheses from an operational point of view. Emphasis is
laid on finding out new facts in which a research problem broadly defined initially is
transformed into one with more focused meaning.

Exploratory studies are conducted for the purpose of formulating a problem for more precise
investigation or for developing hypotheses. An exploratory study, however, have another
function, e.g. increasing the investigator’s familiarity with the phenomena s/he wishes to study
in a subsequent, more structured investigation or with the setting in which he plans to carry out
such an investigation.

Exploratory research is necessary to obtain experience that will be helpful in formulating

relevant hypotheses for more definitive investigation. For a general, area of problems about
which little knowledge is available, an exploratory study is most appropriate. So, exploratory
research is mostly carried when there is not sufficient information available about the issue to
be studied, or in other words, the researcher has either no knowledge or a limited knowledge.
e.g., study of effect of TV Programs on Youth.

Exploratory or formulative studies are those which aim at gaining familiarity with a
phenomenon or which aim at achieving insights into the phenomenon or studies which deal
with formulation of a more precise research problem or developing a hypothesis. The major
emphasis of such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. It basically deals with
exploring the Ideas and facts which are new. This is the primary and first research done on that
Particular problem which provides the first hand or new knowledge or discovering something
new regarding to the study or problem. In general, exploratory research is meaningful in any
situation in which the researcher does not have enough understanding to proceed with the
research project.

Goals of Exploratory Research:

1. Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and concerns;

2. Develop well-grounded picture of the situation;
3. Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas, conjectures, or hypotheses;
4. Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
5. Formulate questions and refine issues for more systematic inquiry;
6. Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future research.
7. Satisfy the researcher’s curiosity and desire for better understanding.
8. Test the feasibility of undertaking a more extensive study.
9. Develop the methods to be employed in any subsequent study.

For exploratory research, the researcher may use different sources for getting information like

i. experience surveys,
j. secondary data analysis,
k. case studies, and
l. Pilot studies.

As part of the experience survey the researcher tries to contact individuals who are
knowledgeable about a particular research problem. This constitutes an informal
experience survey. Another economical and quick source of background information is
secondary data analysis. It is preliminary review of data collected for another purpose to
clarify issues in the early stages of a research effort. The purpose of case study is to obtain
information from one or a few situations that are similar to the researcher’s problem
situation. A researcher interested in doing a nationwide survey among union workers, may
first look at a few local unions to identify the nature of any problems or topics that should
be investigated. A pilot study implies that some aspect of the research is done on a small
scale. For this purpose focus group discussions could be carried out.
 2. Descriptive research design

Definitions
 Descriptive Research Design refers to, “Which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual or of a group.”- Garg , C. R. (2014)
 “The Descriptive research designs enable researcher to describe or present pictures of a
phenomenon or phenomena under investigation.” –Hasouneh, A. B. (2003)
 “The true beginning of scientific activity consists…describing phenomena and (Only)
then in proceeding to group, clarify and correlate them...” –Bhandarkar, W. &. (1992).

Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social setting, or
relationship. The major purpose of descriptive research, as the term implies, is to describe
characteristics of a population or phenomenon.

Descriptive research seeks to determine the answers to who, what, when, where, and how
questions. Labor Force Surveys, Population Census, and Educational Census are examples of
such research.

Descriptive study offers to the researcher a profile or description of relevant aspects of the
phenomena of interest. Look at the class in research methods and try to give its profile –
the characteristics of the students. When we start to look at the relationship of the
variables, then it may help in diagnosis analysis.

Goals of Descriptive Research

i. Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics i.e. provide an accurate

profile of a group;
ii. Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation;
iii. Present background information;
iv. Create a set of categories or classify the information;
v. Clarify sequence, set of stages; and 6. Focus on ‘who,’ ‘what,’ ‘when,’
‘where,’ and ‘how’ but not why? A great deal of social research is descriptive.

Descriptive researchers use most data –gathering techniques – surveys, field research, and
content analysis.
 3. Experimental research Design

Definitions

I. According to Borg and Gall (1971:363), experimental design is “the ultimate form of
research design, providing the most rigorous test of hypothesis that is available to the
scientist”.
II. In their own definition, Ary et. al. (1972:26) describes experimental design as “a
scientific investigation in which an investigator manipulates and controls one or more
independent variables and observes the dependent variable or variables for variation
concomitant to the manipulation of the independent variables”.

According to Singh (2006), following are the features of a good experimental design:
1. It will ensure that the observed treatment effects are unbiased.
2. It will permit a quantitative description of the observed treatment.
3. It will make possible an objective test of a specified hypothesis.
4. It is economical.

Types of experimental research design

Experimental designs differ from each other on certain criteria like the time of treatment (pre-
test or post-test), the number of participant groups etc. In this chapter, an attempt has been
made to explain this feature of experimental design. Below are some of the basic experimental
research designs:
a. Pre-Experimental Design
b. True Experiments Design
c. Quasi-Experiments Design
d. Classic Experimental Design
e. Factorial Design
f. Time Series Experiments Design
g. Repeated Measure Design (also called Cross-Over Design)

A. Pre-Experimental Design: After some treatment with an assumption that a change will
occur, we either observe only one group or multiple groups in pre-experimental design.
They are considered simplest form of research designs, as they follow the basic
experimental steps. There is no control group in this type of research design. One of the
major shortcomings of this design is that they are subject to numerous threats to their
validity.

Further, there are three types of pre-experimental design:

1. One-shot case study: A single group after some treatment with an assumption that
a change will occur, is studied at only one point in time. In this case, it is assumed
that the change has been occurred due to intervention.
 The “One-Shot Case Study” is an example of pre-experimental design. In this case,
the subjects are made to undergo an experience like some internship program for
college students at the end of a semester. After that, their college grades and
assignments are evaluated for the outcome measure. If there is no comparison
group, it would not be possible to assess whether the treatment in the form of
‘internship’ had any effect on the college grades. Also, if there are no pre-tests, the
changes, if any, could not be determined within the group.
2. One group pre-test-post-test design: In this type of research design, a single case is
studied twice; before the treatment and after the treatment. The post-test change
in the subject is assumed to the result of the treatment.
3. Static-group comparison: A group after receiving some treatment is compared with
a group with no treatment at all. The difference between these two groups observed
after the comparison is considered to be the result of the treatment.
B. True Experiments Design: This design is an ideal research design. It is a type of design in
which all the important elements which may cause an effect on the outcome of an
intervention are completely controlled. In true experiment design, participants are
randomly allocated to either a treatment group or a control group. Apart from control
over all the extraneous variables, an experiment may be termed to be well-designed if
the researcher undoubtedly predicts that no other factor but only the manipulation of
an independent variable is responsible for the change observed in the dependent
variable. Practically, it is not possible to control all the key factors in the majority of the
cases. So, such constraints expand the way for a quasi-experimental research design.

For Example: If we have to see the effect of temperature on task performance, noise
and pollution may act as the extraneous variables in case. We will have to control the
noise and pollution if we want to quantify the effect of temperature on task
performance.
C. Quasi-Experimental Design: This design controls some of the extraneous variables. The
participants in this type of research design are not randomly assigned. Besides different
treatments, both the control and treatment groups differ from each other in a number
unknown ways. Due to non-randomized selection process, the method lacks external
validity.
D. Classic Experimental Design: Also known as pre-test-post-test with control group
design. There are at least two groups in this type of research design. One among the
two groups serves as a control group. Referring to the above example of classroom
performance, section A is the control group.
E. Factorial Designs: In this method, the outcome is measured after the manipulation of
two or more than two independent variables or factors. In some cases, the independent
variable fails to affect a dependent variable unless manipulated in the presence of
another independent variable.
 F. Time Series Experiments Design: In a time series research design, measurements from
each member in the sample are taken multiple times. The data from the different points
of time are compared amongst each other. It is a type of quasi-experimental design in
which there are two groups of test units. One is experimental group, and the other is
the control group. The experimental group is subjected to a treatment, and then
another series of periodic measurements is taken from both groups.
G. Repeated Measure Design: Repeated Measure Design is also called Cross-Over Design.
In this design, the subjects with every branch of research remain the same, for both the
experimental group as well as the control group. This needs a smaller number of
participants and lesser resources. Moreover, the influence of natural differences
between individuals on the results is also minimized. Such designs are commonly used in
longitudinal research studies, which are spread over a long time period. They are also
used in educational tests, where lesser variation is required in the sample.

These designs do carry certain disadvantages. The long term plan can lead to boredom
and fatigue. Also, there remains a risk of some participants withdrawing themselves
from the research, before the completion of second or subsequent part.

4. Field research/ field work

Meaning:-

Field research or field work are scientific enquiries, aimed at discovering the relations and
interactions among sociological, psychological and educational variables in social institutions
and actual life situations like communities, schools, factories, organizations and institutions

A social or institutional situation is selected and the relations among the attitudes, values,
perceptions and behaviors of individuals and groups in the selected situations are studied.

Field work or fieldwork research is a social research conducted in the natural settings where
people live or work. Fieldwork is about collecting data in its natural environment.

One of the main styles of social research used by empirically oriented social scientists is field
research; a style of investigation that is also referred to as ‘fieldwork’, ‘qualitative method’,
‘interpretative research’, ‘case study method’ and ‘ethnography’. This approach to social
investigation has traditionally been associated with social anthropologists, whose ‘field’
consisted of a small-scale society where it was possible to do ‘research’ by living and working
among the people.
Field work research involves the study of real-life situations. Field researchers, therefore,
observe people in the settings in which they live, and participate in their day to day activities.

Hence in short we can say that there are two sources of cultural data about a particular people:
the living members of the society and written accounts or other records about that group of
people. Collecting cultural data by studying and interviewing living members of a society is
called ethnographic fieldwork.ie Collection of information from living people about their way
of life is called simply field work.

Problems and issues in field work

Every fieldwork experience is unique. Thus, specific problems differ, depending on the personal
characteristics of the researcher, the nature of the community, and the particular questions
being studied. There are, however, three difficulties that, to varying degrees and in different
ways, affect virtually every field research situation:

1. stereotyping,
2. defining the fieldworker’s role in the community and developing rapport, and
3. Identifying and interviewing consultants.

Key features of field work.

 People’s behavior is studied in everyday contexts, rather than experimental conditions

created by the researcher.
 Data are gathered from a range of sources, but observations and relatively informal
conversations are usually the main data-gathering techniques.
 The approach to data collection is usually unstructured in the sense that it does not
involve following through a detailed plan set up at the beginning. Nor are the categories
used for interpreting what people say and do predetermined and fixed. This does not
mean that the research is unsystematic – merely that initially the data are collected in as
wide a front as possible.
 The focus is usually a single setting or group, and is of relatively small scale.
 The analyses of the data involve interpretation of the meaning and functions of human
actions, and mainly take the form of verbal descriptions and explanations.

GUIDELINES FOR FIELDWORK

It is difficult, if not impossible, to provide a precise set of rules and procedures for conducting
fieldwork. What you do depends on the situation, the purpose of the study, the nature of the
setting, and the skills, interests, needs, and point of view of the observer.

Following are some generic guidelines for conducting fieldwork:

1. Be descriptive in taking field notes.
2. Gather a variety of information from different perspectives.
 3. Cross-validate and triangulate by gathering different kinds of data. Example:
observations, interviews, program documentation, recordings, and photographs.
4. Use quotations; represent program participants in their own terms. Capture
participants' views of their own experiences in their own words.
5. Select key informants wisely and use them carefully. Draw on the wisdom of their
informed perspectives, but keep in mind that their perspectives are limited.
6. Be aware of and sensitive to the different stages of fieldwork.
7. Build trust and rapport at the entry stage. Remember that the researcher/ observer is
also being observed and evaluated.
8. Stay alert and disciplined during the more routine middle-phase of fieldwork.
9. Focus on pulling together a useful synthesis as fieldwork draws to a close.
10. Be disciplined and conscientious in taking detailed field notes at all stages of fieldwork.
11. Be as involved as possible in experiencing the observed setting as fully as possible while
maintaining an analytical perspective grounded in the purpose of the fieldwork: to
conduct research.
12. Clearly separate description from interpretation and judgment.
13. Provide formative feedback as part of the verification process of fieldwork. Time that
feedback carefully. Observe its impact.
14. Include in your field notes and observations reports of your own experiences, thoughts,
and feelings. These are also field data. Fieldwork is a highly personal experience. The
meshing of fieldwork procedures with individual capabilities and situational variation is
what makes fieldwork a highly personal experience. The validity and meaningfulness of
the results obtained depend directly on the observer's skill, discipline, and perspective.

Importance of field work in social work education

Field work is important that students should be helped to develop the attitude of mind
ideas them to make connections between study and relief….it is needed vital that this
should be done if students are to become professional practitioners in the field rather than
goods nature and amateurs of techniques applying narrow skills by rule of thumbs
method.(Robert,1995)

Field practicum is a dynamic course that challenges students to apply social work
knowledge, skills and values within an organizational context.

In “field work manual” M.A.Momin has mentioned the following importance of field work.

1. Through the field work one can learn how to apply social work methods in the situation
of given individual, group or community problems.
2. The field work research help to understand social problem and the methods to diagnose
and intervention of such problems.
3. It helps to create awareness and discipline to use them as a helper as a change agent in
an individual and group situation.
 4. It helps to apply the theory and practice of social work into actual practice.
5. It gives social work knowledge and is given an opportunity to try variety of social work
methods, skills and techniques.

Interrelationship between social work education and field work

Modern social work education has two dimensions: theoretical and practical. A social
worker gain knowledge society, social problems, poverty, social structure, social values,
human behavior, social work process when practical training enable us to use this
knowledge acquired knowledge in this field for real life purposes. social work is a
practical education, which is learned through theoretical study of society and social
work. This is because “public good” can be affected only by applying theoretical
knowledge in real life in a scientific way. And practical training helps apprentices to be
fully hedged social worker by making arrangements of applying theoretical knowledge in
practical life. And these are possible by the implementation of theoretical knowledge
into practice only by means of field work research.

Field study v/s surveys:-

Although it is not easy to draw a fine logical between survey and field study, there are practical
differences between them.

First, a survey attempts to be representative of the universe under study and thus calls for an
adequate and representative sample. This emphasis on sampling may or may not be found in a
field study, because it is more concerned with a thorough account of the processes under study
than with their typicality in a large universe.

Second, while a field study aims at directly studying the interrelations of the parts of social
structure of a singly community or a singly group, a survey aims at covering a larger universe,
and it may indirectly deal with social and psychological processes, though inference from the
statistical analysis rather than through direct observation. Thus, field study will provide a more
detailed natural picture of social interrelations of the group than does a survey.

Types of Field work:-

Katz has classified field studies into
i. Anthropological studies and
ii. Quantitative field studies.

In an anthropological study, the researcher lives in the selected community, observes its
people, talks with them at great length, and thus gains a thorough insight into the social
structure of the community and the people’s life culture and ideologies. But the
 anthropological approach does not aim at precise measurement of specific variables and
relations.

On the other hand, a social-psychological field study employs quantitative approach and
measures variables and their interrelationships. Newcomb’s research on Bennington
College a self contained college community is an example for this type of study. The
conclusions of a quantitative study can be readily confirmed by other investigators.

The conflict between the two approached can be resolved by utilizing anthropological approach
as the initial stage in a field study. In this stage, the situation as a whole can be studied and the
fundamental relationship grasped. These insights can yield hypotheses which can be tested by a
detailed quantitative study.

5 Historical research design

Meaning
History usually refers simply to an account of the past of human societies. It is the study of what
can be known (to the historian) through the surviving record.

Historical research has been defined as the systematic and objective location, evaluation and
synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusion about past events. It
involves a critical inquiry of a previous age with the aim of reconstructing a faithful
representation of the past. In historical research, the investigator studies documents and other
source that contain facts concerning the research there with the objective of achieving better
understanding of present policies, practices , problems and institutions. An attempt is made to
exclusive past events or predicts future events. Historical research is a type of analytical
research.

Its common methodological characteristics include:

1. Identifying a research topic that addresses past events
2. Review of primary and secondary data
3. Systematic collection and objective evaluation of data related to past occurrence with
the help of techniques of criticism for historical searches and evaluation of the
introduction and
4. Synthesis and explanation of findings in order to test hypotheses concerning causes ,
effect or trends of these went .Historical studies attempt to provide information and
understanding past historical techniques and guidelines by which historians use
historical sources and other evidence to research and them to write the history.

Purposes of historical research

Conducting historical research, researcher must serve several purposes as follows

 1. It enables researcher to find out solutions to contemporary problems which have their
roots in the past.ie it serves the purpose bringing about reforms in society the work of a
historical researches sometimes sensitizer researcher to unjust or continued into
present and require reform.
2. A historical researcher studies the past with a detached prospective without any ego
involvement with the past practices. Hence it could be easier for researcher to identify
the misguided practices thus establishing them to bring about reforms.
3. It throw light on present trend and can help it predicting future trend if we understand
how an researcher or a group of researcher acted in the past we can predict how they
will act in future similarly studying the past enables a researcher to understand the
factor causes affecting present trends. In order to make such future prediction reliable
and trust worthy the historical research need to identify and clearly describe in which
way the past differs from the present context and how the present social, economic and
political situation and policies could have be an important impact on the present and
the future.
4. It enables a researcher to re evaluate data in relation to selected hypothesis theories
and generalization that are presently hold about the past.
5. It emphasizes and analyzes the relative importance and the effect of the various
interactions in the prevailing cultures.
6. It enables us to understand how and why educational theories and practices developed.

CHARACTERISTIC OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH:

These are as follows:

 It is not a more accumulation of facts and data cum records of past events.
 It is a slowing vibrant report of past events which involves an analysis and explanation of
these occurrences with the objective of recap turning the nuances personalities and
ideas that influenced these events.
 Conducting historical research involves the process of collecting and reading the
research material collected and writing the manuscript from the data collected the
researcher often goes back and forth between collecting reading and in writing. Ie the
process of data collection and analysis are does simultaneously are not two distinct
phases of research.
 It deals with discovery of data that already exists and does not involve creation of data
using structured tools.
 It is analytical in that is uses logical induction.
 It has variety of foci such as issue, events movements and concept.
 It records and evaluates the accomplishment of individual agencies and instruction.

Sources of historical data

These sources are broadly classified into two types.

 a. Primary Sources: primary sources are tangible materials that provide a description of an
historical event and were produced shortly after the event happened. They have a direct
physical relationship to the event being studied examples of primary sources include
new paper report, letters, public document, court decisions, personal diaries,
autobiographies, artifacts and eye witness’s verbal accounts.

The primary sources of data can be divided into two broad categories as follows.
1. The remains or relics of given historical period. These could include photographs,
corves skeletons, fossils tools, weapons, utensils furniture, buildings and pieces of
our cultural remaining. Though these were not originally meant for transmitting
information to future generations. They would prove very useful sources in
providing reliable and sound evidence about the past, a last of these relics provide
non-verbal information.
2. Those objects that have a direct physical relationship with the events being
reconstructed. This includes documents such as laws, files, letters, manuscripts,
government resolutions, characters, memoranda, wills, news papers, magazines,
journals, files, government or other official publications, maps, charts, loy-books,
catalogues, research reports, record of minutes of meetings recording inscription,
transcriptions and so on.
b. Secondary Sources: A secondary source is one in which the eyewitness or the
participant i.e. the person describing the event was not actually present but who
obtained his/her descriptions or narrations from rushes person or source. This person
may or may not be a primary source. Secondary sources, thus, do not have a direct
physical relationship with the event being studies. They include data which are not
original example of secondary sources include text books, biographies, encyclopedias,
reference books, replicas of out objects and so on. It is possible that secondary sources
contain erodes due to passing of information from one source to another.

6 CO-RELATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN:

Co- relational research describes what exists at the moment (conditions, practices, processes,
structures etc.) and is therefore, classified as a type of descriptive method. Nevertheless, these
conditions, practices, processes or structures described are markedly different from the way
they are usually described in a survey or an observational study.

Co-relational research comprises of collecting data to determine whether, and to what extent, a
relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. Co- relational research uses
numerical data to explore relationships between two or more variables. The degree of
relationship is expressed in terms of a coefficient of correlation. If the relationship exists
between variables, it implies that scores on one variable are associated with or vary with the
scores on another variable. The exploration of relationship of the relationship between
variables provides insight into the nature of the variables themselves as well as an
understanding of their relationships. If the relationships are substantial and consistent, they
enable a researcher to make predictions about the variables.

Co-relational research is aimed at determining the nature, degree and direction of relationships
between variables or using these relationships to make predictions. Co-relational studies
typically investigate a number of variables expected to be related to a major, complex variable.
Those variables which are not found to be related to this major, complex variable are omitted
from further analysis. On the other hand, those variables which are found to be related to this
major, complex variable are further analyzed in a causal-comparative or experimental study so
as to determine the exact nature of the relationship between them.

In a co-relational study, hypotheses or research questions are stated at the beginning of the
study. The null hypotheses are often used in a co-relational study. Co-relational study does not
specify cause-and-effect relationships between variables under consideration. It merely
specifies concomitant variations in the scores on the variables. For example, there is a strong
relationship between students‘scores on academic achievement in Mathematics and their
scores on academic achievement in Science. This does not suggest that one of these variables is
the cause and the other is the effect. In fact, a third variable, viz., students‘intelligence could be
the cause of students‘academic achievement in both, Mathematics and Science.

Steps of a Co-relational Research

1. Selection of a Problem: Co-relational study is designed -

a. to determine whether and how a set of variables are related, or
b. To test the hypothesis of expected relationship between among the set of two or
more variables.

The variables to be included in the study need to be selected on the basis of a sound
theory or prior research or observation and experience. There has to be some logical
connection between the variables so as to make interpretations of the findings of
the study more meaningful, valid and scientific. A co-relational study is not done just
to find out what exists: it is done for the ultimate purpose of explanation and
prediction of phenomena. If a co-relational study is done just to find out what exists,
it is usually known as a “shot gun” approach and the findings of such a study are very
difficult to interpret.

2. Selection of the Sample and the Tools:

The minimum acceptable sample size should be 30, as statistically, it is regarded as a

large sample. The sample is generally selected using one of the acceptable sampling
methods. If the validity and the reliability of the variables to be studied are low, the
 measurement error is likely to be high and hence the sample size should be large. Thus
it is necessary to ensure that valid and reliable tools are used for the purpose of
collecting the data. Moreover, suppose you are studying the relationship between
classroom environment and academic achievement of students. If your tool measuring
classroom environment focuses only on the physical aspects of the classroom and not its
psycho-social aspects, then your findings would indicate a relationship only between
academic achievement of students and the physical aspects of the classroom
environment and not the entire classroom environment since the physical aspects of the
classroom environment is not the only comprehensive and reliable measure of
classroom environment. Thus the measurement instruments should be valid and
reliable.

3. Design and Procedure:

The basic design of a co-relational study is simple. It requires scores obtained on two or
more variables from each unit of the sample and the correlation coefficient between the
paired scores is computed which indicates the degree and direction of the relationship
between variables.

4. Interpretation of the Findings: In a study designed to explore or test hypothesized

relationships, a correlation coefficient is interpreted in terms of its statistical
significance.

Co relational research is of the following two types:

a. Relationship Studies: this attempt to gain insight into variables that are related to
complex variables such as academic performance, self-concept, stress, achievement
motivation or creativity.
b. Prediction Studies: These are conducted to facilitate decisions about individuals or to
aid in various types of selection. They are also conducted to determine predictive
validity of measuring tools as well as to test variables hypothesized to be predictors of a
criterion variable.

7. Cross-sectional research Design:

A cross-sectional design entails the collection of data on more than one case at a single point in
time in order to collect a body of quantitative or quantifiable data in connection with two or
more variables which are then examined to detect patterns of association.( Bryman, 2008, p.44)

Let us examine this definition more closely by discussing various aspects related to cross-
sectional design.
 The first emphasis is ‘more than one case’, meaning variation is important, for which
more than one case is required. Variation may be on account of type of family, caste,
religion, income, rural/urban setting etc. This will help the researcher in making finer
distinction among cases.
 Next emphasis is on ‘a single point of time’. Here, data collection on different variables
of interest is done more or less at one point of time only. That is to say, data collection is
completed at one point of time and not in stages or in different time spans.
 The next point to be emphasized is ‘quantifiable data’, which is necessary to have a
methodical and consistent method for assessing variations leading to reliable point of
reference.
 Lastly, emphasis is on ‘pattern of association’.

A cross sectional design makes it possible to study connections between any two variables
studied and makes it possible to establish patterns of association. Cross-sectional design is
also referred to as ‘survey research.’

8 Longitudinal research Designs:

In longitudinal research design, a study is carried out at a point of time and is surveyed
again, at least one more time at another occasion. It is typically carried out in social sciences
disciplines and fields like sociology, social policy, social work and human geography.

It is usually an extension of survey research. A longitudinal design allows insight into the
time order of variables and therefore let casual inferences to be made. (Bryman, 2008, p.49)

Longitudinal researches can be of two types:

1. Panel study where a sample is randomly selected on at least two occasions from
different type of cases within the panel framework may it be people, households,
organizations, schools, etc.
2. Cohort study where an entire cohort of Research Design and Sampling people or a
random sample of them is selected as the focus of data collection. A cohort comprises
of respondents having similar characteristics, for example, woman single parent, female
head of household, etc.

Both panel and cohort studies share some similarities like, data is collected on same
variables on the same set of respondents at least two different points of time. Another
similarity is that both shed light on social change and casual influence over time. Both
panel and cohort studies share similar problems too, like problem of sample attrition
on account of death, migration or change of residence. Also, there is evidence whereby
 respondents of longitudinal study show conditioned behavior as a result of continued
participation.

9 Cross-Cultural Research design

Cross-cultural studies, sometimes called holocultural studies or comparative studies, is a

specialization in anthropology and sister sciences (sociology, psychology, economics, political
science) that uses field data from many societies to examine the scope of human behavior and
test hypotheses about human behavior and culture. Cross-cultural studies are the third form of
cross-cultural comparisons. The first is comparison of case studies, the second is controlled
comparison among variants of a common derivation,[ and the third is comparison within a
sample of cases. Unlike comparative studies, which examines similar characteristics of a few
societies, cross-cultural studies uses a sufficiently large sample so that statistical analysis can be
made to show relationships or lack of relationships between the traits in question. These
studies are surveys of ethnographic data

Cross-cultural studies are applied widely in the social sciences, particularly in cultural
anthropology and psychology.

10 Content Analyses

Human beings communicate through language. Language helps to convey our emotions,
knowledge, opinions, attitudes and values. Print media, television, radio; movies also
communicate ideas, beliefs and values. The analysis is of communication content-written and
pictorial- has now become a methodological procedure for extracting data from a wide range of
communications.

Definition:

Content analysis is a method of social research that aims at the analysis of the content-
qualitative and quantitative- of documents, books, newspapers, magazines and other forms of
written material.

 According to Berelson (1952), “content analysis is a research technique for the

objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of
communication”.
 According to Eckhardt and Ermann (1977), as a qualitative technique, content analysis
is directed towards more subjective information such as attitude, motives and values.
The content may be manifest or latent. The former refers to the visible actual parts of
the text as manifested in the document, sentences, and paragraphs and so on. The
latter is the underlying or implied meaning conveyed.

Characteristics of content analysis

Gardner (1975) has identified four characteristics of content analysis.

1. Objectivity: Explicitly formulated rules of content analysis enable two or more

persons to obtain same results from the same document.
2. Systematic: It provides enough freedom for the researcher to eliminate unnecessary
materials which is not supporting the research hypotheses.
3. Generality: In content analysis, the characteristic of the sender or recipient of the
communication is little scientific value.
4. Quantification: The inferences from the study must be in precise numerical terms.
This means that inferences must be derived strictly from counts of ‘frequency’.

Steps in content analysis

Sarantakos (1998) formulated following steps in content analysis;

 The selection of the Research Area.

The topic can be one from the newspaper, TV, magazines, books, movies and
the like.
 Formulation of Research Topic.
It involves explaining and operationalizing the topic, selection of units,
determining categories and formulating hypotheses.
 Research Design.
It aims at determining the size of sampling method of data collection and so
on.
 Data Collection
It involves counting frequencies, gathering information about the study unit
and evaluating units.
 Lastly, the analyses and interpretation of data aims at giving inferences and
conclusions.

Types of content analyses:

 Sanders and piney (1983) have suggested five types of content analysis:

1. word counting analysis,

2. conceptual analysis,
3. somatic analysis,
4. evaluative assertion analyses,
5. Contextual analysis.

Strength and limitations of content analysis

Strength
 It is unobtrusive method;
 it is not threatens respondent directly
 It is useful in historical research, studying people who are no longer
available to answer questions.
 It makes possible a variety of cross cultural studies.
 It can be used to test preliminary ideas, hypotheses or theories etc.
 It is powerful tool for evaluating personal or social values.
 It is more useful where research budget is small and resources are limited.
 It is easier to repeat the study through this method.

Limitations:

 Unforeseen aspects of research field.

 Determining validity is difficult.
 Some required documents may not be available to the researcher which
may affect the conclusion.
 Its conclusion remains the shadow of personal bias.

Elements of research design

1. Problem
Research design is based in the research problem.
2. Methodology
It deals with a choice of research design methods of measurement and types of analysis.
All of these must be congruent. They must fit together. Methodology should be
appropriate to the research problem.
3. Data gathering methods/ tools.
 To implement general plan of research, methods of data collection must be used. There
is always mutual inter plan of the problem and method. Problem dictates methods to a
considerable extent. It can use internal or external sources. The tools can be
questionnaire, observation, interview etc.
4. Report writing
It involves preparation and presentation of the research report. A report is a
presentation of the research findings directed to a specific audience to accomplish
specific objective.

STAGE VI- IDENTIFICATION OF VARIABLES

A variable in quantitative research is a phenomenon or event that can be measured or

manipulated. It is an entity that can take on different values. Researchers attempt to test a
number of associated variables to develop an underlying meaning or relationship among them.
For example, education is one of the variables that are used to study the status of women.

Variable is central idea in research. Simply defined, variable is a concept that varies. The
concrete observable events which represent the abstract concepts or constructs are called
variables. Variable is a concept which can take on different quantitative research.

A variable is defined as anything that varies or changes in value. Variables take on two or more
values. Because variable represents a quality that can exhibit differences in value, usually
magnitude or strength, it may be said that a variable generally is anything that may assume
different numerical or categorical values. Once you begin to look for them, you will see
variables everywhere.

For example; height, weight, income, age etc. The main focus of the scientific study is to
analyze the functional relationship of the variables. A variable is a quantity which can vary from
one individual to another. It is the quantity which can vary from person to person.

Likewise gender can be another example of variable; it can take two values: male or female.
Marital status is a variable; it can take on values of never married, single, married, divorced, or
widowed. Family income is a variable; it can take on values from zero to billions of Rupees. A
person’s attitude toward women empowerment is variable; it can range from highly favorable
to highly unfavorable. In this way the variation can be in quantity, intensity, amount, or type;
the examples can be production units, absenteeism, gender, religion, motivation, grade, and
age. A variable may be situation specific; for example gender is a variable but if in a particular
situation like a class of Research Methods if there are only female students, then in this
situation gender will not be considered as a variable.

Definition-

1. “Variable is a property that taken on different value”, - Kerlinger

It is any feature or aspect of an event, function or process that, by its presence and nature,
affects some other event or process, which is being studied. k

Variables and Their Types

1. Continuous Variable:
It is that which can assume any numerical value within a specific range.
2. Discrete Variable:
A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale only with distinct gaps
is called a discrete variable.
3. Dependent Variable or Criterion variable:
If one variable depends or is a consequence of other, it is termed as dependent
variable. Criterion variable is the basis on which the effectiveness of the
experimental variable is studied.

Examples

Education suicide rate

(Independent) (Dependent)

Education Income

(Independent) (Dependent)

It is important to note that it is not always easy to pick which is the dependent variable and the
independent variable.

Migration family instability

4. Independent Variable or Experimental Variable:
The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an
independent variable. The variable whose effect is going to be known is known
as experimental variable.
5. Controlled Variable:
The effectiveness of an experimental variable is examined by comparing with
other variable, known as controlled variable.
6. Confounding Variable:
Those aspects of study or sample, that might influence the dependent variable
(outcome measures) ,and whose effect may be confused with the effects of the
independent variable. They are of two types; Intervening and extraneous
variable.
7. Intervening Variable:
There are a number of abstract variables in psychological /social experiments
which is intervening on the effect of experimental or criterion variable. Such
variable are called intervening variable.

For controlling intervening variable appropriate research design should be

used. Intervening variables are hard if not impossible, to observe because
they usually have to do with an individual’s feelings like boredom, stress,
fatigue, excitement etc. Extraneous variable on the other hand, are more
readily observed or measured and thus are more easily controlled.
8. Extraneous Variable:
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but
may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a
relationship between children’s gain in social studies achievement and their
self-concept. Here self-concept is independent variable and achievement in
social study is dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social
studies achievement; but since it is not related to the purpose of the study
undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as extraneous variable.
Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous
variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error.’

A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent
variable is attributed entirely to the independent variables and not to some
 extraneous variable(s).When the dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent
and independent variable is said to be confounded by an extraneous
variable(s).

Extraneous variable can be controlled by removing the variable causing

distraction. It may be eliminated by selecting cases with uniform
characteristics and through randomization.
9. Organismic Variable:
There are some variables which cannot be manipulated. They are accepted by
the researcher as they are. They are levels of intelligence, sex, class levels, and
the like. The researcher can classify the subjects by sex but he cannot modify to
suit his research condition. If a researcher attempts to compare boys and girls on
some learning task, any differences might be attributed to sex differences but
not necessarily so. The differences between boys and girls could be due to
differences in intelligence, training, motivation or a myriad of other conditions
present in all human beings and not necessarily to biological differences
between sexes. Those variables which cannot be manipulated and cannot
themselves point out causal relations are called organismic variables.

Measurement of variables
Measurement may be defined as the assignment of numerals to characteristics of objects,
persons, state, or events according to rules. What is measured is not the object, person, state
or event itself but some characteristic of it. For example, we do not measure the object itself
but some characteristics of being present. We never measure people, only their age, height,
weight, or some other characteristic. We can understand the meaning of 'measurement' in
research in the following way:

1. Steven (1951) defines measurement as 'the assignment of numerals to objects or events

according to rules.'
2. Campbell (1952) defines measurement as 'the assignment of numbers to objects to
represent properties.'
3. Torgerson (1959) has defined measurement as 'the assignment of numbers to objects to
represent amounts or degrees of a property possessed by all of the objects.'
Let’s say, we conduct a study of person who want admission in BSW program. In this study, one
point of interest is to compute gender-wise percentage of applicants. After examining
applications, we can map the observed properties into a gender classification.

The rule of correspondence is: if the applicant is a male assign it '0' and if female, assign '1'.
Any other symbol such as 'M' and 'F' may be assigned as number code are for identification
only. Thus, measurement in its simplest form consists of assigning numerals or symbols to real
objects and this process is called mapping.

Numeral has no quantitative meaning unless one imputes to it such a meaning.

Numerals can be used to label objects like individuals, events or things. Numerals that are given
quantitative meaning become numbers. With considering these numerals, the mathematical
and statistical techniques can be used for purpose of description, explanation and prediction.

Variables can measure simple phenomena directly (for example, hair color, age, income, etc.) or
more complex concepts that may require a more indirect measurement (for example,
socioeconomic status, academic achievement, etc.).

When a study involves complex phenomena, researchers usually identify variables that
measure only one or two dimensions of a complex concept. For example, if a study involves
socioeconomic status, a researcher may pick “income” as the variable, while another
researcher may pick “social class” as an indicator. Yet, socioeconomic status can actually mean
not only these two elements, but could also refer to education status, and other similar
elements.

Therefore, researchers need to be careful in identifying variables to stand in for complex

phenomena. Keeping this in mind, the identification and measurement of variables involve two
necessary elements we need to remember:
 Variables have conceptual definitions that essentially explain what the variable is
attempting to capture.
 Variables also have operational definitions that define how the variable will be
measured in the context of the study.

Let us look at our earlier example of socioeconomic status to understand this well. When we
talk of socioeconomic status, we may be referring to a number of different aspects such as
income, educational levels, class, occupational prestige, etc. This is the conceptual definition.

However, in the context of a research study, a researcher only wants to focus on income levels
of the sample. Thus, she uses “income” to be the operational definition of socioeconomic status
within the context of her study. In the same way, since there is no direct way to measure
“intelligence” which relates to both the capacity of an animal to acquire information or
knowledge as well as to apply that acquired knowledge and information to solve problems or
reach their goals. Researchers who are interested in exploring this concept in a study will need
to identify a variable for doing so. Therefore, a researcher may choose to use “IQ test score” to
operationalize the concept of “intelligence.” They may even specify what type of IQ test to use.
Researchers therefore need to be very clear about both definitions of the variable. The
conceptual definition is important because a researcher needs to understand all the
complexities of a certain concept or construct. The operational definition is important because
if this is inaccurate, it may lead to the identification of an inappropriate/incorrect variable,
which can negatively influence the study and study results. However, remember that especially
for complex variables, measurement may always be incomplete or inaccurate because you may
not be able to find a variable that captures all aspects of a concept completely. Therefore, your
goal should be to select the best possible variables to describe the concept. As suggested
earlier, a good way to make sure you select the most appropriate variables is to review studies
similar to yours, and check if the variables used would be appropriate or applicable to your
study.

When researchers want to check on the accuracy of their operational definition, they perform
tests of “validity” and “reliability.”

Validity: Validity – validity entails the question “ does your measurement process, assessment
or project actually measure what you intend it to measure?”.

In research, validity has two essential parts. Internal and external validity.

Internal validity- encompasses whether the results of the study are legitimate because of the
way the groups were selected, the data was recorded or analyzed. For example a study may
have poor internal validity if testing was not performed the same way in treatment and control
groups or if confounded variables were not accounted for in the study design or analysis.

External validity-

Often called generalizabilityinvolves whether the results given by the study are transferable to
other groups that is population of interest, it is through proper study design and strict protocal
execution that high levels of validity both internal and external can be achieved. It is important
to remember that without internal validity, you cannot have external validity. Results of poorly
designed or exdecuted study are not applicable to any population in that particular sample or
otherwise. Reliability is also closely tied up with validity. If a research protocal dictates that
subjects must have their weight measured, the scale should provide the same weight if
repeated measures were taken at the same time. Reliability is often at risk when assessment
are taken over time , performed by different people or the assessments are highly subjective.
All this has a bearing on validity.

Validity in simple language refers to the degree to which measuring strategy measueres what
we measure.

Validity is the most important consideration in the selection and use of any testing procedures.
The validity of a test, or of any measuring instrument, depends upon the degree of exactness
with which something is reproduced/ copied or with which it measures what it purports to
measure.
Definitions-

 The validity of a test may be defined as “the accuracy with which a test measures what
it attempts to measure.”
 It is also defined as “The efficiency with which a test measures what it attempts to
measure”.
 Lindquist has defined validity – “As the accuracy with which it measures that which is
intended to as the degree to which it approaches infallibility in measuring what it
purports to measure”.

On the basis of the preceding definitions, it is seen that Validity is a matter of degree. It
may be high, moderate or low. Validity is specific rather than general. A test may be
valid for one specific purpose but not for another Valid for one specific group of
students but not for another.

TYPES OF VALIDITY:

1. Content Validity: According to Anastasi (1968), “content validity involves essentially the
systematic examination of the text content to determine whether it covers a
representative sample of the behavior domain to be measured”. It refers to how well
our tool sample represents the universe of criterion behavior. Content validity is
employed in the selection of items in research tools. The validation of content through
competent judgments is satisfactory when the sampling of items is wide and judicious.
2. Criterion-related Validity: This is also known as empirical validity. There are two forms
of criterion-related validity.
a. Predictive Validity: It refers to how well the scores obtained on the tool predict
future criterion behavior.
b. Concurrent Validity: It refers to how well the scores obtained on the tool are
correlated with present criterion behavior.
3. Construct Validity: It is the extent to which the tool measures a theoretical construct or
trait or psychological variable. It refers to how well our tool seems to measure a
hypothesized trait.

FACTORS AFFECTING VALIDITY

The following points influence the validity of a test:

i. Unclear Direction: If directions do not clearly indicate to the respondent how to

respond to tool items, the validity of a tool is reduced.
 ii. Vocabulary: If the vocabulary of the respondent is poor, he/she fails to respond
to the tool item, even if he/she knows the answer. It becomes a reading
comprehension text for him/her, and the validity decreases.
iii. Difficult Sentence Construction: If a sentence is so constructed as to be difficult
to understand, respondents would be confused, which will affect the validity of
the tool.
iv. Poorly Constructed Test Items: These reduce the validity of a test.
v. Use of Inappropriate Items: The use of inappropriate items lowers validity.
vi. Difficulty Level of Items: In an achievement test, too easy or too difficult test
items would not discriminate among students. Thereby the validity of a test is
lowered.
vii. Influence of Extraneous Factors: Extraneous factors like the style of expression,
legibility, mechanics of grammar, (Spelling, punctuation) handwriting, length of
the tool, influence the validity of a tool.
viii. Inappropriate Time Limit: In a speed test, if no time limit is given the result will
be invalidated. In a power test, an inappropriate time limit will lower its validity.
Our tests are both power and speed tests. Hence care should be taken in fixing
the time limit.
ix. Inappropriate Coverage: If the does not cover all aspects of the construct being
measured adequately, its content validity will be adversely affected due to
inadequate sampling of items.
x. Inadequate Weightage : Inadequate weightage to some dimensions, sub-topics
or objectives would call into question the validity of tool.
xi. Halo Effect: If a respondent has formed a poor impression about one aspect of
the concept, item, person, issue being measured, he/she is likely to rate that
concept, item, and person, issue poor on all other aspects too. Similarly, good
impression about one aspect of the concept, item, person, issue being
measured, he/she is likely to rate that concept, item, and person, issue high on
all other aspects too. This is known as the halo effect which lowers the validity of
the tool about one aspect of the concept, item, person, issue being measured,
he/she is likely to rate that concept, item, person, issue poor on all other aspects
too.

RELIABILITY

Reliability – is concerned with the question of whether the results of a study are repeatable.
Measures which keep on fluctuating and is inconsistent is unreliable. If for instance you
administer some I.Q. scores to a sample of people and when you administer on two or more
occassions, and it produces different results, there will be a concern to it as a measure. So in
essence reliability refers to the consistencies of a measure of concept. To consider a measure to
be reliable it should have:

 Stability: This means that if we administer a measure to a group and then re- administer
it, there will be little variation over time in the results obtained.
 Internal reliability: The key issue is whether or not respondent’s scores on any one
indicator tend to be related to their scores on the other indicators.
 Inter- observer consistency: where more than one observer is involved in the activities
and there is consistency in the decisions .

A test score is called reliable when we have reasons of believing the score to be stable and
trustworthy. If we measure a student s level of achievement, we hope that his score would be
similar under different administrators, using different scores, with similar but not identical
items, or during a different time of the day.

Definitions-

 The reliability of a test may be defined as- “The degree of consistency

with which the test measures what it does measure”.
 Anastasi (1968)- “Reliability means consistency of scores obtained by
same individual when re-examined with the test on different sets of
equivalent items or under other variable examining conditions”. A
psychological or educational measurement is indirect and is connected
with less precise instruments or traits that are not always stable. There
are many reasons why a pupil’s test score may vary –
a. Trait Instability: The characteristics we measure may change over a
period of time.
b. Administrative Error: Any change in direction, timing or amount of
rapport with the test administrative may cause score variability.
c. Scoring Error: Inaccuracies in scoring a test paper will affect the
scores.
d. Sampling Error: Any particular questions we ask in order to infer a
person’s knowledge may affect his score.
e. Other Factors: Such as health, motivation, degree of fatigue of the
pupil, good or bad luck in guessing may cause score variability.

THE METHODS OF ESTIMATING RELIABILITY:

The four procedures in common use for computing the reliability coefficient of a test are-
a. Test – Retest Method
b. The Alternate or Parallel Forms Method.
c. The Internal Consistency Reliability
d. The Inter-rater Reliability

A. Test-Retest (Repetition) Method (Co-efficient of Stability): In test – retest method the

single form of a test is administered twice on the same sample with a reasonable gap.
Thus two set of scores are obtained by administering a test twice. The correlation Co-
efficient is computed between the two set of scores as the reliability index. If the test is
repeated immediately, many subjects will recall their first answers and spend their time
on new material, thus tending to increase their scores. Immediate memory effects,
practice and the confidence induced by familiarity with the material will affect scores
when the test is taken for a second time. And, if the interval between tests is rather
long, growth changes will affect the retest score and tends to lower the reliability
coefficient. A high test – retest reliability or co-efficient of stability shows that there is
low variable error in the sets of obtained scores and vice-versa. The error variance
contributes inversely to the coefficient of stability.
B. Alternate or parallel forms Method (Co-efficient of Equivalence Reliability): When
alternative or parallel forms of a test can be developed, the correlation between Form-
‘A’ and Form ’B’ may be taken as a reliability index. The reliability index depends upon
the alikeness of two forms of the test. When the two forms are virtually alike, reliability
is too high, when they are not sufficient alike, reliability will be too low. The two forms
of the test are administered on same sample of subjects on the same day after a
considerable gap. Pearson’s method of correlation is used for calculating of correlation
between the sets of scores obtained by administering the two forms of the test. The co-
efficient of correlation is termed as co-efficient of equivalence.
C. The Spilt Half Method (The Co-efficient of Stability and Equivalence) : The test is
administered once on sample of subjects. Each individual scope is obtained in two parts
(odd numbers and even numbers). The scoring is done separately of these two parts
even numbers and odd numbers of items. The co-efficient of correlation is calculated of
two halves of scores. The co-efficient of correlation indicates the reliability of half test.
The self-correlation co-efficient of whole test is then estimated by using spearman-
Brown Prophecy formula.
D. The method of ‘Rational Equivalence (Co-efficient of Internal Consistency): The method
of rational equivalence stresses the inter correlations of items in the test and the
correlations of the items with the test as a whole. The assumption is that all items have
the same or equal difficulty value, but not necessary the same persons solve each item
correctly.
Factors affecting reliability

1. Interval: With any method involving two setting testing occasions, the longer the
interval of time between two test administrations, the lower the co-efficient will tend
to be.
2. Test Length: Adding equivalent items makes a test more reliable, while deleting them
makes it less reliable. A longer test will provide a more adequate sample of the
behavior being measured and the scores are apt to be less influenced by chance factors.
Lengthening of a test by a number of practical considerations like time, fatigue,
boredom, limited stock of good items.
3. Inappropriate Time Limit: A test is considered to be a pure speed test if everyone who
reaches an item gets it right, but no one has the time to finish all the items. A power
test is one in which everyone has time to try all the items but, because of the difficulty
level, no one obtains a perfect score.
4. Group Homogeneity: Other things being equal, the more heterogeneous the group, the
higher the reliability. The test is more reliable when applied to a group of pupils with a
wide range of ability than one with a narrow range of ability.
5. Difficulty of the Items: Tests in which there is little variability among the scores gives
lower reliability estimates that tests in which the variability is high. Too difficult or too
easy tests for a group will tend to be less reliable because the differences among the
pupils in such tests are narrow.
6. Objectivity of Scoring: The more subjectively a measure is scored, the lower its
reliability. Objective-type tests are more reliable than subjective/Essay type tests.
7. Ambiguous Wording of Items: When the questions are interpreted in different ways at
different times by the same pupils, the test becomes less reliable.
8. Inconsistency in Test Administration: Such as deviations in timing, procedure,
instructions, etc. fluctuations in interests and attention of the pupils, Shifts in emotional
attitude make a test less reliable.
9. Optional Questions: If optional questions are given, the same pupils may not attempt
the same items on a second administration, thereby the reliability of the test is
reduced.

Functions or Purposes of Measurement:

Following are the functions or purposes of measurement which are not necessarily mutually
exclusive but they are inter-related and complementary to each other (Krishnaswami and
Rangnatham, 2011):
1. It facilitates empirical description of social and psychological phenomenon.
2. Measurement renders data amenable to statistical manipulation and treatment.
3. Measurement facilitates testing of theories and hypotheses.
4. Measurement enables researchers to differentiate between objects or people.
Scales of Measurement of Variables
Now that we have understood the issues involved with measuring variables, we can proceed to
understand the different levels of variable measurement. Researchers must be clear about
these levels of measurement because this determines the kind of statistical analysis that can be
conducted. This in turn can influence the conclusions of the study especially when we attempt
to describe the relationships between variables in the study. Variables are measured at four
levels.
Nominal variables: Nominal variables are the most basic level of measurement. These are
variables that have two or more mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories. They are called
‘nominal’ because they can only be classified and counted (measured) on the basis of the
names/labels of their categories. However, these categories cannot be ordered. An example of
this type of variable would be the states of Nepal. Thus, Karnali Pradesh, Gandaki pradesh are
all states of Nepal, but they do not have an intrinsic ranking order. You would have to apply
some rule in order to rank them (for example, ranking by alphabetical order or in terms of land
area or in terms of infant mortality or in terms of number of seats in parliament) – there are no
inherent ranks to the states. Similarly, “gender” is also a nominal variable – male/female/ third
gender are the three categories within this variable, but they cannot be ranked – they can only
be compared.
Ordinal variables: Ordinal variables are also variables that have two or more categories, but
they are different from nominal variables because they can be ranked, and ranks are used to
determine the differences between the categories. However, while we can rank them, they do
not carry a numerical value. They can only measure how one value is greater or lesser than
another value. An example may be asking someone how often he or she watch movies on
television – their response options are Very often, Frequently, Sometimes or Never. From his or
her responses, we will know that someone who responds “frequently” watches movie more
often than someone who responds “sometimes.” However, none of these responses has a
numerical value, so we cannot assess what is the numerical distance between “frequently” and
“sometimes.” Another example would be if we were to ask someone if they approve of the
Right to Education Act. They may respond “Very much in agreement with it,” or “Completely
disagree with it.” These response options form the different categories of the variable “Opinion
on Right to Education Act” which is an ordinal variable.

Interval variables: Interval variables are variables that have a numerical value, and are
measured on a continuum. They have an equal interval between items/values. They also have a
numerical value. The most common example of this type of variable is the temperature when
measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit. We know that temperature is measured on a continuum on
thermometer. Therefore, we know that the difference between 10 to 20 degrees Celsius is the
same interval value (10 degrees) as 30 to 40 degrees Celsius. Test scores on an IQ test is
another example of an interval variable.

Ratio variables: Ratio variables are also measured on a continuum and have a numerical value.
The difference between ratio variables and interval variables is that in ratio variables, there is
an “absolute zero”. Zero on the measurement scale indicates that there is no value of that
variable or that the property being measured is completely absent at the zero level. Thus, we
cannot say temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit are Ratio variables, because 0 (zero) degrees
on both these scales does NOT mean there is no temperature. In fact, zero degrees Celsius
actually indicate the freezing point on the Celsius scale. However, for those of you familiar with
the Kelvin scale of measuring temperature, zero Kelvin does actually indicate there is no
temperature, and therefore the Kelvin scale can be regarded as a Ratio variable. Other
examples of ratio variables include height, weight, currency, mass, etc. The term “ratio”, (which
means a comparison of two quantities) implies that you can use the ratio of measurements.

Nominal and Ordinal variables are often referred to as Categorical variables or Qualitative
variables since they contain two or more categories. Interval and Ratio variables are known as
Continuous or Quantitative variables because they numerical values. A research study often
includes different combinations of these variables. For example, if your study looks at school
dropout-ism, you may collect nominal variables (names of the districts where the study is being
conducted; gender of school dropouts), interval variables (grades of children who dropped out
– A= 90-100 marks, B=80-89 marks, etc) and ratio variables (percentage of children who
dropped out in each class).

In conclusion, variables are important because they help to measure concepts in a study.
Because quantitative studies focus on measuring and explaining variables, choosing the right
variables is important. The first step is to identify the correct variables to measure a property.
Equally important is the conceptual definition, which explains how a variable will be defined
and measured within the context of a particular study. Variables are measured on different
scales, where at one end they can only be categorized or ranked, and at the other end they can
be analyzed statistically.

A Note on Variables in Qualitative Research

We began this unit by saying that variables are integral to Quantitative Research because a
researcher wants to assess or measure the impact of change in one or more variable on
another variable. But qualitative research also sometimes uses the language of quantitative
research. It will also refer to variables, namely characteristics on which people or social units
differ. But here the researcher will not use statistical tests. Instead, they will build a conceptual
map that shows the relationship between variables as initially hypothesized by them or as
emerges from the revelations of research participants.

STAGE VII- SAMPLING DESIGN

simply speaking, the method of selecting for a study a portion of the universe with a view to
draw conclusion about the universe is known as sampling, sampling may be defined as “the
selection of part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference about
the aggregate or totality is made.”

TERMS & CONCEPTS USED IN SAMPLING & SAMPLE DESIGN:-

“A sample design is the theoretical basis & the practical means which we infer the
characteristics of some population by generalizing from the characteristics of selectively few of
the units comprising the population.

There are creations other terms that are characteristics of all sampling discussion & with which
the reader should be familiar. These terms are listed & defined below.

A. Census
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the
members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular
population. The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing
censuses; other common censuses include agriculture, business, and traffic censuses.

The word is of Latin origin: during the Roman Republic, the census was a list that kept track of
all adult males fit for military service. The modern census is essential to international
comparisons of any kind of statistics, and censuses collect data on many attributes of a
population, not just how many people there are but now census takes its place within a system
of surveys where it typically began as the only national demographic data collection. Although
population estimates remain an important function of a census, including exactly the
geographic distribution of the population, statistics can be produced about combinations of
attributes e.g. education by age and sex in different regions.

Purpose of census
The purpose of census is to:
a. Provide the facts essential to government for policy-making, planning and
administration.
b. Decision-making that facilitates the development of socio-economic policies -enhance
the welfare of the population.
c. Provides important data for the analysis and appraisal of the changing patterns of
rural/urban movement and concentration, the development of urbanized areas,
geographical distribution of the population according to such variables as occupation
and education, as well as the socio-economic characteristics of the population and the
labour force.
d. Aids in the decision-making processes of the private sector. Population size and
characteristics influence the location of businesses and services that satisfy the needs of
the target population.
e. Population censuses also constitute the principal source of records for use as a sampling
frame for the household surveys during the years between censuses.

Users of census data

Since census provides rich and valuable information about the population, there are many users
of such data. Some of them are:
  Central and local government
 Interest and representative groups
 Businesses
 Local community
 Ethnic groups, cultural groups, religious groups etc.
 Students
 Media etc.

B. POPULATION OR UNIVERSE: -

This concept population, most of the times, is used to describe the total number of people
living in a defined geographical entity or area. This is as it relates to the common usage of the
term population. But in research, population is not limited to human beings alone; it includes
objects, events, people that have at least a common characteristic which is common to all of
them.

Population, or Universe, is the aggregate of all units possessing certain specified characteristics
on which the samples seek to drawn inferences, for e.g. families with incomes within a given
range.

From a statistical point of view, the term ‘Universe’ refers to the total of the items or units in
any field of inquiry, whereas the term „population‟ refers to the total of items about which
information is desired. The attributes that are the object of study are referred to as
characteristics and the units possessing them are called as elementary units. The aggregate of
such units is generally described as population.

Thus, all units in any field of inquiry constitute universe and all elementary units (on the basis of
one characteristic or more) constitute population. Quite often, we do not find any difference
between population and universe, and as such the two terms are taken as interchangeable.
However, a researcher must necessarily define these terms precisely.

The population or universe can be finite or infinite. The population is said to be finite if it
consists of a fixed number of elements so that it is possible to enumerate it in its totality.

For instance, the population of a city, the number of workers in a factory is examples of finite
populations. The symbol ‘N’ is generally used to indicate how many elements (or items) are
there in case of a finite population. An infinite population is that population in which it is
theoretically impossible to observe all the elements. Thus, in an infinite population the number
of items is infinite i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of items. The number
of stars in a sky, possible rolls of a pair of dice are examples of infinite population.

According to Nkpa (1997), a population refers to all the elements in a well-defined collection or
set of values. Kerlinger (1981) defined population as all members of any well-defined class of
people, events or objects. It means therefore that any entity, group or set which constitutes a
population must have at least one attribute or characteristic which is common to all of them.

The population of a study therefore represents the target of the study as defined by the aims
and objectives of the study. When you conduct a research study, you have a particular
population in mind.

When to Study the entire Population

You would have noticed that whenever the term population is mentioned in common usage, it
often implies a huge number of people. But in research, the term represents numbers which
may range from very few to very many people, things, objects, events etc. depending on the
nature of investigation to be carried out. You have also noticed that in most studies, samples
are drawn and studied with a view to generalizing the findings to the entire population.
However, some of the times, it is necessary to study the entire population. This is possible
under the following conditions:
1. When the research involves a population of very few subjects. If the study involves a
population of relatively few people, institutions, objects, events or things. It is better to
study the entire population. Again, if members of the population are few and hold views
or characteristics that should not be neglected, or when sampling cannot be
representative of the population, then the entire population is studied.
2. When enough time and resources are available the entire population can be studied.
When there is enough time and fund the entire population can be studied.
3. When the research specifically seeks to determine the population- , in some situations
there is a need to determine the precise number of subjects belonging to categorized
set of characteristics.
4. When the topic demands the study of a specific group,- sometimes such group can be
distinguished from any other group or persons e.g. the classification of prisoners at the
Okigwe Prisons by gender and geopolitical zones.

C. Sample Size
Once you have identified your target population and its characteristics, two major issues may
be required to be taken care of. These are how to compose the samples and the sample size.
The composition of the samples will be treated in the next section.

On the issue of determining a sample size, which would adequately and appropriately represent
the population it would be drawn from, you will note that a large sample size increases the
likelihood of accurately estimating the population characteristics from the sample. You should,
therefore, select a sample which is large enough to improve the possibility of getting results
which may be similar to what you would have obtained if you had used the entire population.
There is no single number which has been fixed as an ideal sample size.

The sample size is dependent on a number of factors. Such factors include:

  expense in terms of time and money;
 subjects availability to participate in the study;
 size of the population of the study;
 management and control abilities of the researcher;
 complexity of the research conditions and that of the data to be collected and analyzed;
 efficiency in drawing the sample itself;
 Level of cooperation expected of and available from the proposed sample/ However, a
large sample is much more likely to be representative of the population.

D. Sample frame
The frame describes the population in terms of sampling units. It may often be a
geographical area, such as a list of city blocks or countries. Sometimes, it may even be the
subscription list for a magazine. In essence, a frame lists or maps elements of the universe.

E. Sample

A sample is composed of some fraction or part of the total number of elements or units in
defined population sampling, therefore is a method of selection some fraction of population.

F. Sample design

The design describes the method by which the sample is chosen.

G. Sample error

The errors which arise due to use of sampling surveys are known as the sampling errors..
Since a sample survey implies the study of small population of the total universe and
drawing inferences about the population, there would naturally be as certain amount of in
accuracy or errors. Such errors are known as sampling errors or sampling fluctuations. It a
census is taken, sampling errors could be expected to disappear.

Even when a sample is random one, it may not be exactly representative of the population
from which it is chosen .This is because samples are seldom, if ever, perfect miniature of the
populations. However, there errors can be controlled sampling errors are of two types –
Biased & unbiased.

1. BIASED ERRORS:-Are those which rise as a result to any bias error prejudice of the
person in selecting a particular sampling method may purposive sampling method may
be adopted in place of a simple random sampling method. As a result of such a errors,
or cumulative errors or non-compensating errors. As bias or prejudice forms a constant
component of error that does not decreases in a large population as the no. in the
 sample increases i.e. such errors are likely to increase with as increase in the size of the
sample.
2. UNBIASED ERRORS: - Arises due to chance differences, between the members of the
populations included in the sample, those not included. It is known as random sampling
errors the random sampling error decreased on an average as size of the sample
increases. Such error is, therefore, also known as non cumulative or compensating
error.

Bias may arise due to:-

1. Faulty process of selection.

2. Faulty work during the collection of information, &
3. Faulty method of analysis and Faulty selection of sample may give rise to bias in
a no. of ways, such as:-
a. Purpose sampling,
b. Selection of sample in a haphazard way,
c. Substitution of selected item in the sample by another,
d. Incomplete investigation or response etc, during the process of collecting the
actual information in a survey (whether sample or census, certain inaccuracies
may creep in. These may raise due to improper formulation of decision, problem
wrongly defining the population, specifying wrong decision, securing an
inadequate frame, poorly designed questionnaire, an ill trained, interviewer,
failure of a respondents memory, unorganized collection procedure, faculty
editing or cooling of response. Faulty methods of analysis may also introduce
bias. Such bias can be avoided by adopting the proper methods of analysis.

Among the many suggestions that could help in reducing biases and improving sampling
designs are –

1. Manageable and specific problem selection,

2. Intensive study, verification and reporting of methodological biases;
3. Systematic documentation of related research.
4. Greater investment in enumeration;
5. Effective protesting.
6. Use of complementary research methods, and
7. Replication.

Population and Samples- comparison

Best and Khan (1995) define population thus: “A population is any group of individuals that
have one or more characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher. The
population may be all the individuals of a particular type or a more restricted part of that
group.

All primary school pupils, all female secondary school teachers, all university science educators
may be a population”.

A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis. By the
characteristics of the sample, one can make certain inferences about the characteristics of the
population from which it is drawn. Contrary to some popular opinion, samples are not selected
haphazardly, they are chosen in a systematically random way, so that chance or the operation
of probability can be utilized.

A sample is drawn from a population which refers to all possible cases of what one is interested
in studying. In most educational studies, the target population is often people who have some
particular characteristic in common, such as: all teachers all vice – chancellors, all politicians
etc.

A population is not always made up of people; it could be integrated science laboratories in

Tribhuvan University, all chemistry textbooks used in kathmandu etc. A sample consists of one
or more elements selected from a population. The manner in which the elements are selected
for the sample has great implications for the scientific utility of the research based on that
sample. To select a good sample, you need to define clearly the population from which the
sample is to be drawn. Failure to define the population clearly can make generalizing from the
sample observations highly ambiguous and result in drawing inaccurate conclusions.

CRITERION OF GOOD SAMPLE

The characteristics of a good sample are described below:

1. Representative character: A sample must be representative of the population.

Probability sampling technique yield representative sample.
2. No bias and prejudices: The selection of the sample should be objective. Sample should
be free from bias and prejudices. Then only dependable result can be achieved.
Investigator has to be very cautious in this task
3. Conformity with the subject – matter and meant: In sample methods the
representative units selected, should be as per the subject matter and means.
4. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An
accurate sample is the one which exactly represents the population.
5. Precision: The sample must yield precise estimate. Precision is measured by standard
error.
6. Size: A good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable.
OBJECTIVE OF SAMPLING:-

1. The chief objective of sampling is to get the desired information about the universe with
a prescribed reliability at the minimum cost or with the maximum reliability at the given
cost. The information about the population yield by the sample is probable rather than
certain in nature
2. The precision of estimate & the degree of reliability of estimate depend upon the
sampling method adopted and the procedure of estimation

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE:-

1. A good sample is one which, within restrictions imposed by its size, will reproduce the
characteristics of the population with the greatest possible accuracy
2. It should be free from error due to bias or due to deliberate selection of the unit of the
sample.
3. It should be free from random sampling error .It should not be selected by a procedure
where there is a connection between the method of selection & the characteristics
under consideration.
4. There should not be any substitution of originally selected unit by some other more
convenient in any way.
5. It should not suffer from income plate coverage of the units selected for study ie, if
should not ignore the failures in the sample in responding to the study
6. Relatively small samples properly selected may be much more reliable than large
samples properly selected. But at the same time it is very essential that the sample is
adequate in size so that it can become really reliable.
7. In the samples, only such units should be included, which as for as possible, are
independent.
8. While constructing a sample, it is important that measurable or known probability
sample techniques are used. This will substantially reduces the likely discrepancies.

ADVANTAGES/ USES OF SAMPLING:-

Cochran has enlisted four advantages of sampling:-

a. REDUCED COST: - It the data are collected for the entire population, cost will be
very high. It is economical of cost when the data are collected from sample
which is only a fraction of the population.
b. GREATER SPEED: - The use of sampling is economical of time also sampling is
less time consuming than the census technique. Tabulation, analysis, etc also
take much less time in the case of sample than in the case of a population.
c. GREATER SCOPE: - completed enumeration of all units of the population is not
only most often impracticable, but they require highly trained personal &
 sophisticated equipment sample. Signifies things and personnel with a little
training can collect and handle the data. There is great scope & flexibility of
studies when a sample is used.
d. GREATER ACCURACY: - Sampling ensures completeness & a high degree of
accuracy due to limited area of operation. In dealing with a sample the volume
of work is reduced. Therefore, careful executioner of field hook is possible; the
processing of the data is also done more accurately, which in then produces
better results.

Besides from these, there are few more advantages also.

e. QRGANISATION OF CONVENIENCE:-Sampling involves very few organizational

problems. Due to small numbers, it does not requires vast facilities. It is
economical in respect of resources. The spaces & equipment required for this
study are very small.
f. SUITABLE IN LIMITED RESOURCES: - In every society, there are more problems &
less resources, particularly when the people are poor & problems uncountable.
This is the method which enables the research to work even with limited
resources.
g. BETTER SUPPORT: - Usually it is difficult for the researcher to establish support
with the support between the researcher & the respondents. As the population
of the study increases, the problem of supporter also increases but in a
manageable sample, it is possible for the researcher to establish this meaningful
support.
h. In a small sample, it becomes possible to scrutinize the data collected.

DISADVANTAGES/ LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING:-

1. CHANCES OF BIAS: - The most common argument against the sampling method is the
fact that it may involvers biased selection & thereby it leads us to draw erroneous
conclusions. A bias in the sample may be caused either by faulty method of selection of
individuals for the sample or the nature of phenomena itself.
2. DIFFICULTIES IN SELECTING A TRULY REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE:-The results of a sample
are accurate & usable only when the sample is representative of the whole group
selection of a truly representative sample is very difficult particularly when the
phenomena under study are of a complex nature. A no of reasons stand in the way of
selecting good samples.
3. NEED FOR SPECIALIZED KNOWLEDGE: - The sampling method cannot be used by
everybody. It requires a specialized knowledge. In sampling technique, statistical
 analysis may be needed. For such knowledge, the researches may commit serious
mistakes.
4. IMPOSSIBLITY OF SAMPLING: - Sometimes the universe is too small, or two
heterogonous, so that it is not possible to drive a representative sample. In such cases,
census study is the only alternative. In the studies, where a very high standard of
accuracy is expected, the sampling method may be Unsuitable. Even if the sample is
drawn most carefully, there are always some chances of error
5. Sampling demands a thorough knowledge of sampling methods and procedures and an
exercise of greater care: otherwise the results obtained may be incorrect or misleading.
6. When the characteristic to be measured occurs only rarely in the population, a very
large sample is required to secure units that will give reliable information about it. A
large sample has all the drawbacks of a census survey.
7. A complicated sampling plan may require more labour than a complete coverage.
8. It may not be possible to ensure the representatives of the sample even by the most
perfect sampling procedures. Therefore sampling results in a certain degree of sampling
errors i.e. there will be some difference between the sample value and the population
value

SAMPLING METHOD TECHNIGUES OR TYPES

Sampling methods may be classified into two generic types:

i. Probability or Random sampling

ii. Non-probability or Non-random sampling.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING:-

Probability sampling– it is a method that use objective sample selection so that every
member of a population has a known probability of being selected. It is based on the theory
of probability. It is also known as random sampling. It provides a non zero chance of selection
for each element of the population.

Its chief characteristics are:-

1. Every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
2. The probability of selection of a sample given size from a given population is also same.
For e.g. If one select a sample of size 50 from a population of size of size 500, every unit
out of 500 can enter into a sample with equal probability 50/500 = 1/10. Similar, one
can formulate several different samples of size 50 out of 500 members of the
 populations. The probability of selecting any one group of 50 is also identical for all such
groups.
3. Probability sampling gives a representative sample and hence the findings of the sample
can be generalized to draw conclusion, about the population.
4. It is possible to estimate sampling errors in case of probability sampling. Hence, one can
state the results, with a desired level of confidence in probability terms. For e.g. one can
say that sample results are acceptable with a confidence level. Say, 0.95 probabilities.
Probability sampling should be used when a researches wants to generalize his finding
and hence desires a greater degree of accuracy in estimating population values.
However, cost and time required for probability sampling may be large.

DESIGNS/ SUB TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

Following is the list of various designs of probability sampling:-

a. Simple Designs
b. Complex design

a. Simple design- simple design can be further divided into-

a. Simple Random sampling (SRS)

b. Stratified Random sampling
c. Systematic Random Sampling

Simple Random Sampling: -

Simple random sampling is a probability sampling method in which respondents are selected
using random numbers.

Simple random sampling means that every member of the sample is selected from the total
population in such a manner that all members of the population have essentially the same
probability of being selected. This is the most popular, basic method of sampling. It is
considered the most trust worthy method of securing representative of the whole population.
But it is neither arbitrary nor careless or haphazard. Random method of selection provides an
unbiased cross section of the population.

The advantages/ uses of random sampling:-

1. It required only a minimum knowledge of the population in advance.

2. It is free of errors in classification.
3. It is appropriate for data analysis which includes uses of inferential statistics.
4. It is more represent alive of the population.
5. It is free from bias and prejudice.
6. The method is simple to use.
7. It is easy to assess the sampling error in this method.

Disadvantages/ limitations of random sampling:-

1. It carries large errors for the same sample size than are found in stratified sampling.
2. If the units or items are widely dispersed the selection of sample becomes impossible.
3. If the units or items are heterogeneous in nature or of different size and nature, random
sample method would not be applicable.
4. Lack of use of available knowledge concerning the population and lack of knowledge
concerning the size of the sample units prior to their selection are some other
disadvantages.
5. It is occasionally very different to have a completely cataloged universe.
6. Cases selected may be too widely dispersed or even impossible to contact and thus
adherence to the whole sample may not be possible.
7. There are instances where the investigator does not want a representative sample. In
some studies, such as exploratory survey which the object is to gain insight into the
problem the investigator may choose as his sample only informed persons who can
provide his with the maximum degree of insight into his problem.

Stratified random Sampling:-

Stratified random sampling – A probability sampling method in which the sample is forced to
contain respondents from each of the key segments of a population.

Stratified random sampling is a refinement of simple random sampling since in addition to

randomness; stratification introduces a secondary element of control as a means of increasing
precision and representatives. A stratified random sample is, in effect a weighted combination
of random subsamples may be chance have an under proportion of one type of unit in it, it is
advisable to use stratified random sampling. The population is divided into smaller
homogeneous groups or strata by some characteristics and from each of these smaller
homogeneous groups draw at random a predetermined no. of units. Proportional sampling
enable tone to achieve even greater represent activeness in form each stratum in proportion to
its actual size in the total population.

This method is also called combination of both random sampling & purposive selection.
In the selection of strata or group, we employ purposive method, but in selecting actual units
from each stratum random method is used.

The usual stratification factors are sex, age, socio-economic status educational back ground,
residence, (rural or urban), occupation, political – party affiliation, religion & race. In the
standardization of tests and public opinions polls, the method of stratified sampling is
necessary.

ADVANTAGES/ USES OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING:-

1. In random sample although every unit has an equal chance of being selected,
sometimes important units are left out by chance But under stratified sampling, no
significant group can remain unrepresented.
2. Replacement of a unit can be done conveniently if the originally selected case is
inaccessible. If a person refuses to co-operate with the survey, he can be easily
substituted by another unit from the same stratum.
3. It is possible to select such a sample through stratification that most of the unit are
geographically, localized. A purely random sample fails to provide such a control and the
cases randomly selected may be very widely dispersed. Concentration of units’
economies time and cost of survey.

DISADVANTAGES/ LIMITATIONS OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING:-

1. Bias may be caused in the sample through improper stratification owing to overlapping
in the strata or disproportionate selection.2.
2. When the sizes of different strata are unequal, attainment of correct proposition
becomes difficult.
3. Lack of accurate information on proportion of population in each category and faulty
classification may be listed as some other disadvantages.
4. The task of stratified sampling is itself not so easy placing variables in the proper and
right strata is not as easy task. If depends on the understanding and knowledge of the
investigation.
Systematic random sampling

This method of sampling is an alternative to random sampling. As the interval between sample
units is fixed, this method is also known as fixed interval method.

Applications: - Systematic selection can be applied to various populations such as students in a

class houses in a street, telephone directly, customers of a bank, assembly line output in a
factory members of an association, and so on. Strictly speaking this method of sampling is not a
probability sampling. It is sometimes called a pseudo – random sampling.

Advantages:- The major advantages of systematic sampling are:

1. It is much simpler than random sampling. It is easy to use.
 2. It is easy to instruct the field investigators to use this method.
3. This method may require less time. A researcher operating on a limited time schedule
will prefer this method.
4. This method is cheaper than simple random sampling.
5. It is easier to check whether every ‘K’ th has been included in the sample.
6.
7. Sample is spread overtly over the population.
8. It is statistically more efficient than a simple random sample when population elements
are ordered chronologically, be size, class, etc. then systematic sampling gives a better
representative sample.
Disadvantages: - The primary disadvantages of systematic sampling are:
1. This sampling cannot be considered to be a probability sampling in the strict sense of
the term.
2. As each element does not have an equal chance of being selected the resulting sample
is not a random one. For studies aiming at estimations or generalization, this
disadvantage would be a serious one.
3. This method may sometimes give a biased sample. If by chance, several elements
chosen represent a particular group, that group would be over represented in the
sample.

b. Complex Designs:-
Complex design can be further divided into the following.

1. Cluster sampling-

Where the population elements are scattered over wider area and a list of
population elements is not readily available, the use of simple or stratified
random sampling method would be too expensive and time consuming. In such
cases cluster sampling is usually adopted.

Meaning:- Cluster sampling means random selection of sampling units consisting

of population elements. Each such sampling unit is a cluster of population
elements. Then from each selected sampling unit a sample of population
elements is drawn by either simple random selection or stratified random
selection.

Cluster sampling v/s stratified sampling

There are certain differences between them.

Cluster sampling Stratified sampling
1. The sampling unit is a cluster or a group The population element itself is the
consisting of population elements sampling unit
The population is divided into many clusters The population is divided into a few sub
or sub groups, each with a few elements groups or strata each with many
elements
Cluster is done on the basis of geographical Stratification is done on the basis of
area or administrative divisions etc variables under study.
We try to secure heterogeneity with sub We aim at securing homogeneity within
groups and homogeneity between sub sub groups and heterogeneity between
groups sub groups.
We make a random selection of sub groups We make a random selection of
or cluster elements from each sub groups
.
The resulting sample may give a lower degree It yields a higher degree of
of representativeness for a given sample size representativeness sample for the same
sample size
The sampling error may be great The sampling error may be less
The cost per element is lower The cost per element is higher

Advantages/ uses: - The primary advantages of the cluster sampling method are.

1. This method is much easier and more convenient to apply when large populations are
studied or large geographical areas are covered. Even a ready list of population
elements is not necessary a researcher can simply draw a random sample of
geographical sections and adopt single of multistage sampling depending of the
vastness of the area covered by the study.
2. The cost of this method is much less when compared with other sampling methods.
3. This method promotes the convenience of field work as it could be done in compact
places
4. Sampling under this method does not require more time.
5. Units of study a can be readily substituted for other within the same random section
6. This method is flexible; where it involves multistage sampling it is possible to employ
different types of sampling in successive stages.

Disadvantages/ limitations: - This method has certain stages. They are:

a. The cluster sizes may vary and this variation could increase the bias of the resulting
sample. For example, if the researcher were to interview all adults in households in each
selected street the number of adults would vary from house to house. There would be
certain bias resulting from the large coverage of big families.
 b. The sampling in this method of sampling is greater. Thus this method is statistically less
efficient than other probability sampling methods.

2. Area sampling-

This is an important form of cluster sampling. In large field surveys, clusters consisting of
specific geographical areas like districts, villages or blocks in city are randomly drawn. As the
geographical areas are selected as sampling units in such cases their sampling is called area
sampling. It is not a separate method of sampling, but forms part of cluster sampling.

3. Multi-stage sampling

In this method sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The population is
regarded as being composed of a number of first stage sampling units. Each of
them is made up to a number of second stage units and so forth that is at each
stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling units of the subsequent stage.
First a simple of the first stage sampling units is drawn, then from each of the
selected first stage sampling unit, a sample of the second stage sampling units is
drawn the procedure continues down to the final sampling units or population
elements. Appropriate random sampling method is adopted at each stage.

Advantages/ uses: - The crucial advantages of multi-stage sampling are:

a. It results in concentration of fieldwork in compact small areas and consequently in a

saving of time, labor and money.
b. It is more convenient, efficient and flexible than single-stage sampling.
c. It obviates the necessity of having a sampling frame covering the entire population.

Disadvantages / limitations: -

The major disadvantage of the multi-stage sampling is that the procedure estimating sampling
error and cost advantage is complicated. It is difficult for a non-statistician to follow this
estimation procedure.

4. Replicated / Inter-penetrating sampling.

Replicated or interpenetrating sampling involves selection of a certain number of

sub-samples rather than one full sample from a population. All the sub-samples
should be drawn using the same sampling technique and each is a self contained
and adequate sample of the population.
Advantages: - The major advantages of replicated or interpenetrating sampling are:
1. It provides a simple means of calculating the sampling error.
2. It is practical. If the size of the total sample is too large to get the results ready
in time, one or more of the replications can be used to get the advance results.
3. The replicated sample can throw light on variable non-sampling. If each of the
subsample is interviewed by a different or set of interviewers. An estimation of
inter-viewer variation can be obtained.
Disadvantages:-
A disadvantage of replicated sampling is that it limits the amount of stratification that can be
employed. This limitation is a real drawback to the use of replicated sampling in a multi-stage
sampling plan.

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING:-

Non-probability sampling – Non-probability sampling involves a subjective selection of

respondents. Therefore, the probability of selecting respondents is unknown. This means that
because the sample is not chosen objectively it is not possible to state results with any degree
of statistical certainty.

It is not based on the theory of probability. However simplicity convenience and low cost are
the chief merits of this type of sampling. In such cases, non-random sampling methods can be
used to study the required populations.

Its demerits/ limitations are:-

a. It cannot ensure an equal chance or probability of selection to every unit of the

population.
b. The probability of selection of each on it is unknown.
c. A non-probability sample may not be a representative one.
d. It is, therefore, not possible to estimate population parameters (values) from the
results obtained from the sample.
e. Sampling errors cannot be estimated with any known probability. The results obtained
contain sampling bias

However nonrandom sampling is used or has advantages when –

a. The population list is not available or incomplete.

b. The researcher does not aim at finding generalizations regarding population’s parameters.
He is only interested in studying the nature of a phenomenon.
c. The cost of the probability sampling is too large and the researcher does not expect
corresponding adequate benefits out of his study,
d. There is a given time for completing the study. The probability sampling may be more time
consuming & does not permit completion of week within the given time constraint.

CLASSIFICATION OF NON – PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING:-
In Accidental sampling, the researcher simply reaches out & taken cases that fall to land
continuing the process till such time as the sample researcher a designated size. The
researcher, for e.g. may take the first 150 persons he meets on any one of the
pedestrian paths of a street who are willing to be interviewed or to provide the kind of
information that he is seeking. In such a sample, there is no other way of estimating, the
bias (difference between the average sample value & true population value) except by
doing a parallel study with a probability sample or undertaking a complete censor.

This type of sampling ,besides being economical & convenient, can also afford a basis
for stimulating insights & hypothesis, where too much accuracy is not needed or where
pre-occupation is with tentative dues to hypothesis– formulation (as in exploratory
studies) accidental sample is quite useful. Thus, in this a researcher select any case he
common across For e.g., if due to wealth to study the behavior of police, the researcher
stand outside the police station & asks the opinion of those who comes out of the police
station about police behavior. This method is adopted to survey quickly public opinion.
In this, it is not possible to known whether the sample is representative or not.

2. JUDGEMENT OR PURPOSIVE SAMPLING :- A judgment sample is one which is elected

according to some one’s personal judgment in the choice and includes only those items
of the universe in the sample which he consider are most typical of the convenience.
While choosing the sample, only the average items are considered & extreme items are
omitted & election of the sample adjusted in accordance with the object of the enquiry,
so that no significant item may be ignored.

This method has advantages or uses:-

a. When only a small no. of sampling units is in the universe &

b. In solving everyday business problems & making public policy decision i.e. to the
urgent problems Thus it is one of the non–probability methods of sampling. Probability
sample are designed to be representative. Judgment sampling involves the selection of
a group form the population on the basis of available information thought to be
representative of the total population of the selection of a group by institution on the
basis of criterion deemed to be self–evident. If for any reason in the researcher
judgment, a particular subgroup or stratum is satisfactorily representative its selection
 illustrates the principle of judgment sampling, pilot studies could he based on such
samples. They furnish the sample of what are known as the cases or typical cases.
c. The chief advantages are the elimination of cost & time in preparing the sample & the
ability of the researcher to include certain feature of stratification in the sample.

Disadvantages

Disadvantages include uncontrolled variability & bias in the estimates, strong assumptions,
based upon through knowledge of the population, & elimination of the use of infecticutial
paramedic statistical tools for purpose of generalization by & leave complete reliance on
intuition & hunch is risky.

3. QUOTA SAMPLING:-

This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible

sampling units by traits such as sex, age social class etc. when the population is known
to consist of various categories by sex, age, religion, social classes, etc. in specific
proportions, each investigator may be given an assignment of quota groups specified by
the pre-determined traits in specific proportions. He can then select accessible persons
belonging to those quota groups in the area assigned to him.

Quota sampling is therefore a method of stratified sampling in which selection within

strata is non-random. It is this non-random element that constitutes its greatest
weakness.

Merits/ uses/ advantages:- The major advantages of quota sampling are:

i. It is considerably less costly than probability sampling.

ii. It is takes less time.
iii. There is no need for a list of population. Thus quota sampling is a suitable method of
sampling a population for which no suitable frame is available.
iv. Field work can easily be organized; strict supervision need not be required.

Shortcomings/disadvantages/ limitations:-

The method of quota sampling suffers from certain major shortcomings.

i. It may not yield a precise representative sample and it is impossible to estimate
sampling error. The findings, therefore, are not generalizable to any significant extent.
ii. Interviewers may tend to choose the most accessible persons; they may ignore slums or
area difficult to reach. Thus they may fail to secure a representative sample within their
quota groups.
 iii. Strict control of field work is difficult.

4. Snowball sampling-

In snowball sampling, the researcher identifying and selecting available respondents

who meet the criteria for inclusion in his/her study. After the data have been collected
from the subject, the researcher asks for a referral of other individuals, who would also
meet the criteria and represent the population of concern.

This is the colorful name for a technique of building up a list or a sample of a special
population by using an initial set of its members as informants. For example, if a
researcher wants to study the problem faced by human trafficking, through some
source like Nuwakot villagers, then he can ask each one of them to supply names of
other victims known to them and continue this procedure until he gets an exhaustive list
from which he can draw a sample or make a census survey.

This sampling technique may also be used in socio-metric studies. For example, the
members of a social group may be asked to name the persons with whom they have
social contracts, each one of the persons so named may also be asked to do so and so
on. The researcher may thus get a constellation of associates and analyze it.

Advantages:-

The advantages of snow-ball sampling

a. It is very useful in studying social groups, informal group in a formal organization, and
diffusion of information among professionals of various kinds.
b. It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames are readily available.

Disadvantages:-
a. The major disadvantages of snow-ball sampling are that it does not allow the use of
probability statistical methods. Elements included are dependent on the subjective
choice of the original selected respondents.
b. It is difficult to apply this method when the population is large.
c. It does not ensure the inclusion of all elements in the list.

Difference between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Probability sampling Non probability sampling

1. It is a method of sampling which gives the In the absence of any idea of probability
probability that a sample is the method of sampling is known as
representative of population. non-probability sampling.
 2. Probability sampling is generally used in
fundamental research in which the
purpose is to generalize the results.
3. It refers from the sample as well as the
population.
4. Every individual of the population has
equal probability to be taken into the
sample.
5. It may be representative of the
population.
6. Its observations (data) are used for the
inferential purpose.
7. Inferential or parametric statistics are
used
8. There is a risk of drawing conclusion.
9. It is based on Law of probability sampling
i.e. Law of Statistical Regularity and Law
of Inertia of the Large Sample.
It is generally used in action researches
in which one studies a class without any
generalization purpose.
There is no idea of population.
There is no probability of selecting any
individual.
It has free distribution.
The observations are not used for
generalization purpose.
Non-inferential or non-parametric
statistics are used
There is no risk for drawing conclusions.
It is not based on law of probability
sampling.

STAGE VII- DATA COLLECTION

.
Introduction
To carry out a research study, you have to collect the relevant data so that the hypotheses or
generalizations you hold tentatively can be verified. This involves selection of samples from the
concerned population. Each tool or technique is appropriate for collecting a particular type of
data or information, which lends itself to a particular type of analysis and interpretation for
drawing meaningful conclusions and generalizations.

Research tools are administered on the sample subjects for collecting evidences or data. Most
social work research will lead to the gathering of data by means of some standardized test or
self-constructed research tools. It should provide objective data for interpretation of results
achieved in the study. The data may be obtained by administering questionnaires, testing,
personal observations, interviews and many other techniques of collecting quantitative and
qualitative evidence.

The researcher must know how much and what kind of data collection will take place and
when. He must also be sure that the types of data obtainable from the selected instruments will
be usable in whatever statistical model he will latter use to bring out the significance of the
study. The data collection is the accumulation of specific evidence that will enable the
researcher to properly analyze the results of all activities by his research design and
procedures. The main purpose of data collection is to verify the research hypotheses.
NEED FOR DATA COLLECTION
The data are needed in a research work to serve the following purposes:
4. Collection of data is very essential in any social work research to provide a solid
foundation for it.
5. It is something like the raw material that is used in the production of data.
Quality of data determines the quality of research.
6. It provides a definite direction and definite answer to a research inquiry.
Whatever inquiry has to give a definite answer to an investigation. Data are
very essential for a scientific research.
7. The data are needed to substantiate the various arguments in research
findings.
8. The main purpose of data collection is to verify the hypotheses.
9. Statistical data are used in two basic problems of any investigation:
(a) Estimation of population parameters, which helps in drawing generalization.
(b) The hypotheses of any investigation are tested by data collection procedure.
10. The qualitative data are used to find out the facts and quantitative data are
employed to formulate new theory or principles.
11. Data are also employed to ascertain the effectiveness of new device for its
practical utility.
12. Data are necessary to provide the solution of the problem.

PURPOSE FOR DATA COLLECTION

The researcher must know how much and what kind of data collection will take place and
when. He must also be sure that the types of data obtainable from the selected instruments will
be usable in whatever statistical model he latter use to bring out the significance of the study.
The data collection is the accumulation of specific evidence that will enable the researcher to
properly analyze the results of all activities by his research design and procedures. The main
purpose of data collection is to verify the research hypotheses.

The data are needed in a research work to serve the following purposes:
13. Collection of data is very essential in any research to provide a solid foundation
for it.
14. It is something like the raw material that is used in the production of data.
Quality of data determines the quality of research.
15. It provides a definite direction and definite answer to a research inquiry.
Whatever inquiry has to give a definite answer to an investigation. Data are
very essential for a scientific research.
16. The data are needed to substantiate the various arguments in research
findings.
17. The main purpose of data collection is to verify the hypotheses.
18. Statistical data are used in two basic problems of any investigation:
a. Estimation of population parameters, which helps in drawing
generalization.
 b. The hypotheses of any investigation are tested by data collection
procedure.

19. The qualitative data are used to find out the facts and quantitative data are
employed to formulate new theory or principles.
20. Data are also employed to ascertain the effectiveness of new device for its
practical utility.
21. Data are necessary to provide the solution of the problem.

Precautions in Data Collection

In the data collection the following precautions should be observed:

a. The data must be relevant to the research problem.
b. . It should be collected through formal or standardized research tools.
c. The data should be such as these can be subjected to statistical treatment
easily
d. The data should have minimum measurement error.
e. The data must be tenable for the verification of the hypotheses.
f. The data should be such as parameters of the population may be estimated
for inferential purpose.
g. The data should be complete in itself and also comprehensive in nature.
h. The data should be collected through objective procedure.
i. The data should be accurate and precise.
j. The data should be reliable and valid.
k. The data should be such that these can be presented and interpreted easily.
l. The scoring procedure of the research tool should be easy and objective.

DATA

Definition –
“Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials past and present serving as bases for study
and analysis”.

MEANING OF DATA
Data means observations or evidences. The scientific social work researches require the data by
means of some standardized research tools or self-designed instrument. Data are both
qualitative and quantitative in nature. The information collected from various sources through
the use of different tools and techniques generally comprise numerical figures, ratings,
descriptive narrations, responses to open-ended questions, field notes, etc. The search for
answers to research questions calls collection of Data. The scientific researches require the data
by means of some standardized research tools or self-designed instrument. The information
collected from various sources through the use of different tools and techniques generally
comprise numerical figures, ratings, descriptive narrations, responses to open-ended questions,
field notes, etc.

Data can be regarded as information. It can be given out or taken for the purpose of making
interferences in research. In this case, it may include numerical or statistical results or figures
such as percentages. It may also include verbal materials like newspaper accounts, scholastic
essay etc. we can therefore say that any collection of verbal or numerical information from
which inferences or conclusions can be drawn or analyzed is regarded as data. It means that
data can be quantitative or qualitative. Any information which comes in numbers, figures,
measures or quantities is said to be quantitative. Likewise any information which comes as
verbal descriptions of attribute or characteristic is regarded as qualitative data.

So when you have evidences obtained from other research studies, observations made from
the field and laboratory settings, information extracted from records and documents, score
collected from tests of various types etc; you say you have data.

To carry out a research study, you have to collect the relevant data so that the hypotheses or
generalizations you hold tentatively can be verified. This involves selection of samples from the
concerned population. Each tool or technique is appropriate for collecting a particular type of
data or information, which lends itself to a particular type of analysis and interpretation for
drawing meaningful conclusions and generalization.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FACTS AND DATA

The facts and data have been distinguished in the following manner:
vi. The facts are organized in their original form whereas data are organized in
systematic order.
vii. The facts do not have any coherence of system whereas data have an
organic unity like body.
viii.The facts are difficult to interpret. The interpretation of facts is usually
subjective and employs then imagination of the researcher. Data can be
interpreted easily and most objectively.
ix. The facts are mysterious in nature we have to explore the facts but data have
no mystery at all.
x. The facts are descriptive in nature whereas data are explanatory.
xi. The facts are not amenable to objective statistical treatments whereas data
can be easily subjected to in objective statistical treatment.
xii. The facts may not be directly the basis of findings or research conclusions,
but data are directly linked with research conclusions.
xiii. The facts are usually too broad and are not linked and a purposive way
whereas data are always collected with a sense of purpose.
xiv. The facts are collected in historical or survey research whereas data are
gathered in a scientific and experimental research.
Classification of data /types of data
A .Classification based on sources

Data can be collected through different sources. Researchers collect their data according to
their needs. However the categories of sources can be divided into two main types,

1. Primary data /primary sources of data.

Primary data collection is necessary when a researcher cannot find the data needed in
secondary sources. Researchers may interest in primary data about demographic/
socioeconomic characteristics, attitudes / opinions / interests, awareness/knowledge,
intentions, motivation, and behavior. Three basic means of obtaining primary data are
observation, surveys, and experiments. The choice will be influenced by the nature of the
problem and by the availability of time and money. Primary sources are original sources from
which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected.

Primary data is information observed or collected from firsthand experience. In the case of
psychological research it is the data collected by the researcher for the study currently being
undertaken. The collection of primary data would involve designing the study, gaining ethical
approval, piloting the study, recruiting and testing participants and finally analyzing the data
collected and drawing conclusions.

The study might be an experiment, possibly with an questionnaire and / or an observational

element to measure the dependent variable. Or the study could just involve a questionnaire or
just an observation. The Data collected would be specifically related to the aims and/ or
hypothesis of the study.

Advantages of primary data:

1. It is original source of data
2. It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time.
3. It is flexible to the advantage of researcher.
4. Fresh Data: Through primary sources a fresh data are collected as per the requirement
of the study. A researcher can collect this data on the basis of definitions adopted by his
own study. It is nothing but the first hand data.
5. Accurate Data: While collecting primary data, a researcher can maintain accuracy at
appropriate level. He can avoid the circumstances which create errors in data collection
of primary data. He can take precautions to collect the accurate data.
6. Reliable and Valid Data: The reliability and validity can be tested while collecting data or
by pilot survey it can be tested. It is possible in case of primary data to collect reliable
and valid data.
7. Easy Access: The primary data are collected direct from respondents and not from any
other organization. So it is easy to collect it from them with easy access. In many types
of collection of primary data, face to face interaction results into the data required.
 8. Collection of suitable Data: The collection of primary data is nothing but creating a new
dataset. So suitable data can be collected while collecting primary data considering
objectives of the study.

Disadvantages of primary data:

1. Primary data is expensive to obtain
2. It is time consuming
3. It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled.
4. It is difficult to administer.

SECONDARY SOURCES OF DATA

Secondary data is information that was collected for a purpose other than the current one. The
researcher could use data collected by them but for a different study or collected by another
researcher. The researcher might make use of government statistics such as information about
the treatment of mental health, or make use of data held by a hospital or other institutions. A
correctional study often uses secondary data and review studies use secondary data,
conducting Meta – analysis on such data.

These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another
purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already compiled statistical
statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies e.g., census
reports, annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical statement, Reports of
Government Departments, Annual reports, publications of international organizations such as
UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial journals newspapers etc. Secondary
sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished records.

Sources of Secondary Data:

The various sources of secondary data can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Published sources, and
2. Unpublished sources.

1. Published Sources:

The governmental, international and local agencies publish statistical data, and chief among
them are explained below:
a. International Publications:
There are some international institutions and bodies like I.M.F, I.B.R.D, I.C.A.F.E and
U.N.O who publish regular and occasional reports on economic and statistical matters.
b. Official Publications of Central and State Governments:
 Several departments of the Central and State Governments regularly publish reports on
a number of subjects. They gather additional information. Some of the important
publications are: The Rastra Bank of Nepal Bulletin, Census of Nepal, Statistical Abstracts
of States, Agricultural Statistics of Nepal, Nepalese Trade Journal, etc.
c. Semi-Official Publications:
Local-Government institutions like Municipal Corporations, District Boards, etc. Publish
reports relating to different matters of public concern.
d. Publications of Research Institutions
e. Publications of various Commercial and Financial Institutions.
f. Reports of various committees and commission appointed by the Government are also
important sources of secondary data.
g. Journals and News paper:
Journals and News paper are very important and powerful source of secondary data.
Current and important materials on statistics and socio- economic problems can be
obtained from journals and newspaper .

2. Unpublished Sources:
Unpublished data can be obtained from many unpublished sources like records maintained by
various government and private offices, the theses of the numerous research scholars in the
universities or institutions etc.

Advantages and disadvantages of secondary sources of data

Advantages

 The secondary research process can be completed rapidly – generally in 2 to 3 week.

Substantial useful secondary data can be collected in a matter of days by a skillful
analyst.
 When secondary data is available, the researcher need only locate the source of the
data and extract the required information.
 Secondary research is generally less expensive than primary research. The bulk of
secondary research data gathering does not require the use of expensive, specialized,
highly trained personnel.
 Secondary research expenses are incurred by the originator of the information.

Disadvantages

 Secondary information pertinent to the research topic is either not available, or

is only available in insufficient quantities.
 Some secondary data may be of questionable accuracy and reliability. Even
government publications and trade magazines statistics can be misleading.
 Data may be in a different format or units than is required by the researcher.
 Much secondary data is several years old and may not reflect the current market
conditions. Trade journals and other publications often accept articles six
 months before appear in print. The research may have been done months or
even years earlier.
As a general rule, a thorough research of the secondary data should be undertaken prior to
conducting primary research. The secondary information will provide a useful background and
will identify key questions and issues that will need to be addressed by the primary research.

Precautions in the Use of Secondary Data:

Since secondary data have already been obtained, it is highly desirable that a proper scrutiny of
such data is made before they are used by the investigator. In fact the user has to be extra-
cautious while using secondary data.

In this context Prof. Bowley rightly points out that “Secondary data should not be accepted at
their face value.” The reason being that data may be erroneous in many respects due to bias,
inadequate size of the sample, substitution, errors of definition, arithmetical errors etc.

Even if there is no error such data may not be suitable and adequate for the purpose of the
enquiry.

Prof. SimonKuznet’s view in this regard is also of great importance. According to him, “the
degree of reliability of secondary source is to be assessed from the source, the compiler and his
capacity to produce correct statistics and the users also, for the most part, tend to accept a
series particularly one issued by a government agency at its face value without enquiring its
reliability”.

Therefore, before using the secondary data the investigators should consider the following
factors:
a. The suitability of data:
The investigator must satisfy him that the data available are suitable for the purpose of
enquiry .It can be judged by the nature and scope of the present enquiry with the
original enquiry. For example, if the object of the present enquiry is to study the trend in
retail prices, and if the data provide only wholesale prices, such data are unsuitable.
b. Adequacy Of Data:
If the data are suitable for the purpose of investigation then we must consider whether
the data are useful or adequate for the present analysis. It can be studied by the
geographical area covered by the original enquiry. The time for which data are available
is very important element. In the above example, if our object is to study the retail price
trend of Nepal, and if the available data cover only the retail price trend in the state of
Kathmandu , then it would not serve the purpose.
c. Reliability Of Data:
 The reliability of data is must. Without which there is no meaning in research. The
reliability of data can be tested by finding out the agency that collected such data. If the
agency has used proper methods in collection of data, statistics may be relied upon.

It is not enough to have baskets of data in hand. In fact, data in a raw form are nothing
but a handful of raw material waiting for proper processing so that they can become
useful. Once data have been obtained from primary or secondary source, the next step
in a statistical investigation is to edit the data i.e. to scrutinize the same. The chief
objective of editing is to detect possible errors and irregularities. The task of editing is a
highly specialized one and requires great care and attention. Negligence in this respect
may render useless the findings of an otherwise valuable study. Editing data collected
from internal records and published sources is relatively simple but the data collected
from a survey need excessive editing.

While editing primary data, the following considerations should be borne in mind:
1. The data should be complete in every respect
2. the data should be accurate
3. the data should be consistent
4. the data should be homogenous

Evaluation of primary and secondary data

Primary data-

The greatest strength of generating primary data is the control of researcher has over the data.
The data collection can be designed so it fits the aims and hypothesis of the study. The
limitations are that it is a very lengthy and therefore expensive process. Simply designing a
study takes a lot of time and then time spent, recruiting participants, conducting the study and
analyzing the data.

Secondary data-

It is simple to just access someone else’s data and cheaper because significantly less time and
equipment is needed. Such data may have been subjected to statistical testing and thus it is
known whether it is significant.

The limitation is that for some studies, the data may not exactly fit the needs of the study.

Based on the above evaluation these data can be differentiated as-

DISTINTION BETWEEN PRIMARY DATA AND SECONDARY DATA:
Primary Data Secondary Data
1. Source Original source Secondary source
2. Methods of data Observation method, Published data of different
collection questionnaire method, agencies
interview method etc
3. Statistical process Not done Done
4. Originality of Data Original first time collected by No data are collected by some
user other agency
5. Use of data For specific purpose data are Data are taken from other
complied source and used for decision
6. Terms and definition Incorporated Not include
of units
7. Copy of the schedule Included Excluded
8. Method of data Given Not given
collection
9. Description of sample Given Not given
selection
10. Timer More Less
11. Cost Expensive Cheaper
12. Efforts More Less
13. Accuracy More accurate Less accurate
14. Training personnel Expert/trained required Less trained personnel
required

B. Classification based on nature

The research studies in behavioral science are mainly concerned with the characteristics or
traits. Thus, tools are administered to quantify these characteristics, but all traits or
characteristics cannot be quantified.

The data can be classified into two broad categories:

1. Qualitative data or attributes.
2. Quantitative data or variables.

The opposite of quantitative data is qualitative data. The former is numerical whereas the latter
isnot. A diferent kind of distinction is made between primary and secondary. The former is data
collected by a researcher specifically for a current research project whereas the latter is data
collected by someone else and / or for a different project than the current one.
 xv. Qualitative Data or Attributes: Qualitative data are verbal or symbolic. The
detailed descriptions of observed behaviors, people, situations and events,
are some examples of qualitative data. For example, the responses to open-
ended questions of a questionnaire or a schedule, first hand information
from people about their experiences, ideas, beliefs, and selected content or
excerpts from documents, case histories, personal diaries and letters are
other examples of qualitative data. The characteristics or traits for which
numerical value cannot be assigned, are called attributes, e.g. motivation,
confidence, honesty integrity etc.

Qualiattive data cant be counted but it can be turned into quantitative data
by palcing the data in categories and then counting frequency . Sometimes
people define qualitative data as being about what people think and feel, but
quantitive questions can also concern what people think and feel.

Open questions in questionnaire may collect qualitativer data – data that

express the quality of things. This include descriptions, words, meaning,
pictures, and so on.

In an observational study researchers can describe what they see and this
would be qualitative.

Qualitative data provide detailed information which can provide unexpected

insights into thoughts and behavior because the answer are not restricted by
previous expectations

Of course the complexity makes it more difficult to analyze such data and to
draw conclusion.
2. Quantitative Data or Variables:
Quantitative data are obtained by applying various scales of measurement. The
experiences of people are collected in a way to fit into standard responses to
which numerical values are attached. These data are close-ended and hardly
provide any depth or details. The characteristics or traits for which numerical
value can be assigned, are called variables, e.g. Achievement Intelligent,
Aptitude Height, Weight etc.

Quantitative data is data that represents how much or how long , how many etc
there area of something, i.e. behavoir is measured in numbers or quantities.

Some major chararacteristics include-

 The dependent variable in an experiment is quantittative
 Closed questions in questionnaire collect quantitative data- numerical information
about your age , how many hours you work in a week, how highly you rate different tv
programs etc
 In an observational study a tally of behavioral categarioes is quantitative.

Comparison/ differences between qualitative and quantitative data

Basis for comparison Qualitative data Quantitative data

1. Meaning Qualitative data is the data in Quantitative data is the
which the classification of type of data which can
objects is based on attributes be measured and
/ qualities and properties. expressed numerically.
2. Research It follows normally 1. It follows
methodology exploratory research normally
methodology. i.e to provide conclusive
insight and understanding. research
methodology
which aim at
testing a specific
hypothesis and
examine the
relationships.

3. Approach The approach to inquiry in quantitative data has an

the case of qualitative data isobjective and focused
subjective and holistic approach
4. Analysis When the data type is It follows statistical
qualitative the analysis is analysis of research
non-statistical findings
5. Collection of data It collects primarilyIt collects primarily
unstructured data structured data
6. Determination It determines depth of It determines level of
understanding occurrence
7. Asking Qualitative data is all about Quantitative data is all
why? Questions. about ‘How much or
how many’
8. Sample In qualitative data the sample The sample size is large
size is small and that too is in quantitative data
drawn from non- drawn from the
representative samples representative sample.
 9. Outcome Qualitative data develops Quantitative data
initial understanding, i.e. it recommends the final
defines the problem. course of action.

Strengths and problems with qualitative and quantitative data

Strengths of quantitative data

 As the data are numerical, this allows easier comparison and statistical analysis to take
place.
 As the data are numerical, they are objective and scientific - there is only minimal
chance of psychologists miscalculating the data.

Problems with quantitative data

 As the data are numerical, they miss out on valuable information. If the answer is
simply yes/ no or on a rating scale we do not know why participants chose the answer
that they did.
 Using these data can be seen as reductionist as psychologists are reducing complex
ideas and behaviors down to a number or percentage.

Strengths of qualitative data

 The data collected is in-depth and in the words of the participants so it is rich and in
detail and represents what participants believe.
 As the data is directly from participants we can understand why they think, feel or act in
that way.

Problems with qualitative data

 The interpretation of the data could be subjective as we are dealing with words rather
than numbers - psychologists could misinterpret participants' meaning.
 There may be researcher bias. Psychologists might only select data that fits into their
hypothesis or aim of the study.

Some other types of data

 A. Personal Data (relating to Human beings) are of two types.
i. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals. Like name, sex,
race, social class, relation, education, occupation, income etc.
ii. Behavioral Variables: Attitudes, opinion knowledge, practice, intensions etc.

B. Organization Data: - Consist of data relating to an organizations, origin ownership,

function, performance etc.
C. Territorial Data: - are related to geo-physical characteristic, population, infrastructure
etc of divisions like villages, cities, distinct, state etc.

Data collection method/ tools/ techniques

1. Case study method
What is a case study?
Let’s begin by understanding what case study as a method in behavioral research is. A case
study is a qualitative research method involving an in-depth and detailed investigation to
gather information about one or more individuals or groups. It lays emphasis on studying few
cases in great depth instead of gaining surface information about many cases. As Madan,
Paliwal & Bhardwaj (2011) point out, “It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth.”
The data is collected not just from one source but many and the researcher, during the course
of the study, employs several research tools such as interviews, observation, and psychometric
tests; Individually or in combination to comprehensively and exhaustively study the aspect of
concern.

For example, a researcher interested in conducting a case study on an autistic child might
observe the child in different settings, interview the parents and administer psychometric tests
to draw inferences about the behavior of interest. The holistic understanding of the child will
thus be gained by putting together and analyzing the data collected from multiple sources.

In social science research, the case study method is widely adopted one in carrying our research
in the field. The credit for introducing case study goes to Fredrick replay. The English social
philosopher, her bet Spencer, was among the first to adopt case study method in comparative
studies of different cultures, the problem of juvenile delinquency was complex to understand
simply on the basis of available statistical data. It was Healey, who supported the case study
method which afforded a deeper understanding of the juvenile delinquency phenomena. Later,
sociologists, psychologists, anthologist, technologists and educationists interested in the study
of primitive as well as modern cultures by case study method. H. Gisbrians have had restored.
To this method while portraying historical character of a particular historical period and
describing the developments today, many a novelist and dramalist have used some
resemblance of the case study method for presenting a word picture of character

Definition of case study method

Different authors define case study in their own distinctive ways.

 Young (1960) in her book Scientific Social Surveys and Research describes case study as
“a comprehensive study of a social unit be that unit a person, a group, a social
institution, a district or a community.” Her definition incorporates drawing inferences
about each and every aspect being studied in minute details.
 Odum & Jocher (1929) believe “the case study method is a technique by which
individual factor whether be it an institution or just an episode in a life of an individual
or a group is analyzed in its relationship to any other in the group.” Thus a fairly
exhaustive study of a person or group is called or a life or case history. (As cited in
Madan, Paliwal & Bhardwaj, 2011, p.113)
 According to Goode and Hatt,” it is an approach which views any social unit as a whole.
It is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary character of the social
object being studied.”
 In the word of charles Horfon Coolye, ”Case study depends our perception and gives us
a clear insight into life It gets at behaviour directly and not by an indirect approach.”

By the above definition; it is clear that the case study method is qualitative, inclusive,
intensive, insight stimulating and comprehensive approach. The field study is comparatively
limited but has more of depth in it. It aims at studying everything rather than something
about everything as in case of statistical method. In other words, it is study of Micro
problem at macro level. The approach to a case study research may not be based on
hypothecs is or on any well established conclusions but the study itself may help in
formulating a well founded hypothesis for further investigation. This approach to research is
, therefore, an open and objective investigation of a particular unit with a view to develop a
hypothesis in character so the researcher has complete freedom in selecting problem that
be considered as describe and fruit bearing. And it is used not necessary for proving or
disproving a hypothesis. Thus, the case study methods work as a micro scope in
understanding the complex behavior of social problem.

Characteristics of the case study method

Common to all definitions are certain characteristics which distinguish the case study method
from others. Thus, by its very nature the case study is:
1. Descriptive: The data collected in a case study comprises of description of psychological
processes and events and the context in which they occur. Quantitative data such as the
frequency of a behavior of interest may be present but the emphasis is always on
elaborating on the when, how and where of the behavior.
 2. Narrow: Although a case study might be conducted on a group, it is rarely done in
practice due to factors such as time and resources. A case study therefore, usually
concerns itself with one particular individual and one or few aspects of the individual.
For example, a researcher studying peer interaction on social networking sites in
adolescents would limit his concern to just that and not study other aspects of social
interaction such as parent child relationship.
3. Highly Detailed: Being a qualitative method, case study is capable of producing “thick”
descriptions about the individual, event or behavior of interest. Its narrow and case
centric approach lends to its ability to describe such aspects in great detail.
4. Combination of Objective and Subjective Data: The data collected in a case study is
capable of representing any combination of objective and subjective data. The
description of behavior and its context accounts for the objective aspect which is
supplemented by details of the subjective matters such as feelings, beliefs, impressions
and interpretations. This quality of integrating different types of data helps in achieving
an in depth understanding of a single individual.
5. Process oriented: Case studies allow the researcher to explore and describe the nature
of processes occurring over time instead of following the snapshot approach to studying
behavior, which only takes into account the behavior and experiences as they occur at a
single point in time. This facilitates the study of changes that might occur over time. It is
for this reason that researchers studying developmental social work, as we also read in
Genie’s case study, given in the introduction often employ the case study method.
(Adapted from Dyer, 1995, p. 4849)

CASE STUDY TECHNIQUE: -

The case study is often termed as method, sometimes as technique and at others an approach
to social reality. It is in fact, a technique which considers all potential aspects of situation
intensively investigating it. The technique of gathering and processing data are related to three
phases, viz

a. Choice of case
b. Recording of data
c. Data interpretation

The choice of case consists of two elements, first selection of “representative unit‟.
Representativeness of the case is important with a view to studying as a specimen in a culture
rather than as a definite entity, for eg the street child, people living in slums or a child sexually
abused can be the case in social work research which are the representative of case study
research, Second, identifying the situation thought case unit has an outlook, the problem must
be selected carefully and well defined the situation of the case unit being studied. Organizing
the social data in such a way to preserve the unitary character of the social aim is the essential
feature in recording of data. In practical sense, the wholeness of case can be preserved as
Goode and Hatt started, in for headings namely,
 1. Breadth of data,
2. Level of data,
3. Formation of index / indices,
4. Interaction in a time dimension

The breadth of data refer to the fact of data collection, level of data concerns to many facts of
life of the unit, and that is available, index relates the various traits that are actually used in
characterizing the unit and time dimension emphasis upon the process and time, the time
provided may be short or long.
The interpretation of data is a equally and challenging as the selection of the case and
gathering information about the case. The researcher must closely guard against the subjective
interpretation of the facts of a case being studied.

SOURCES OF DATA FOR CASE STUDY:-

Following are the main sources of data for case study research.

1. The personal documents, viz. dairies, autobiographies, memories, letter, etc of an

individual which contain the description of remarkable events of the life of an individual
as well as his reactions towards them. Although they sufficiently subjective in nature but
are important for social research.
In the words of P.N. Young “personal documents represent continuity of experience
which helps to illuminate the individual personality. Social relations and Philosophy of
life often expressed in objective reality or subjective appreciation.
2. Life history is another course for case study at reveals the respondent life with the
significance of social movements.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CASE STUDY:-

1. Case study helps in formulating valid hypothesis.

2. It helps in framing questionnaire or schedule through case study, it can be known the
prolife of the unit of individual with which a better and suitable questionnaire or
schedule can be framed in order to get rich response.
3. It aids in sampling, by studying the individual units thoroughly in perfect stultification of
the sample.
4. It locates deviant cases. The deviant case is that units that behave against the proposed
hypothesis .The tendency are to ignore them but for scientific analysis they are
important.
5. Case study method is a process rather than an incident
 6. Case study method enlarges the range of personal experience of the researcher. In
statistical method, generally, a narrow range of topic is selected and the researcher’s
knowledge is limited to the particular aspect only. In case of case study, the whole of
range of subjective life is studied and the range of knowledge is naturally enlarged. With
this personal gain, he gets an intimate knowledge of many aspects of the units.
7. Since the case study covers the entire life of the unit, it is inclusive and intensive in
nature. Under this, there is possibility of studding the various aspects of a problem.
8. The significance of the case study is recorded. This nature of recording the data within
the life of an individual and later on, within the life of the class of individuals. This
means the researcher comes into contact with different classes of people, a thief, a pick-
pocket and a like.

Evolution of Case Study and its Uses

The use of case study as a methodology has a long history within the sciences, social sciences,
and humanities. It can be traced back to the 1930s when it started being used in medical
research.
Through a case study, medical practitioners would take detailed history of illnesses suffered by
the patient. The case study method has the distinct quality of allowing the researcher to make
inferences outside the lab, in natural settings while retaining the scientific quality of the
method of data collection and the research as a whole.

As such, it gained significance as a research methodology for identifying rich sources of data,
further developing into a technique that combines both qualitative and quantitative research.
Although initially rooted within a sciences approach, the case study method increased in
popularity within the social sciences and has been credited as being especially useful in practice
oriented fields as management, education, public administration, and the human services. It
has been an essential tool for advancing researchers’ knowledge of various individuals, groups,
events, and phenomena.

The case study method was first used by Frederic Le Play (1829) on cyclic changes that
contribute to decline or rise in family morale. Dr. William Healy used this method in 1912 to
study juvenile delinquency and considered it a better method over and above the mere use of
statistical data, which he believed restricts the scope of social sciences.

Case studies have been widely used in social work and amongst the best were the ones carried
out by Sigmund Freud. He conducted extremely comprehensive investigations into the private
lives of his patients in order to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

The best known of Freud's case studies include Little Hans (1909) and The Rat Man (1909). In
keeping with its long history, case histories continue to remain one of the primary methods of
investigation within abnormal social work and psychiatry. For students of these disciplines they
can give a vivid insight into mental illnesses as well as patients suffering from them. This insight
can then be used to trigger further, more specific research focusing on issues such effectiveness
of treatment plans, onset of disorders, factors that influence etiology etc.

Similarly, anthropologists, historians, novelists have used this method concerning problems
pertaining to their areas of interest. The case study method is also used by management
experts to study clues pertaining to several management problems. Therefore, the use of this
method permeates the boundaries of a particular discipline and is effectively used in different
fields.

Assumptions and Reasons for Conducting a Case Study

The choice of the method rests with the researcher, depending upon several factors such as the
research’s own skills, the resources available to carry out the study, the logic of the research, its
objectives and applications. It is, however, important to understand the rationale behind using
a particular method.

1. Assumptions underlying the use of case study method

It is assumed that no matter the individual differences that exist between different
cases/individuals, there is certain uniformity across the basic human nature which
enables case study as a method to draw generalizations, however low the level of
generalizability may be. This generalizing ability is greater in natural sciences as opposed
to social sciences as phenomena are understood as being universal, however because
social sciences take into account the individual and/or group differences in behavior and
experiences, there is always room for exception. Despite this shortcoming, case study
method is used to understand phenomena as they occur across individuals. For
example, developmental psychologists often use case studies to track stages of
development in children. It is a well known fact that certain developmental milestones
must be achieved at a particular stage. Since the stages of development are more or less
consistent in the normal population, case study can be effectively used to draw
generalizations in such cases.

The history of the unit of study can be exhaustively explored and researched using a
case study, giving the researcher an elaborate timeline of the individual’s life as it
occurred. Case studies are often longitudinal i.e. done over a period of time allowing the
researcher to track changes in the aspect being studied. A case study on Maoist
movement in Nepal may involve a comprehensive understanding of life and livelihood of
the people before and after the Partition and its impact.

The fundamental assumption behind the case study method is the comprehensive and
elaborate study of the individual or event. One unit is exhaustively studied and focused
on to derive maximum information relevant to the objective and scope of the study.
 This in itself gives the researcher using the case study method a wider perspective than
most other methods.

2. Why is a case study conducted?

According to Coolican (2006, p.101), a case study may be conducted for the following
reasons:

a. Outstanding cases: The cases are studied because they are so rare and intrinsically
interesting in themselves. The ‘distinctiveness’ of a case becomes a huge factor in
itself, which in turn leads to the selection of this method for carrying out research.
For instance, an exceptionally talented individual’s life and his extraordinary
achievements can be effectively captured using a case study.
b. Contradicting a theory: As mentioned earlier, social sciences understand and accept
the existence of exceptions and thus, one single counterexample can prove to be a
challenge to any theory.

For instance, if a maternally deprived child is found to have developed quite

normally in most important respects, then we have to adjust the view that such
deprivation is always damaging.

c. Data pool: A mass of information from several case studies can be pooled and
analyzed for specific factors that might emerge. Once patters emerge and are linked
with others, more quantitative might be employed and this time not on special
cases. For example, if a researcher wishes to study the lifestyle of a schizophrenic
patient, he/she may choose to make use of several case studies involving different
people suffering from schizophrenia, and then look at the commonly emerging
aspects.
d. Insight: The fact that in-depth case studies contain rich information is one of their
unique strengths, even when they might not lead to further quantitative studies.
Very often one might not be able to imagine the special circumstances of the
individual, nor their ways of coping with adversity. In such situations, findings from a
case study can inspire the researchers to formulate new and unique ways of looking
at a psychological phenomenon, can teach greater empathy and understanding, and
can add to our overall psychological knowledge without necessarily testing a specific
hypothesis.

Advantages and disadvantages of the Case Study Method

Any research method is a tool of knowledge generation and information-gathering in the hands
of a researcher. Each method comes with its own set of advantages and limitations, which must
be carefully weighed before use. It is the discretion of the researcher to assess these and
effectively use the tool for making inferences about the individual or phenomenon of interest.
Based on this assessment, the researcher decides the appropriateness of the method for
his/her research.

Advantages

 The detailed descriptions and comprehensive study of the individual enable us to gain
deep insight. In the words of Charles Horton Cooley, “Case study deepens our
perception and gives us a clearer insight into life… It gets at behavior directly and not by
indirect and abstract approach.” A thick account of personal experiences can be
maintained. This allows the researcher to historically analyze past experiences, which
may not be tapped by a method like observation. Individual and social changes can be
tracked using case studies as they are usually done over a period of time.
 It can combine information from various sources and methods, thus allowing the
researcher to look at a particular case from different vantage points and refining his/her
knowledge about the case of interest. Each source or tool supplements information
from the other and paints a complete picture about the individual.
 The case study method highlights individual differences and acts as an excellent tool for
studying phenomenon about which little is known. Therefore, case studies are
extensively used in exploratory research. In the case of Phineas Gage, studied by Dr.
John Martyn Harlow, the case study method provided a groundbreaking finding about
the impact of damage in the frontal lobe on personality and behavior.

Limitations

 Case studies are often done on special, peculiar and rare individuals or events and
hence, suffer from low generalizability. The personal experiences of an individual and
the inferences drawn about them are not always comparable with other people.
 The case study method is very time consuming and costly.
 The research who undertakes a case study must be extremely skilled and rigorously
trained in scientific investigation.
 Critics often suggest that case studies lack scientific rigor and objectivity in terms of the
way the data is gathered, presented and analyzed.
 Case studies cannot practically be conducted on a large sample of individuals due to
time and resource constraints.
 It is often only the voice of the researcher that is expressed in a case study and is
susceptible to subjectivity of the researcher.

Summary

Case studies are in-depth investigations of an individual, group, event or community. Typically
data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g.
observations & interviews). The case study research method originated in clinical medicine.
The data collected is highly descriptive and detailed in nature, narrow in the sense that it
focuses on limited aspects on the case it’s studying. The data collected is a combination of
objective and subjective data. It is capable of studying changes occurring over time.

It assumes that basic human behavior is uniform in certain ways, allowing a certain level of
generalizations, however low that degree might be. The major reasons for choosing to conduct
a case study are to study outstanding cases, contradict an existing theory, generate a data pool
and develop insight into cases.

The main advantages of case study as a research method is its capability to help the researcher
gain deep insights into the behavior or event of interest and help maintain a detailed account of
personal experiences. Combining data from various sources, it helps highlight individual
differences to even help in studying phenomenon about which is little known previously. There
are certain limitations to the method, though. It studies rare individuals or events and thus
suffers from low generalizability and also becomes costlier and more time consuming to
conduct. It is for this reason that case studies cannot be conducted on a large number of
people.

The researcher is required to be highly skilled and trained, and still the method is critiqued for
lacking objectivity and depending largely on the voice of the researcher alone.

2. Social Survey Method

Social survey technique is very popular in sociology. Survey research is the systematic gathering
of information about individuals and collectivities. The purpose of surveying may be description
or casual analysis. Large scale descriptive surveys have long history in social research. National
census is the biggest form of social survey in which surveys, the whole nation regarding its
population, their economic condition including their earning, birth, death etc.

In general social surveys are concerned with

a. the formation of constructive program of social reform and
b. Amelioration of current or immediate conditions of social
pathological nature, which have definite social significance.
Definition

1. Duncan Mitchell’s Dictionary of sociology defines social survey as follows, “the

social survey is a systematic collection of facts about people living in a specific
geographic, cultural or administrative area”.
2. Bogardus says “A social survey is the collection of data concerning the living and
working conditions, broadly speaking of the people in a given community”.
 3. E.W. Burgess defined “A social; survey of a community is the scientific study of
its conditions and needs for the purpose of presenting a constructive program of
social advance”.

Social surveys are useful for dealing with many related aspects of social problem. They provide
the data for administration, rather than for the illustrative or descriptive material. They are
generally quantitative and the history of the social survey is intimately bound up with the
development of statistics.

Surveys vary greatly in their scope, their design and their content. The specific characteristics of
any survey will determined by the basic objectives, which conducting survey there must be a
specific pattern or design to follow to collect data. The research follows a scientific step by step
procedure.

Procedural ways of social survey

The step by step tasks involved in carrying out a survey from the first state off planning to the
preparation of the final report in as follows;
b. Statement of the problem or general objectives
The problem which make survey necessary and the general objectives of
the survey are stated. The statement is generally expressed the area and
scope of the study.
c. Specific objectives of the survey
Although the general objectives, usually few in number are formulated
without regarding to the requirements of the survey technique; these
general objectives are broken down in to numerous specific objectives.
The specification of data to be gathered and the hypotheses to be tested
by the survey is accomplished at this stage.
d. Sample
Two major divisions in the survey sample are (a) the universe of the
survey (b) the size and design of the sample. After then actual selection
of the sample units take place.
e. Questionnaire
After the selection of sample units a questionnaire is prepared, to collect
facts from the sample. The questionnaire must be carefully designed
within limits of the problem. The preparation of questions, degree of
probing, the sequence of questions and the establishment of rapport, a
specific pattern and a skill to be applied here. The questionnaire is pre-
tested in the field for proper application.
f. Field work
The next important step is field work. Gathering facts from sample
through personal interview and observation are done. The interviewers
are usually provided with an instruction manual which explain the
objectives of the study and the meaning of each question.
g. Data coding and tabulation
 After careful coding and editing of the data collected through survey may
transcribed into tables. This may be done by preparing a code, a
numbered list of major items such summing all the responses received to
each question.
h. Data analysis and reporting
The data are analyzed and a report is written which embodying the
survey findings. The survey process is a highly interconnected chain of
events so the above steps are independent of one another.

Limitation of survey method

Even though the survey method is applicable to wide range problems, it has evident limitations.

The major limitations are;

a. Sample error: survey method is subjected to the selection of sample,
b. Errors of measurement: A scone representing a person’s attitude, abilities traits or
behaviors may not match with reality.
c. Limitations of questionnaire: the imitations on length of the questions, that can be
asked in a survey an there are limits to the number of topics that can be covered.
d. Limitations of population: A sample survey designed to represent a population over a
wide geographical area is likely not to given adequate representation to any population
which highly localized in its character.

Survey has major two tools or techniques for data collections. They are

1. Interview
2. Questionnaire

Interview
Interview is a process of communication or interaction in which the subject or interviewee gives
the needed information verbally in a face-to-face situation. In a research situation it may be
seen as an effective, informal conversation, initiated for a specific purpose as it focuses on
certain specific areas. The main objective may be the exchange of ideas and experiences and
eliciting of information.

Types of Interview
Interviews may be classified according to the purpose for which they are used and according to
their design and structure. For purposes of research, an interview may be used, as a tool for
gathering data required by the researcher to test a hypothesis or to solve his/her problems.
This type of interview is called ‘research interview’.
Interviews may vary in design and structure. In some situations, an interviewer may interview
one individual at a time. It is called an ‘individual interview’. In a ‘group interview’, a group of
individuals is interviewed at one and the same time.

Interviews are also classified as ‘structured’ and ‘unstructured’. A ‘structured interview’ is one
in which the whole situation is carefully structured and pre-empted and the major areas of
inquiry are mapped out. However, the interviewee is given considerable freedom to express
his/her description of the situation. In this type of interview, the interviewer uses a highly
standardized tool and a set of pre-determined questions.

‘Unstructured interview’ is one where the interviewer does not follow a list of predetermined
questions. The interviewees are encouraged to relate their concrete experiences with no or
little direction from the interviewer, to dwell on whatever events seem significant to them and
to provide their own definition of their social situations. Series of questions to be asked are
allowed to emerge from the interview itself along with their form sequence in which the
questionnaire to be asked.

Techniques of Interviewing
Although the interview as a research tool can be modified according to the needs of the
research situation, there are certain techniques that need to be understood. These techniques
deal with preparing for the interview, conducting the interview and recording the information
gathered.
4. Preparation for the Interview
It is necessary to plan carefully for an interview. The interviewer must decide
exactly what kind of data the interview should yield, whether the structured or
unstructured type of interview will be more useful and how the results of
interview should be recorded. It is advisable to try out the interview on some
persons before using it for actual investigation. This is helpful in revealing the
deficiencies or shortcomings that need to be corrected before the interview is
carried out. The interviewer must have a clear idea of the sort of information
he/she needs, and may accordingly prepare a list of questions in the form of a
“schedule”.
Interview schedule is a device consisting of a set of questions, which are asked
and filled in by an interviewer in a face-to-face situation with the interviewee.
Since it is administered personally, it provides the researcher an opportunity to
establish a rapport with the respondents. This helps the researcher to explain
the nature and purpose of investigation and to make the meaning of the
questions clear to the respondents in case they misinterpret a question or give
incomplete or indefinite responses. The schedule also economizes on time and
expenses of investigation. The procedure of constructing a schedule is same as
that of a questionnaire.
5. Conduct of Interview
 In the conduct of an interview, a harmonious relationship between the
interviewer and interviewee is most essential. A good rapport helps the
interviewee to feel at ease and express himself/herself willingly. In order to
establish a good rapport, the interviewer should greet the interviewee in a
friendly manner so as to help him/her get settled in a relaxed manner. As an
interviewer you should observe the following rules in order to elicit effective
responses:
1. Ask only one question at a time.
2. Repeat a question if necessary.
3. Try to make sure that the interviewee understands the questions.
4. Listen carefully to the interviewee’s answer.
5. Observe the interviewee’s facial expressions, gestures, and tone or voice so as to derive
meanings from his/ her body language.
6. Allow the interviewee sufficient time to answer the question, but do not let the
interview drag on and on.
7. Avoid suggesting answers to questions.
8. Do not show signs of surprise, shock, anger or other emotions if unexpected answers
are given.
9. Maintain a neutral stance or attitude with respect to controversial issues during the
interview.
10. Take note of answers that seem to be vague, ambiguous, or evasive.
11. Use tact and skill in getting the subject back to an area of inquiry if he/she has strayed
too far away from the original question.
12. In the unstructured interview, ask additional questions to follow up clues or to obtain
additional information.

The interviewer should try to redirect the interview to more fruitful topics when he/she
feels that the required information is not sufficient. She/he should wind up the
interview before the interviewee becomes tired.

6. Recording of the Interview

The recording of the interview is obviously an essential step in interviewing. The

interviewer may use a schedule, a structured format, rating scale or a tape
recorder to record the responses of the interviewee. The use of a tape recorder
during the conduct of the interview not only eliminates the omissions,
distortions, elaboration, and other unwarranted modifications of data usually
found in written interview responses, but it also provides an objective basis for
evaluating the adequacy of the interview data in relation to the performance of
the interviewee. The use of a tape recorder also permits the interviewer to
devote full attention to the interviewee and save much of the time which he/
she would otherwise use in writing down the responses during or after the
interview. However, if a tape-recorder is not available, the interviewer has to
take notes to record the responses.
Uses of the Interview

1. An interview provides an opportunity to the interviewer to ask questions on various

areas of inquiry. It permits greater depth in responses, which is not possible through any
other means.
2. An interview is not an entirely exclusive tool of research for gathering information
pertaining to feelings, attitudes or emotions. It is supplementary to other tools and
techniques. A combination of interviewing, observations, and statistical techniques
often yields the best results, but the balance of emphasis shifts with the frame of
reference and objectives of the study. Since an interview is a highly flexible tool in the
hands of skillful interviewers, it allows a more liberal atmosphere than in the use of
other techniques of investigation. Questions not readily grasped by interviewees can be
rephrased or repeated with proper emphasis and explanations when necessary.
3. An interview is an effective tool for a social scientist in the study of human behavior.
Through this technique, a researcher can secure very intimate and personal knowledge
about the subject of his/her study, which is denied to the natural scientist, who cannot
communicate with the subjects despite all the instruments of precision.

Limitations of the Interview

In spite of many uses of the interview method, it is not without limitations that may jeopardize
its value, even when it is used as a supplementary research technique.
1. Interview is a time consuming technique.
2. The effectiveness of the interview depends greatly upon the skill of the interviewer
which everyone does not ordinarily possess. It takes time to master this skill.
3. There is always a danger of subjectivity on the part of the interviewer.
4. An interview is very difficult to employ successfully because even in the presence a
skilled interviewer some interviewees do not respond freely, frankly and accurately.
5. Since memory and retention are highly selective processes, interviewees generally
provide accurate and vivid accounts of the most recent or intense experiences, or of
situations that they encounter most frequently. Painful or embarrassing experiences are
often forgotten or even consciously avoided by the interviewees. In such cases, the
responses lack accuracy.

Types of Interview:

Interviews vary in purpose, nature and scope. They may be conducted for guidance, therapeutic
or research purposes. They may be confined to one individual or extended to several people.
The following discussions describe several types of interview.

a. Structured Interview:
 Structured interview involves fight control over the format of questions and answers. It is
like a questionnaire which is administered face to face with a respondent. The researcher
has a predetermined list of questions. Each respondent is faced with identical questions.
The choice of alternative answers is restricted to a predetermined list. This type of
interview is rigidly standardized and formal.

Structured interviews are often associated with social surveys where researchers are
trying to collect large volumes of data from a wide range of respondents.

b. Semi-Structured Interview: In semi-structures interview, the interviewer also has a clear

list of issues to be addressed and questions to be answered. There is some flexibility in
the order of the topics. In this type of interviewee is given chance to develop his ideas
and speak more widely on the issues raised by the researcher. The answers are open-
ended and more emphasis is on the interviewee elaborating points of interest.

c. Unstructured Interview: In case of unstructured interview, emphasis is placed on the

interviewee‘s thoughts. The role of the researcher is to be as unobtrusive as possible.
The researcher introduces a theme or topic and then letting the interviewee develop his
or her ideas and pursue his or her train of thought. Allowing interviewees to speak their
minds is a better way of discovering things about complex issues. It gives opportunity
for in depth investigations.

d. Single Interview: This is a common form of semi structured or un-structured interview. It

involves a meeting between one researcher and one informant. It is easy to arrange this
type of interview. It helps the researcher to locate specific ideas with specific people. It
is also easy to control the situation in the part of the interviewer.

e. Group Interview:

In case of group interview, more than one informant is involved. The numbers involved
normally about four to six people. Here you may think that it is difficult to get people
together to discuss matters on one occasion and how many voices can contribute to the
discussion during any one interview. But the crucial thing to bear in mind here is that a
group interview is not an opportunity for the researcher to questions to a sequence of
individuals, taking turns around a table. Group is crucial here, because it tells us that
those present in the interview will interact with one another and that the discussion will
operate at the level of the group. They can present a wide range of information and
varied view points.

According to Lewis – ―Group interviews have several advantages over individual

interviews. In particular, they help to reveal consensus views, may generate richer
responses by allowing participants to challenge one another‘s views, may be used to
 verify research ideas of data gained through other methods and may enhance he
reliability of responses.

The disadvantages of this type of interview are that the views of quieter people do not
come out. Certain members may dominate the talk. The most disadvantages are that
whatever opinions are expressed is acceptable by the group irrespective of their
opinions contrary to it. Private opinion does not given importance.

F. Focus Group Interview:

This is an extremely popular form of interview technique. It consists of a small group of people,
usually between six and nine in number. This is useful for non-sensitive and non-sensitive and
non-controversial topics. The session usually revolves around a prompt, a trigger, some stimulus
introduced by the interviewer in order to focus the discussion. The respondents are permitted
to express themselves completely, but the interviewer directs the live of thought. In this case,
importance is given on collective views rather than the aggregate view. It concentrates on
particular event or experience rather than on a general line of equality.

Requirements of a Good Interview:

As a tool of research good interview requires:

1. Proper preparation.
2. Skillful execution and
3. Adequate recording and interpretation.

Preparation for Interview: The follow actors need to be determined in advance of the actual
interview: Purpose and information needed should be clear. Which type of interview best
suited for the purpose should be decided. A clear outline and framework should be
systematically prepared. Planning should be done for recording responses.

Execution of the Interview:

Rapport should be established. Described information should be collected with a stimulating
and encouraging discussion. Recording device should leased without distracting the
interviewee.
Recording and Interpreting Responses:
It is best to record through tape recorder. It the responses is to be noted down, it should be
either noted simultaneously or immediately after it. Instead of recording responses, sometimes
the researcher noted the evaluation directly interpreting the responses.

Advantages of Interview:
An interviews technique has the following advantages:
 1. Depth Information: Interviews are particularly good at producing data which deal with
topics in depth and in detail. Subjects can be probed, issues pursued lines of
investigation followed over a relatively lengthy period.
2. Insights: The researcher is likely to gain valuable insights based on the depth of the
information gathered and the wisdom of ―key informants‖.
3. Equipment: Interviews require only simple equipment and build on conversation skills
which researchers already have.
4. Information Priorities :
Interviews are a good method for producing data based on informant‘s priorities,
opinions and ideas. Informants have the opportunity to expand their ideas, explain their
views and identify what regard as their crucial factors.
5. Flexibility: Interviews are more flexible as a method of data collection. During
adjustments to the line of enquiry can be made.
6. Validity: Direct contact at the point of the interview means that data can be checked
for accuracy and relevance as they are collected.
7. High response rate: Interviews are generally pre-arranged and scheduled for a
convenient time and location. This ensures a relatively high response rate.
8. Therapeutic: Interviews can be a rewarding experience for the informant, compared
with questionnaires, observation and experiments, there is a more personal element to
the method and people end to enjoy the rather rare chance to talk about their ideas at
length to a person whose purpose is to listen ad note the ideas without being critical.

Disadvantages
Irrespective of the above advantages, it has the following disadvantages.
1. Time Consuming: Analysis of data can be difficult and time consuming. Data preparation
and analysis is ―end loaded‖ compared with, for instance, questionnaires, which are
preceded and where data are ready for analysis once they have collected. The
transcribing and coding of interview data is a major task for the researcher which occurs
after the data have been collected.
2. Difficulty in data analysis: This method produces non-standard responses. Semi-
structured and unstructured interviews produce data that are not pre coded and have a
relatively open format.
3. Less Reliability: Consistency and objectivity are hard to achieve. The data collected are,
to an extent, unique owing to the specific content and the specific individuals involved.
This has an adverse effect on reliability.
4. Interviewer Effect: The identity of the researcher may affect the statements of the
interviewee. They may say what they do or what they prefer to do. The two may not
tally.
 5. Inhibitions: The tape recorder or video recorder may inhibit the important. The
interview is an artificial situation where people are speaking for the record and on the
record and this can be daunting for certain kinds of people.
6. Invasion of Privacy: Interviewing can be an invasion of Privacy and may be upsetting for
the informant.
7. Resources: The cost of interviewer‘s fine, of travel and of transcription can be relatively
high it the informants are geographically widespread. On the basis of the merits and
limitations of the interview techniques it is used in many ways for research and non-
research purposes. This technique was used in common wealth teacher training study to
know the traits must essentials for success in teaching. Apart from being an
independent data collection tool, it may play an important role in the preparation of
questionnaires and check lists which are to be put to extensive use.

Questionnaire
In a research situation, a questionnaire can be said to be a carefully designed instrument for
collecting information or data in relation to the specifications of the research questions and
hypotheses. This instrument is used to elicit written responses from the subjects of the
research through a series of questions or statements put together with some specific objectives
in mind. It can be used to ascertain facts, opinions, beliefs, attitudes, practices, etc.

Obodo (1997), defines it as a series of questions or statements presented in a written form to a

subject or group of subjects and to which they are expected to answer in writing.

The Components of Questionnaire

A questionnaire is made up of such components as the title, the introduction, the response
instructions, biographical information, the questions/statements, return instructions and
gratitude. For you, as a student/learner, a letter of reference from an appropriate authority
may accompany your questionnaire to elicit the cooperation of your respondents. Now, let us
briefly touch on these components.
1. The Title
This gives an appropriate caption for the substantive content of the questionnaire. It is
not the topic of the research project, e.g. Public perception of depression
Questionnaire, Students’ attitude to intelligent test Practicals Questionnaire etc
2. The Introduction
This gives the main objectives of the research and/or the questionnaire. It also gives a
guarantee of anonymity of the respondents and confidential treatment of the
information supplied. It establishes a rapport with the respondents by assuring that no
information in the research report can be traced to particular individuals. This will likely
bring out accurate, frank, objective and comprehensive information from the
respondents.
3. The Response Instruction
 This specifies the mode or modes of completing the questionnaire. You have to instruct
the respondents to fill in the blanks, underline, put a cross, circle or tick the appropriate
place. It is a good practice to use one or two questions and answers to illustrate what
they should do.
4. Biographical Information
This gives the personal data of the respondents. It is required for analysis and
interpretation of the data. It includes such things as type of school, class, occupation,
sex, income, age, qualification, experience, social class, marital status, etc. You should
include only the variables that are needed for analysis and interpretations. Again, you
have to be cautious on the type of information being elicited or required. For instance,
divorced, separated, or widowed, instead of asking for exact age, give age range, when
information is sought what social class, income occupation, qualification, etc.
respondents may be prestige biased and therefore predisposed to over claim, thus
introducing response error.
5. The Questions/Statements
This gives the actual substantive content of the research. They can require factual
answers, opinions or evaluations. Every question/statement has to address a specific
issue in the research. Therefore, the questions/statements must not be written
aimlessly, haphazardly or shoddily.

All the statements or questions must be relevant to the hypotheses and/or research
questions. Do not add unnecessary questions to make the questionnaire lengthy. Select
words which will give you the required information with a minimum of distortions. The
language should be simple, clear and precise. You must try to avoid ambiguous,
suggestive, leading, antagonistic and embarrassing questions that invade privacy. Do not
use double-barreled questions.
6. Return Instructions
These direct the respondents on what to do with the completed instrument. Specify the
collection point, a mailing address or to hand them back to you or your assistants.
7. The Gratitude
This is the end of the instrument. You should recognize that the respondents are under
no obligation to complete the instrument. In fact, they are doing you a favor. Therefore,
you need to appreciate the respondents by thanking them.

Types of Questionnaire
Based on the format for the statements/questions and the responses, questionnaires can be
classified into two major types. These are structured/closed or fixed response type and the
unstructured/open end type. Let us look at them.

1. The Structure or Fixed Response Questionnaire

Here, the respondents are restricted to some response options. A question is asked or a
statement is made and a respondent has to choose from the available alternatives. You
can see that the respondents do not have the freedom and opportunity to express their
views.
 Look at some sample items of the fixed response type below:
a. How old are you?
20 – 30 years ( )
31 – 40 years ( )
41 – 50 years ( )
51 – 60 years ( )
61 and above ( )
b. For how long have you been teaching?
Below 5 years ( )
6 – 10 years ( )
11 – 15 years ( )
16 – 20 years ( )
21 and above ( )

c. What is your highest qualification?

SLC/ SEE ( )
10+2 ( )
B. A ( )
M. A ( )
Ph. D ( )

This type of questionnaire is usually preferred because it facilitates data analysis and the
estimation of validity and reliability indices for the instrument. Again, it is easier and demands
less time to complete. But on the other hand, a respondent may have different suggestions for
your imagination. He may not have the opportunity to give those suggestions.

2. Unstructured or Open-Ended Questionnaire

Here, response options are not provided for the respondents. All you need do is to
provide questions pertinent to the problem and the respondents are free to supply their
responses in their own words and in any manner they deem fit. When you are not sure
or cannot predict what the subjects’ responses are likely to be, this type of
questionnaire is the most appropriate.

See sample items below:

a. Do you have open and distance education in your state or country?
……………………………………….………………….
b. How is it operated ………………………………………
c. Would you say it has advantages over the conventional system of education?
………………………………………….……………..
d. Why do you say so? ………………………………….…………..

The open-end questionnaire can provide unanticipated and insightful information that
could lead to a better understanding of the problem. But they are difficult to complete
 and time-consuming. There may be misinterpretation arising from the fact that some
people may not be able to express themselves very well; while others may use styles
which are at variance with that of the researcher. These may bring about
communication problems. Again, classification and quantification of the responses are
very difficult leading to serious difficulties in the data analysis.

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

You have seen that the questionnaire is a very popular method of data collection in behavioral
sciences. The reason can be attributed to the relative ease and cost-effectiveness with which it
is constructed and administered to large samples when compared to other methods. To serve
its purposes very effectively, the questionnaire you construct must be characterized by the
following features:
1. Relevance: The instrument should be relevant to the purpose of the research. It should
elicit all the information necessary for answering the research questions and testing the
hypotheses. It should also consider the background and experience of the respondents.
2. Consistency: The instrument should be able to yield responses that are consistent. The
responses of a group of people to the instrument on two different occasions should be
as close as possible on these occasions.
3. Usability: The instrument should as much as possible be usable.
It should not be too long or so bulky. The conditions for the administration and the
method for interpreting the data elicited should be fairly simple and easy.
4. Clarity: Both the instructions and the items should be clear enough to avoid possible
misinterpretations. You should note once again that a good questionnaire should not
contain ambiguous items or instructions.
5. Quantifiable: The responses from a good questionnaire must be easily quantifiable. It
should be easy to assign numerical values or figures to such responses in a manner that
is systematic.
6. Legibility: All the items should be legible without tiny characters. The words should be
properly spaced with appropriate side margins. Always use the computer to type your
questionnaire so as to produce very neat and legible instrument.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
i. It is economical in terms of time and cost;
ii. It can be administered to variety of people;
iii. It is easy to administer and even to distant respondents;
iv. It can be used to get information on non-cognitive constructs such as kindness,
stress, anxiety etc;
v. Great percentage of students or respondents can be reached at a time.

Disadvantages
i. There may be low percentage return which may lead to the distortion of the
findings;
 ii. There may be misunderstanding or wrong responses if the item s are not clear or
the instructions are misleading;
iii. Wrong or negative or faked answers may be given if the instrument is too lengthy or
if it is intruding o the respondents’ private life;
iv. It is not suitable for the illiterates, semi-illiterates, and children.

Techniques of questionnaire

1. Size Of The Questionnaire Should Be Small:

A researcher should try his best to keep the number of questions as small as possible,
keeping in view the nature, objectives and scope of the enquiry. Respondent’s time
should not be wasted by asking irrelevant and unimportant questions. A large number
of questions would involve more work for the investigator and thus result in delay on his
part in collecting and submitting the information. A large number of unnecessary
questions may annoy the respondent and he may refuse to cooperate. A reasonable
questionnaire should contain from 15 to 25 questions at large. If a still larger number of
questions are a must in any enquiry, then the questionnaire should be divided into
various sections or parts.
2. The Questions Should Be Clear:
The questions should be easy, brief, unambiguous, non-offending, and courteous in
tone, corroborative in nature and to the point, so that much scope of guessing is left on
the part of the respondents.
3. The Questions Should Be Arranged In A Logical Sequence:
Logical arrangement of questions reduces lot of unnecessary work on the part of the
researcher because it not only facilitates the tabulation work but also does not leave
any chance for omissions or commissions. For example, to find if a person owns a
television, the logical order of questions would be: Do you own a television? When did
you buy it? What is it making? How much did it cost you? Is its performance
satisfactory? Have you ever got it serviced?
4. Questions should be simple to understand
The vague words like good, bad , efficient, sufficient, prosperity, rarely, frequently,
reasonable, poor, rich etc. should not be used since these may be interpreted differently
by different persons and as such might give unreliable and mis leading information.
Similarly the use of words having double meaning like price, assets, capital, income, etc
should also be avoided.
5. Questions should be comprehensive and easily answerable
Questions should be designed in such a way that they are readily comprehensible and
easy to answer for the respondents. They should not be tedious nor should they tax the
respondents’ memory. At the same time questions involving mathematical calculations
like percentages, ratios etc. should not be asked.
6. Questions Of Personal & Sensitive Nature Should Not Be Asked:
 There are some questions which disturb the respondents and he/she may be shy or
irritated by hearing such questions. Therefore, every effort should be made to avoid
such questions. For example, ‘do you cook yourself or your wife cooks?’ ‘Or do you
drink?’ Such questions will certainly irk the respondents and thus be avoided at any
cost. If unavoidable then highest amount of politeness should be used.
 Types of Questions to follow:
Under this head, the questions in the questionnaire may be classified as follows:
a. Shut Questions:

Shut questions are those where possible answers are suggested by the framers of the
questionnaire and the respondent is required to tick one of them. Shut questions can
further be subdivided into the following forms
b. simple alternate questions
in this type of questions the respondent has to choose from the two clear cut
alternatives like ‘Yes’ or ‘No’, ‘right or wrong’ etc. such questions are also called as
dichotomous questions. This technique can be applied with elegance to situations
where two clear cut alternatives exist.
c. Multiple Choice Questions:
Many a times it becomes difficult to define a clear cut alternative and accordingly in
such a situation additional answers between Yes and No, like Do not know, No opinion,
Occasionally, Casually, Seldom etc., are added. For example, in order to find if a person
smokes or drinks, the following multiple choice answers may be used:

Do you smoke?

(a) Yes regularly [ ] (b) No never [ ]

(c) Occasionally [ ] (d) Seldom [ ]

Multiple choice questions are very easy and convenient for the respondents to answer.
Such questions save time and also facilitate tabulation. This method should be used if
only a selected few alternative answers exist to a particular question.
7. Leading Questions Should Be Avoided:
Questions like ‘why do you use a particular type of car, say Maruti car’ should preferably
be framed into two questions-
i. Which car do you use?
ii. Why do you prefer it?

It gives smooth ride [ ]

It gives more mileage [ ]
It is cheaper [ ]
It is maintenance free [ ]
 8. Cross checks:
The questionnaire should be so designed as to provide internal checks on the accuracy
of the information supplied by the respondents by including some connected questions
at least with respect to matters which are fundamental to the enquiry
9. Pre Testing The Questionnaire:
It would be practical in every sense to try out the questionnaire on a small scale before
using it for the given enquiry on a large scale. This has been found extremely useful in
practice. The given questionnaire can be improved or modified in the light of the
drawbacks, shortcomings and problems faced by the investigator in the pre test.
10. A Covering Letter:
A covering letter from the organizers of the enquiry should be enclosed along with the
questionnaire for the purposes regarding definitions, units, concepts used in the
questionnaire, for taking the respondent’s confidence, self addressed envelope in case
of mailed questionnaire, mention about award or incentives for the quick response, a
promise to send a copy of the survey report etc.

Difference between Interview and Questionnaire

Questionnaire Interview
1. Data is gathered indirectly. Data is gathered directly.
2. No face to face contact between two. There is face to face contact between
interviewer and interviewee.
3. . Interviewer should have the general Skillful interviewer is needed.
knowledge of the topic.
4. Interviewee will hesitate to write it. Some confidential information can
also be obtained
5. We get written information only. We get written and oral both type of
information.

C. Observation based method

Introduction to observation method in social work research

Observation may be defined as a process in which one or more persons observe some real-life
situation and record pertinent occurrences. It is used to evaluate the overt behavior of the
individuals in controlled and uncontrolled situations.

The term observation derives from Latin, meaning to watch, to attend to. Dictionary definitions
(e.g. Oxford English Dictionary, 1989) tend to concerned it with the accurate watching and
noting of phenomena as they occur in nature, with regard to cause and effect or mutual
relations.

Reber (1985), however, extends the definition that “All psychological methods involve
observation, but stresses a distinction that should be made between research that is controlled
by the manipulation of independent variables and research that is carried out by the use of
naturalistic observation”.

C.A. Moser (1958) expressed that “Observation can fairly be called the classic method of
scientific study.”Observation is one of the oldest and the most fundamental research method
approaches.

From the above definitions, it can be seen that `observation’ is the process of collecting
impressions of the world using all of one’s senses, especially visual and auditory, which can be
used as an independent `classic method’ of scientific study and also as a part of research,
supplementing other methods in an important way. However, in the layman’s perception,
understanding and usage of the term `observation’ is very different from the one used in the
social research processes. Everyone is an observer. However, observation stops being a part of
everyday lives and becomes a research method if it is systematically planned, recorded and the
recordings are checked for their validity and reliability with a particular intention for such an
Endeavour. These factors simply distinguish between simply observing the world around you
and collecting research data through observation. Observation as a research method, thus, take
place when the researcher intentionally, with a specific purpose in mind, place themselves
amidst certain people, locations, situations and contexts to observe a phenomenon.

For example: Observing two kids playing just for the pleasure of watching it is an example of
everyday observation.

However, observing a group or a pair of kids playing in a particular context or setting, for
example a park in order to observe the “Aggression in the play interaction of children in the age
range of 6 – 11 years” is an observation which is a research method. Other less important
distinctions would be the seriousness, which, in a greater degree, observation as a research
method entails and the importance in furthering of knowledge that observation as a research
method helps in achieving.

Characteristics of Observation research

The `characteristics’ of observation technique, in general and as a method used in the
qualitative realm of research are presented as follows:

1. An intent and purpose: Observation, as a scientific study seems to provide the

characteristics of objectivity, precision, specificity, systematic steps, verifiable, reliable
and valid. For insuring all of the above, the first and most important consideration is
that the researcher (observer) must know clearly what is to be observed. A scientific
observation always has intent or a purpose behind it for it to be different from the
everyday observation.

Thus, for example: If a researcher wants to study a problem through observation such as
“Does democratic style of teaching lead to better grades in school?” Here it is very
important to measure “democratic style of teaching” by defining it in a way it can be
subjected to empirical testing, Only when the researcher operationalizes the constructs
or variables he wishes to measure, the scope of `what to measure?’ and the purpose of
observation would become clear.

2. Naturalism and qualitative research: In a quantitative paradigm, when observation is

used, it is comparatively more systematic following certain steps providing for planning,
recording data and analyzing it, while being systematic is an important feature of
research. Qualitative observational research attempts to capture life as experienced by
the research participants, in the field as it happens, rather than through categories that
have been predetermined by the researcher. Observational research assumes behavior
is purposeful, reflecting deeper values and beliefs. Although it can be conducted in
`contrived settings’; a characteristic of observational research is that it occurs in the
natural settings to capture behavior as it occurs in the real life of the participant.

3. Characteristic of contact: Another characteristic is that it usually involves direct contact

between the observer and participant though indirect observations by observing video
and audio tapings can also be made.

4. Exploratory research paradigm: Observational research holds the `characteristic’ to be

`exploratory’ in nature. It seeks to uncover unexpected phenomena, ideas, causes for
behavior and the like. As said, sometimes, though the researcher has planned his
observation, the field might surprise him.

Advantages and limitations of observation

Advantages

Observation as a method of data collection is generally considered to have the following

advantages over other methods (Mahr, 1995):
  It provides information when other methods are not effective.
 It employs a relatively less complicated and less time-consuming procedure of subject
selection.
 It can offer data when respondents are unable and/or unwilling to cooperate or to
offer information.
 It approaches reality in its natural structure, and studies events as they evolve.
 It offers first-hand information without relying on the reports of others.
 It allows the collection of a wide range of information, even when this information is
thought to be, at the time of study, irrelevant. This is particularly true of participant
observation.
 It is relatively inexpensive.

Limitations / disadvantages

Observation also has some limitations, of which the ones listed below are the most significant.
It must be noted that while some limitations occur in qualitative observation, and others in
quantitative observation, they are often addressed indiscriminately by many writers (e.g.
Becker, 1989; Mahr, 1995), as they relate to observation as a method.

 It cannot be employed when large groups or extensive events are studied.

 It cannot provide information about past, future or unpredictable events.
 It cannot offer data related to frequency of behavior.
 It cannot study opinions or attitudes directly.
 It is inadequate when studying certain phenomena, such as sexual behavior, family
violence, etc.
 It is a relatively laborious and time-consuming method.
 It is exposed to the observer's bias, selective perception and selective memory.
 In participant observation the observer is a part of the situation that is being
observed.
 It offers no control measures regarding bias, attitudes and opinions of the observer.
 It cannot offer quantitative generalizations on the results.

Types of Observation
Observation may be classified into following types:

a. Participant Observation
b. Non-participant Observation
Participant observation: In the process of ‘participant observation’, the observer
becomes more or less one of the group members and may actually participate in some or the
other activity of the group. The observer may play any one of the several roles in observation,
with varying degrees of participation: as a visitor, an attentive listener, an eager learner or as a
participant observer. It is one type of data collection method typically done in the qualitative research
paradigm. It is a widely used methodology in many disciplines, particularly in behavioral science. Its aim
is to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals (such as a religious,
occupational, sub cultural group, or a particular community) and their practices through an intensive
involvement with people in their cultural environment, usually over an extended period of time.

Stages of participant observation

According to Howell (1972), four stages that most participant observation research studies are

 Consolidating the information gathered

 recording data and observations,
 immersing oneself in the field,
 establishing rapport or getting to know the people,

Types of participant observation

Participant observation is not simply showing up at a site and writing things down. On the contrary,
participant observation is a complex method that has many components. One of the first things that a
researcher or individual must do after deciding to conduct participant observations to gather data is
decide what kind of participant observer he or she will be. Spradley provides five different types of
participant observations

Type of Participant Observation Level of Involvement

Non-Participatory No contact with population or field of study
Passive Participation Researcher is only in the bystander role
Moderate Participation Researcher maintains a balance between "insider"
and "outsider" roles
Active Participation Researcher becomes a member of the group by
fully embracing skills and customs for the sake of
complete comprehension
Complete Participation Researcher is completely integrated in population
of study beforehand (i.e. he or she is already a
member of particular population studied).
Advantages and Disadvantages of participant observation

Advantages

1. Possible to get natural behavior of the group studied.

2. Possible to get an insight into the activities and motivations of the group which would have
been impossible had the fieldworker not been able to eliminate social and mental
distances.
3. Possible to get an ‘emic’ view of the people’s behavior and actions i.e. conceptually
speaking, to obtain the ‘insider’s point of view’ rather than the observer’s own
interpretation.
4. The intimate and active participation provides the investigation with sources of information
not procurable in more formal methods of investigation.
5. This method has its psychological values- it often tends to accustom the group to the
observer and at times even to accept him and incorporate him more or less as a member.
He, thus, gains the rapprochement which is indispensable for more intimate case-studies
and interviews later on.
6. Possible to check the truth of statements made by members of the group i.e. enables him
to evaluate his informant’s statement and information.
7. The use of the technique will provide a desirable balance between the more purely
behaviorist type of investigation and the type which seeks some measure of insight into the
‘meanings’ current in the community.

Disadvantages

1. Objectivity is lost, because of the observer’s intimate relationship with the group. Often
the investigator develops a sort of secondary ethnocentrism, when he starts identifying
himself very closely with the group, and it becomes very difficult for him to get rid of it,
and report his findings objectively.
2. Further, when the investigator goes completely native and learns the correct mode of
behavior, he comes to take them so much for granted that they seem perfectly natural.
As a consequence, he frequently will fail to record these details.
3. Such close identification may shape the investigator to a point where he starts feeling
that it has become a part of his responsibility to self-guard the interests of the people,
and he may give incomplete details.
4. By becoming a participant, the investigator narrows his range of experience. He takes
on a particular position within the group, with a definite clique or friendship circle. He
learns and follows a pattern of activity which is characteristic of its members, and thus
is less able to find out what fringe individuals are doing.
 5. The participant observer may fail to notice certain details as a consequence of his
preoccupation with the perfection of his role in the new group.

Non-participant observation: In the process of ‘nonparticipant observation’, the

observer takes a position where his/her presence is not felt by the group. She/he may follow
closely the behavior of an individual or characteristics of one or more groups. In this type of
observation, a one-way ‘vision screen’ permits the observer to see the subject but prevents the
subject from seeing the observer.

Non participant observation or direct, observation is where data are collected by observing behavior
without interacting with the participants. In this type of observation, the researcher does not actually
participate in the activities of the group to be studied. He would be simply present in the group to note
down the behavior of the respondents. The researcher makes no attempt to influence or to create a
relationship between him and the group. Though the method implies non-participation, it should not be
construed as complete or total lack of participation. As a matter of fact, there can be no non-participant
observation of a group.

The merit of this method is that the researcher can maintain purely impartial status and be free from
factionalism. He can adopt a scientific attitude and look at the happenings only from that perspective.
But the greatest problem with this method is that the members of the group (i.e. those under
observation) may become suspicious of the presence of the researcher and hence may not display their
natural behavior.

Further, under non-participant observation, the observer may observe only those activities that take
place before him. He fails to understand them in proper sequence, unless he has actively participated
with the group.

Observations may also be classified into the following two categories:

1. Structured observation, and
2. Unstructured observation
Structured observation: Structured observation is formal in character and is designed to
provide systematic description to test causal hypothesis. It is executed in controlled situations
like classrooms or laboratory settings. This type of observation starts with relatively specific
formulations. There is not much choice with respect to the content of observation. The
observer sets up in advance the categories of behavior in terms of which he/she wishes to
analyze the problem, and keeps in mind the time limit within which he/she has to make the
observation.

It is a method for systematically observing the behavior of individuals in terms of a schedule of

categories. It is a technique in which the researcher employs explicitly formulated rules for the
observation and recording of behavior. One of its main advantages is that it allows behavior to
be observed directly, unlike in survey research, which allows behavior only to be inferred. In
survey research, respondents frequently report their behavior, but there are good reasons for
thinking that such reports may not be entirely accurate. Structured observation constitutes a
possible solution in that it entails the direct observation of behavior.

Structured observation, often also called systematic observation, is a technique in which the
researcher employs explicitly formulated rules for the observation and recording of behavior.
The rules inform observers about what they should look for and how they should record
behavior. Each person who is part of the research (we will call these people ‘participants’) is
observed for a predetermined period of time using the same rules. These rules are articulated
in what is usually referred to as an observation schedule, which bears many similarities to a
structured interview schedule with closed questions. The aim of the observation schedule is to
ensure that each participant’s behavior is systematically recorded so that it is possible to
aggregate the behavior of all those in the sample in respect of each type of behavior being
recorded. The rules that constitute the observation schedule are as specific as possible in order
to direct observers to exactly what aspects of behavior they are supposed to be looking for. The
resulting data resemble questionnaire data considerably, in that the procedure generates
information on different aspects of behavior that can be treated as variables. Moreover,
structured observation research is typically underpinned by a cross-sectional research design.

Advantages of structured observation:

1. The fact that different observes can, and do, produce different accounts of situations
can be handled by using structured observation.

It is precisely this problem which is addressed by systematic (structured) observation

and its use of an observation schedule. The whole purpose of the schedule is to
minimize, possibly eliminate, the variations that will arise from data based on
individual perceptions of events and situations. Its aim is to provide a framework of
observation which all observers will use (Denscombe, 2007).

Thus, it gives objectivity to the research.

I. It can be replicated to some extent exactly.
II. It helps to not miss out any aspects which are of extreme importance for the study. It
also helps in quicker recording of the aspects of the phenomenon.
III. The observer bias is not much in the field, however while construction of the
observation schedule, the bias enters as only those observations anticipated to be
important find a place in the schedule.

Disadvantages of structured observation:

i. Researcher bias during construction of observation schedule
ii. Limited and narrow scope of studying a phenomenon
iii. Greater objectivity sometimes leads to missing out on major variables that affect the
focus of the observation.
 iv. The findings, rather, the recordings may not be complete, missing out on some
unanticipated observations the field surprises the researcher with.
v. This is based on a theory but might not help in elaborating or giving a new theory.

Thus, the structuring of data or an observation can be done by structuring the data gathering
techniques which are structured and systematic like check-lists, rating scales, charts etc.

Unstructured observation: Unstructured observation is associated with participant observation

and is often an exploratory exercise. In unstructured observation, it may not be possible to
categories behavior before the observation. The observer considers aspects of behavior in
terms of their contexts or situations of which they are a part.

Unstructured observation:

As its name implies, unstructured observation does not entail the use of an observation
schedule for the recording of behavior. Instead, the aim is to record in as much detail as
possible the behavior of participants with the aim of developing a narrative account of that
behavior. In a sense, most participant observation is unstructured, but the term unstructured
observation is usually employed in conjunction with non-participant observation.

Researchers who decide to adopt the technique and may have a clear idea of the purpose of
observation, they may not be very clear about the details of observation. This kind of
observation is generally used in exploratory studies. The researcher `does not use
predetermined categories and classifications but makes observations in a more natural open –
ended way ….. The logic here is that categories and concepts for describing and analyzing the
observational data will emerge later in the research, during the analysis, rather than brought to
the research, or imposed on the data, from the start.’ (Punch, 2005).

As in grounded theory, the researcher `postpones the definitions and structures until a pattern
has been observed ….. And then continues with the fieldwork in order to elaborate these while
the data are still available for access ‘(Bouling, 2002).

Unstructured observation can be useful to generate hypotheses and theories, but is difficult to
manage. It’s qualitative in nature and this can sometimes be referred to as qualitative
observational research. Thus usually involves taking field notes and such unstructured means to
collect data where the field holds surprises.

Advantages of unstructured observation

1. Not imposing any particular limit to the data on the behavior in any way, this form of
observation is more open to new concepts and ideas that may be derived from the field.
 2. New concepts may arise and new theories may develop which may help to further
knowledge in an unrestricted manner.
3. It includes bias as structured observation have certain aspects to observe outlined which
depends strongly upon the researcher’s subjective bias or understanding what is
important and what is not.
4. It helps in greater understanding of a phenomenon in a more subjective manner which
is one quality of qualitative research.

Disadvantages of unstructured observation:

1. It is very difficult to do and requires a great deal of skill.
2. It involves observer bias; as the observer notes down only the aspects of the
phenomenon which he feels to be important and relevant.
3. Only carrying unstructured data collecting devices may slow down the observation
process and if only one observes is present to observe a large group, the notes may be
incomplete as the observes may miss out on some aspects.
4. Some notes may be deviating from the research topic and the analysis is also
comparatively difficult.

Application of observation in the social work research

1. Observation as a technique:
“Observational research technique” is used in conjunction with other techniques or
method in the process of carrying out a research. Observation may be used in traditional
experimental design, as in Milgram’s (1963) work on obedience where, in addition to
mechanical recordings of the participant’s responses, a film record was made in order to
achieve or observe changes in the `emotional reactions’.

Also in Bandura’s (1965) `Bobo doll study’ of aggression, the degree of frustration of the
child just prior to observing the model was observed, the status of the role of the child and
the consequences of the model’s behavior were predicted using observation as a
technique, using the information of which, many independent variables were manipulated
and their affect on the dependent variables was observed.

In exploratory researches using any method, observation as a technique can be used to

understand the context of the phenomenon and the important questions regarding the
phenomena to be asked.

Observation can be used in conjunction with interviews in order to observe and record the
inherent non-verbal eves of the participant and also when the interviewer possesses
limited verbal skills (like children and people with learning disabilities) and the like.

Observation is used in conjunction to the analysis done in role play and simulated
behaviors. In these cases observations may be made at the time when the simulated
behaviors and feeling exhibited in particular role plays are filmed for subsequent analysis.
Thus, observation can be used as a technique in conjunction with many other instruments
as it adds comprehensiveness, meaning and scope for generalizing the data and the
findings of the research study.

Observation as an Overall research design:

An ‘observational investigation’ is a study carried out only using the method of

observation for collecting data and thus, analyzing it. It thus involves all the characteristics
of observational method such as the presence of intent, it being carried out in a real-life-
setting, usually away from the labs and finally not involving manipulation of the variables
which thus, enables the formulation of strong correlations but not cause effect
relationships between the variables.

The biggest weakness of such a study only employing the observational technique for the
entire process of research is that a cause – effect relationship between the variables
measured cannot be formed due to the vast dynamic interplay of variables in real – life
settings where none of the variables are manipulated. Thus, the reason for a particular
phenomenon cannot be particularly found and generalized.

However, in phenomena that require an exploratory approach, seeking to known about the
field no one treaded into, observational method is the only research method which
positively affects the study. In these studies, as the causes of behavior or the phenomena
are more unimportant than the general primary understanding of the phenomenon,
observational method serves the purpose.

However, it is very rarely used as an individual method due to loss of comprehensiveness

and thus losing out on important aspects of the phenomenon.

Research questions appropriate to be studied by the technique of observation:

Observation, one of the methods of field research holds the strength of observing the
phenomenon as it happens, in the field setting, to get a full understanding of it and thus a
deeper insight into it.

Thus, with such purposes in mind, it can be said the observation is appropriate for research
questions that appear to defy simple quantification, which show study of social processes
over time and those which study attitudes and behaviors best understood within their
natural setting.

The above three criteria answer the question “What research questions are appropriately
answered by the method of observation?”
1. Firstly, observation is appropriate for questions that defy including simple
quantification: Observation, particularly the paradigm of qualitative research as a whole,
 rejects the idea that all the subjective human experiences, individual differences and
many intricacies that help in better understanding of a phenomenon cannot be
quantified (always).
For example: The very subjective reaction of empathy or helping behavior of an
individual can be very rarely quantified, thus making observation an appropriate
method for its study.
2. Observation is appropriate for research questions which study social processes over a
period of time.

While survey research and other longitudinal studies are ex-post facto researches where
the study occurs after the phenomenon had already occurred, in a reconstruction of
events, observation gives a picture though, from the beginning to the end of the
phenomenon.

For example: Observation is very useful to examine the rumblings and final explosion of
a riot as the events actually occur, rather than the afterward in a reconstruction of the
events.

3. Field research (observation) is especially appropriate for the study of those attitudes
and behavior; which is best understood within their natural setting.

For example: Observation best suites the studying of dynamics of conversion of religion
at a revival meeting which requires a subjective experience to the data collected.
However “how many men and woman are more likely to convert is better studies
through a statistical analysis.

4. Observation is appropriate for questions that demand a rounded understanding of a

phenomenon, but not generalizability to a large population. Observation, being one the
many methods in qualitative research focuses on the understanding of a phenomenon
at a deeper level but not on the process of generalization to a larger group. Hence, the
sampling also differs in qualitative and quantitative research paradigms. Observation
chooses people who are rich in information regarding that phenomenon or seem to be
potential sources are treated as the `simple’; and questions that require that kind of an
approach are best suited to be observed.

For example: For investigating the research question “what individual” would have the
aim of learning about the various possible symptoms rather than generalizing this to all
possible schizophrenics. For such questions, observation can be an effective method of
research.
5. Historical Development of Observation as a research method
Naturalistic Observation as a method
Naturalistic observations are observations that take place in a person's or animals own natural
environment. It is sometimes called field work or simply field observation. In a naturalistic
observation study, the researcher makes observations of individuals in their natural
environments (the field). This research approach has roots in anthropology and the study of
animal behavior and is currently widely used in the social sciences to study many phenomena in
all types of social and organizational settings.

Naturalistic observation (sometimes referred to as field observation) involves watching people

or animals in their natural habitats. The greatest advantage of this type of observation is the
potential for observing natural or true behaviors. The idea is that animals or people in their
natural habitat rather than in an artificial laboratory setting should display more realistic,
natural behaviors. For this reason, naturalistic observation has greater ecological validity than
most other research methods. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be
generalized to real-life situations (Aronson & Carlsmith, 1968). Both Jane Goodall and Dian
Fossey engaged in naturalistic observation in their work with chimpanzees and gorillas,
respectively. However, as we will see, they used the naturalistic method slightly differently

In this method, the scientist tests hypotheses by observing people as they engage in everyday
activities in their natural habitats. For example, observing people in their common, everyday
life at home, at school, or on the playground, (that is, natural) surroundings. The strength of
naturalistic observation is the ease with which it can be applied to infants and toddlers, who
often cannot be studied though methods that demand verbal skills. But perhaps the greatest
advantage of the observational technique is that it is the only method that can tell us how
people actually behave in everyday life (Willems & Alexander, 1982).

In some observational studies, researchers observe and record behavior without intervening or
affecting the behavior in any way, in a real – life setting, as it occurs, naturally. The participants
are observed as they engage in ordinary activities in settings that have not been artificially
created or set up in the aim of carrying out research.

For example: Researchers have used naturalistic observation to study behavior during riots,
crowd behavior, other mob events, littering, non-verbal behavior, play interactions between
children and so on. Such an observation in the context of naturalism is known as ‘Naturalistic
observation’.
Naturalistic observation is not only used by psychologists, sociologists and other people who
study the human behavior, but is also conducted by researchers who are interested in the
behavior of non-human animals in their natural habitats – ethnologists and comparative
psychologists.
Examples are studies of tool use by elephants, mating among ignana lizards, aggression among
monkeys (for eg., cheralier – skolnikoff & Liska, 1993).

In reality, this method was inherited by social work from the ethnologists largely (Lorenz,
Tinbergen).

Advantages of Naturalistic setting:

1. The behavior which occurs is more natural and if the target is unaware of the observer,
(which is usually the case), the behavior is unaffected by anxiety or the target’s need to
be socially desirable or to impress.
2. The study gains the status of a real and ecologically valid study as the observations tend
to more true in the real – life and thus more valid.
3. The places of phenomena where it would be unethical to experiment with or intervene
or manipulates variables (eg. In the lives of children and animals), this method is
extremely of use.
4. When people are not ready to cooperate with interview or questionna9ire methods and
when the researcher decides that full social content is necessary for the observed
behavior to carry meaning ; these are the places where naturalistic observation takes on
an advantage.

Disadvantages of observational research in naturalistic settings (natural observation)

1. First, some behaviors occur so infrequently (for example, heroic rescues) or are
so socially undesirable that they are unlikely to be witnessed by a strange
observer in the natural environment.
2. Second, many events are usually happening at the same time in the natural
setting, and any (or some combination) of them may be affecting people’s
behavior. This makes it difficult to pinpoint the causes of participants’ actions or
of any developmental trends in behavior.
3. The mere presence of an observer can sometimes make people behave
differently than they otherwise would
4. Naturalistic observation obviously cannot be used to study all issues or
phenomena. The approach is most useful when investigating complex social
settings both to understand the settings and to develop theories based on the
observations.
5. It is less useful for studying well-defined hypotheses under precisely specified
conditions or phenomena that are not directly observable by a researcher in a
natural setting (e.g., color perception, mood, and response time on a cognitive
task).
6. Field research is also very difficult to do. Unlike a typical laboratory experiment,
field research data collection cannot always be scheduled at a convenient time
and place. In fact, field research can be extremely time-consuming, often placing
the researcher in an unfamiliar setting for extended periods.
 7. In naturalistic observation research, however, there is an ever-changing pattern
of events, some important and some unimportant; the researcher must record
them all and remain flexible in order to adjust to them as research progresses.
8. Finally, the process of analysis that follows the completion of the research is not
simple. The researcher must repeatedly sort through the data to develop
hypotheses to explain the data and then make sure all data are consistent with
the hypotheses.

Stages in the Process of Observation

As a good research technique, observation needs proper planning, expert execution, and
adequate recording and interpretation.

ii. Planning for observation

Planning for observation includes definition of specific activities or units of
behavior to be observed; the nature of the groups of subjects to be
observed; the scope of observation of the individual or group; determination
of the length of each observation period and deciding about the tools to be
used in making the observation and recording.
iii. Execution of Observation

The expert execution of observation includes:

a. Proper arrangement of specific conditions for the subject or subjects to be
observed
b. Assuming proper role or physical positions for observing,
c. Focusing attention on the specific activities or units of behavior under
observation,
d. Proper handling of recording instruments to be used, and
e. Utilizing one’s training and experience fairly effectively in terms of making
the observation and recording the facts.

iv. Recording and Interpreting the Observation

Recording of the observation data should take place either simultaneously or

soon after the observation. In the former case, the observer goes on
recording his/her observation data simultaneously with the occurrence of
the phenomenon observed. In the latter case, the observer undertakes to
record his/her observations not simultaneously with the actual event, but
immediately after he/she has observed for a certain period of time while the
details are still fresh in his/her mind.

In viewing, classifying and recording behavior, the observer must take utmost
care to keep out his/her personal influences, biases, attitudes and values
from the observation report. The observer should know what he/she is
looking for in a given situation and should carefully and objectively record
 the relevant data. Subjectivity on the part of an observer may partly be due
to his/her emotional involvement, his/her selective perceptions and
memory. In order to overcome these biases, various mechanical instruments
are used to obtain more accurate records of events.

The use of cameras, tape-recorders, stopwatches, binoculars, audiometer,

one-way vision screens, mirrors, etc., allows behavior to be observed to a
degree of accuracy which cannot be achieved by an unaided human
observer. It is worthwhile to develop an “observation schedule” like a
question-schedule for making and recording observations. The specific
behaviors to be observed and recorded should be listed in this schedule.

D.Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a qualitative method of data gathering that is aimed at
obtaining in-depth information from a particular group of people called the focus group. The
process involves a facilitator and a group of about 6 – 12 persons who have the same
background. The researcher acts as the facilitator, with the group members discussing the topic
raised by the facilitator freely. In some cases, there are co- facilitators.

Sometimes, an FGD is not completed in a day. Once this is so, the researcher adjourns the
session as many times as possible until all the information is exhausted. An FGD is particularly
aimed at eliciting attitudes, ideas or perceptions of the group. An FGD can be in the form of
teleconferencing where a telephone conference is used real time to get information from a
group of respondents and more recently, there is increased use of the on-line type called the
on-line FGD. In conducting an FGD, the researcher chooses the objectives of the meeting, plans
the meeting session, carefully selects the group using his pre planned selection criteria,
schedules the meeting in a open setting, sets ground rules and holds the session. It is important
for the researcher to immediately make notes of the meeting after the session.

A focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their
perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service, concept,
advertisement, idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where
participants are free to talk with other group members. The first focus groups were created at
the Bureau of Applied Social Research in the USA, by associate director, sociologist Robert K.
Merton.

The term itself was coined by psychologist and marketing expert Ernest Dichter. Powell et al
define a focus group as “A group of individuals selected and assembled by researchers to
discuss and comment on, from personal experience, the topic that is the subject of the
research.(1996: 499)”
Focus groups are discussions that last one to two hours, usually done with 6-12 people. The
discussion is led by a moderator asking open-ended questions. Focus groups can be used to
discover people's general reactions to an interface or services. A wide range of information can
be gathered in a relatively short time span.

In the social sciences and urban planning, focus groups allow interviewers to study people in a
more natural setting than a one-to-one interview. In combination with participant observation,
they can be used for gaining access to various cultural and social groups, selecting sites to
study, sampling of such sites, and raising unexpected issues for exploration. Focus groups have
a high apparent validity - since the idea is easy to understand, the results are believable. Also,
they are low in cost, one can get results relatively quickly, and they can increase the sample size
of a report by talking with several people at once.

Focus groups are particularly helpful when used in conjunction with surveys. Your library can
follow up a survey with focus groups to clarify the issues revealed, and perhaps hear surprising
new ideas or concerns. Unlike doing polls or asking a listserv, the strength of this technique is
the interaction between participants. With a skilled moderator, the conversation can go beyond
"like it, don't like it" and allow new views to surface. Since there is no pressure to reach a
consensus, all views can be encouraged and aired.

The first step is to understand what you want to learn. Focus groups are not polls or surveys;
they are in-depth, qualitative interviews with a small number of carefully selected people, to
help you develop an idea or specific service. To prepare, you may want to first consider your
budget.
This is a labor intensive project; time may be the most expensive item. It takes considerable
time to plan the sessions, recruit volunteers, and develop your questions. If you hire a
professional moderator, that could be a considerable expense, other optional things can add to
the cost, including honorariums, refreshments and video taping

Advantages of FGD
1. FGD enables the researchers have ample information on the topic within a little period
of time.
2. FGD produces responses that are equal to those of the population from which the focus
group is drawn.
3. Focus group research involves organized discussion with a selected group of individuals
to gain information about their views and experiences of a topic.
4. Focus group interviewing is particularly suited for obtaining several perspectives about
the same topic.
5. The benefits of focus group research include gaining insights into people’s shared
understandings of everyday life and the ways in which individuals are influenced by
others in a group situation.
6. Problems arise when attempting to identify the individual view from the group view, as
well as in the practical arrangements for conducting focus groups.
 7. The role of the moderator is very significant. Good levels of group leadership and
interpersonal skill are required to moderate a group successfully.
8. You can get feedback about what people do over a long period of time.
9. Focus groups used early in a project can produce insights and questions from the
interaction among different users or stakeholders.
10. Focus groups are relatively inexpensive (assuming that participants are from the same
geographical area) and can be arranged quickly.

Disadvantages of FGD
 Impersonal
Group discussions don’t lend themselves to personal revelations, so they might not be
suitable for sensitive or controversial issues. For example, group discussions might not
be suitable for research pertaining to products people might feel ashamed about using,
such as alcohol. If people don't feel comfortable sharing their opinions or experiences,
the focus group interview won't generate any useful insights. In these situations,
anonymous surveys or confidential interviews might be a better means of obtaining
information.
 Difficult to Control
For a focus group interview to be revelatory, the conversation must flow naturally to
reveal what the participants are thinking. But group discussions can get out of hand
quickly, straying from the original topic and getting lost in useless tangents. An effective
facilitator will keep the discussion on track, but this might be impossible if the group is
rowdy or young.
 Dominating Individuals
The goal of a group discussion is to discover what all the participants think, but
outspoken people might skew those results. For example, a shy dissenter might never
reveal important insights, or a single persuasive participant might cause other
participants to change their original opinions, meaning you never learn about their
initial reactions. To avoid these problems, facilitators must involve everyone to ensure
all the participants have equal time and that all points of view are heard.
 Not Representative
The selection of people for the group discussion is unlikely to be representative of the
larger population, so you can’t assume the opinions you uncover have any significance
past whatever insights they offer into possible thought patterns. For example,
unanimous agreement about a product's effectiveness might have no correlation to how
most consumers feel about that product, though a discussion of the product’s
effectiveness might help you generate targeted questions for future research
 FGD is not appropriate for use as a single research tool, it is most appropriate to use it
with another research tool
 FGD cannot be used to discuss very sensitive topics like sexual exposure, etc
 E. Experimental method
Experimental method is a scientific method. It is oriented to the future in the sense that the
researcher is seeking to evaluate something new. It is a process of contribution to the already
acquired fund of knowledge. Thus, the experimenter operates under the basic assumption that
the research situation he wishes to evaluate has never existed and does not now exist.

Experimentation is the basic tool of the physical sciences like Physics, Chemistry for establishing
cause and effect relationship and for verifying inferences. However, it is now also used in social
sciences like psychology, Sociology, and social work. Experimentation is a research process used
to observe the cause and effect relationship under controlled conditions. In other words it aims
at studying the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, by keeping the other
interdependent variables constant through some type of control. In experimentation, the
researcher can manipulate the independent variables and measure its effect on the dependent
variable.

According to Jahoda: It is a Method of Testing Hypothesis

The purpose of experimentation is to derive verified functional relationships among
phenomena under controlled conditions or more simply, to identify the conditions underlying
the occurrence of a given phenomenon. From an operational point of view, it is a matter of
varying the independent variable in order to study the effect of such variation on the
dependent variable. For example, the investigator might vary the size of the print and appraise
the effect of such manipulation on reading speed. Actually, what we know about our
environment comes from observation, and all research is concerned with the observation of
phenomena and the generalization of these observations into certain functional relationships
whose internal validity can be tested. Experimentation simply enables us to improve the
conditions under which we observe and, thus, to arrive at more precise results. This is the
essence of the scientific method.

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF EXPERIMENT

There are many views about the experiment, given by different researchers. They are as
follows:
 “An experiment usually consists in making an event occur under known conditions
whereas many extraneous influences as far as possible are eliminated and close
observation is possible so that relationship between phenomena can be revealed.” –
William I.B. Beveridge
 “An experiment is an observation under controlled conditions.” – F.S. Chapin

W.S. Monro and M.D. Engelhart define term ‘experiment’ in their words
 “Experimentation is the name given to the type of educational research in which the
investigator controls the educative factors to which a child or group of children is
subjected during the period of inquiry and observes the resulting achievement”
John W. Best has defined experiment that
 “Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will be or what will occur,
under carefully controlled condition.”

 E.B. Wilson -“An experiment is a question framed on the basis of what is known and
addressed to nature to elicit further knowledge. It, thus transcends mere observations
or collection of materials; it is consciously directed, purposeful observation.”

According to Johada and others: “It is a method of testing hypothesis”

 Ernest, Greenwood - “Experiment is the proof of a hypothesis which seeks to make up
two factors into a casual relationship through the study of contrasting situations which
have been controlled on all factors the one of interest, the latter being either the
hypothetical cause or the hypothetical effect.”
 Festinger- “The essence of an experiment may be described as observing the effect on a
dependent variable of the manipulation of an independent variable.”
According to W.S. Monore
“Experimentation is the name given to the type of educational research in which the
investigator controls the educative factors to which a child of group of children is subjected
during the period of inquiry and observes the resulting achievement.

Advantages of Experiments

 It is a precise, systematic, objective and valid method of scientifically testing a

hypothesis.

 The experimenter has an upper hand in controlling and creating conditions herself.

 The researchers have a control over the variables.

 Experiment method enables the researcher to eliminate and limit the effects of all the
extraneous variables.

 A scientifically tested direct cause-effect relationship between the variables can be

measured.

 In experiments dealing with the effect of media on audiences, the researchers have a
total control over the selection of media content. It is the researcher who determines
the factors and procedures for the exposure and decides methods through which
audiences may respond.

 Apart from the single test, the researcher can test the variables at certain points in
time.
  Results obtained through experiments method are highly replicable.

 The reliability and internal validity of experiment research is high.

 Experimental method minimizes the error or random variance.

Weakness

 Artificial settings.

 In research on behavioral effects, for example, researchers have frequently created

artificial measures of behavior, especially when studying the effects of media violence
on audience aggression (Berkowitz 1964; Berkowitz and Geen 1966; Donnerstein and
Berkowitz 1981).

 Experimenter's bias may take place.

 In the case of a laboratory experiment, there is lack of external validity. The results
can’t be generalized beyond the lab.

 This is expensive, lengthy and time-consuming method.

 Every phenomenon can't be studied in the lab.

 Co-operation of the subject remains to be an issue

 An experiment can't be conducted everywhere, in all the settings, at all the points in
time.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

These characteristics are classified into two categories:
a. General Characteristics
b. Specific Characteristics.

A. General Characteristics of an experimental method

The following are the general characteristics.
1. Bias free estimation of true effect,
2. Precision of the estimates with a quantitative index,
3. The testing of clear specific hypothesis of different intention etc., and
4. Efficiency in the sense of securing maximum results at minimum.

B. Specific Characteristics of an experimental Method

 The following are the specific characteristics:
1. It emphasizes objectively and accuracy in the collection of the data and treatment part
of it.
2. It emphasizes control of conditions and the experimentation of certain variables in
controlled conditions.
3. It sets out the relationship between the phenomenon and this relationship is more or
less of the casual type.
4. It uses standardized tool for experimentation and makes the evidences very much
objective.
5. The sample is selected with great precaution and every care is taken to safeguard
extraneous factors.
6. It leads to the testing of a specific hypothesis and experimental evidences so called as
to reject or retain the hypothesis.
7. The laws postulate and theories of education are developed mostly through
experimental methods. It allows for precision and definiteness (exactness) in the
findings and their analysis and treatment through measurement. The hypothesis is
rejected or retained, measurement through standardized test and tools of research.

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN EXPERIMENTATION

The following precautions are to be observed in experimentation:
1. Purpose of experiment should be defined clearly in advance.
2. Experiment control and criterion variables should also be defined clearly.
3. Great precautions be taken for the effect of intervening variables.
4. Sample should be selected carefully and appropriate sampling techniques should be
used.
5. Pre and post test should be given in the experimental situation.
6. Same criterion test should be used as pre and post test.
7. In designing and experiment the following things should be kept in view:
a. Plan (Layout).
b. Procedure.
c. Time.
d. Cost.

Three broad types of experiments are:

1. Natural experiment

Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the
participants, but here the experimenter has no control over the IV as it occurs naturally in real
life.
For example, Hodges and Tizard's attachment research (1989)compared the long term
development of children who have been adopted, fostered or returned to their mothers with a
control group of children who had spent all their lives in their biological families.

Strength:
 Behavior in a natural experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of its natural
setting, i.e. very high ecological validity.
 There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as participants
may not know they are being studied.
 Can be used in situations in which it would be ethically unacceptable to manipulate the
independent variable, e.g. researching stress.
Limitation:

 They may be more expensive and time consuming than lab experiments.
 There is no control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This makes it
difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.

2. Field experiment
 The field experiment, the best suited one for social sciences. “A field experiment is a
research study in a realistic situation in which one or more independent variables are
manipulated by the experimenter under as carefully controlled conditions as the
situation will permit”. (Fred N. Kerlinger).
 Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of the
participants. The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a real-
life setting (so cannot really control extraneous variables).

An example is Holfing’s hospital study on obedience.

Strength:
 Behavior in a field experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of its natural
setting, i.e. higher ecological validity than a lab experiment.
 There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as participants
may not know they are being studied. This occurs when the study is covert.

Limitation:

 There is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This makes it
difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.

3. Laboratory / controlled experiment

This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment (not necessarily a
laboratory), where accurate measurements are possible. The researcher decides where the
experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and
using a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each independent
variable group.

The laboratory experiment is the exclusive domain of the physical scientist. “A laboratory
experiment is a research study in which the variance of all or nearly all of the possible
influential independent variables, not pertinent to the immediate problem of the investigation,
is kept at a minimum. This is done by isolating the research in a physical situation apart from
the routine of ordinary living and by manipulating one or more independent variables under
rigorously specified, operationalized, and controlled conditions”. (Fred N. Kerlinger). The
contrast between the field experiment and laboratory experiment is not sharp; the difference is
a matter of degree. The laboratory experiment has a maximum of control, where as the field
experiment must operate with less control.

An example is Milgram’s experiment on obedience or Loftus and

Palmer's car crash study.

Strength:
 It is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) a laboratory experiment. This is
because a standardized procedure is used.
 They allow for precise control of extraneous and independent
variables. This allows a cause and effect relationship to be
established
Limitation:
 The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behavior
that does not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This
means it would not be possible to generalize the findings to a
real life setting.
 Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may bias the
results and become confounding variables.
Experimental Errors

According to Singh (2006), there may be generally two kinds of error in case of an
experimental study:

a. Chance Error

b. Systematic Error
 A. Chance Error: This error may occur due to the individual differences.
According to the sources of error, there may be two categories in this
type of experimental error.

1) Sampling Error - The error simply occurs due to the differences

in the items in the sample that are chosen for study.

2) Measurement Error- The error occurs because accurate results

cannot be obtained due to the ineffectiveness of the
measuring instruments.

B. Systematic Error: Despite taking preventive measures, some other

external factors with no direct connection with the study may also
affect the experiment. This affects the result. This type of error may
be surprising for the researcher.

All experimenters try to control these errors. Kerlinger (1964) has

pointed out that a researcher attempts to control error variance in
three ways as follows:
 Maximizing the variance of desired variables
 Controlling the variance of extraneous variables and
 Minimizing the error or random variance

F. Documents based data collection

Documents are records which describe a process of personal/group development, or the
occurrence of an event. The content of the documents/records are normally reviewed in terms
of the research problem before they are actually used by the researcher. Since the data comes
ready-made as the contents of the document, they do not depend on a specific investigator or
research team’s accessibility to the field. The data obtained through observation, tests,
questionnaires, and interviews are gathered for a specific purpose and are only drawn from
universes in space and time where researchers are sent by the formulators of that design.
Documents, on the other hand, bring together data of remote periods and places for scientific
analysis.

Types of Documents
Documents may be classified into three categories on a continuum. At one end of the
continuum are ‘expressive documents’ specifying the process of social interaction and at the
other end are those like court records, official histories, and proceedings of commissions. In
between, are newspaper stories, recounting, etc. which rarely yield sufficient details of the
interactive process. Another important type of document is journals. In this section,

We will discuss different types of documents.

A. Expressive Documents

Expressive documents include the following categories:

1. personal letters;
2. life or case histories in the form of diaries, biographies and autobiographies; and
3. Accounts of small-group processes.

Personal letters
Personal letters constitute the most frequently available type of expressive documents. The
value of letters as expressive documents varies with the cultural background of the writers.
Nonetheless, the writer communicates freely his/her views and emotions in personal letters.

Life histories/case histories

Life or case histories in the form of diaries, biographies and autobiographies have been used
extensively by historians. They have been identified as the “personal documents par
excellence” by psychologists. However, they have not been used much in social or psychological
research.

Accounts of small-group processes

Accounts of small group processes are a third category of expressive documents. Since such
accounts are rarely written spontaneously, they are not of much use in any large investigation.

The data obtained from expressive documents are recorded with the help of ‘document
schedules’. In order to secure measurable data, the items included in this type of schedule are
limited to those that can be uniformly secured from a large number of case histories and other
records. For example, for a study of the records of drop-outs among the adult learners enrolled
with a particular Adult Education Centre, items such as the age, financial position of the family,
academic performance during the period of enrollment are necessary. A scrutiny of a large
number of records of the above items can yield significant results.

Uses of Expressive Documents

1. In certain socio-psychological cases, where the researcher needs to understand the
“definition of the situation” of a particular group of participants, expressive documents
constitute an invaluable source of scientific information.
2. Expressive documents are useful in giving the researchers a “feel” for the data and thus
produce “hunches” with respect to the most fruitful way of conceptualizing a problem.
 3. Expressive documents are useful in not only identifying the significant variables of a
problem but also in suggesting the hypotheses embodying these variables and the
verification of the hypotheses.

B. Official Records

Official records provide useful information about the time and occurrence of an event in
accordance with legal administrative regulations attached to that event. Such data cover a very
wide range comprising extensive records of events, namely: births, deaths, marriages, divorces,
institutional attendance (school, college, distance education centre etc.), performance in
psychological and educational test, crimes, court actions, prison records, registration, voting,
social security payments and benefits, illness/hospital data, production/business records,
memberships, census data etc.

Official records include legislative, judicial, and executive documents prepared by central or
state governments, municipalities, VDCs or other local bodies, such as laws, charters, court
proceedings and decisions, the data preserved by missionaries and other religious organizations
such as financial records and records of the minutes of the meetings of governing bodies; the
information compiled by central or state educational departments, special commissions,
professional organizations, school boards, universities, administrative authorities, reports of
committees and commissions, administrative orders, educational surveys, annual reports,
budgets, pictorial records viz. photographs, remains or relics and the like.

The official records are useful in knowing and understanding past events and trends so as to
gain perspective on the present and future. They aim at determining and presenting truthfully
the important facts about life, character and achievements of great personalities. Records are
helpful in studying the legal basis of educational institutions, status of tutors, and finances, in
understanding the history of ideas, major philosophies and scientific thoughts.

C. Journals

Information about new ideas and developments often appear in journals long before they
appear in books. There are many journals currently being published covering various aspects of
social work In fact, they are the best sources for reports on recent researches in the area of
social work. Journals provide updated treatment to current questions and issues in social work.
They also publish articles of local interest that never appear in the book form. Journals are the
best sources for determining contemporary opinion and status, present or past.

All those engaged in research in the area of social work should become acquainted with
research and professional journals in social work. Knowledge about the editor of a periodical,
the names of its contributors, and the associations or institutions publishing it serve as clues in
judging the merit of the journal. Abstracts are also available which include brief summaries of
the articles. They serve as one of the most useful reference guides to the researcher and keep
him/her abreast of the work that is being done in his/her own field and other related fields.
STAGE IX – DATA PROCESSING, DATA ANALYSIS AND DATA INTERPRETATION

DATA PROCESSIING

Data processing is an intermediately stage of work between data collection and data analysis.
The complete Instruments of data collection that is Interview, schedule, Questionnaire, data
sheet etc contain a mess of data. They cannot straight way provide answers to research
question. They are like raw materials and they need processing.

Data continues to be in raw form, unless and until they are processed and analyzed. Data
Processing is a statistical method by which the collected data is so organized the further
analysis and interpretation of data become easy. It is an intermediary stage between the
collections of data and their analysis and interpretation.

Data processing stages

There are four important stages in the processing of data. They are;
a. Editing
b. Coding
c. Classification
d. Tabulation

a. Editing
As soon as the researcher receives the data, he should screen it for accuracy. Editing is
the process of examining the data collected through various methods to detect errors
and omissions and correct them for further analysis. Though editing, it is ensured that
the collected data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered
and well arranged so that further analysis is made easier.
. Editing is done at 2 stages.
a. Field Editing
During the time of Interviewing the interviewer cannot always record response
completely and legibly. Therefore after each Interview is over the researcher should
review the schedule to complete abbreviated responses, rewrite eligible response and
correct omissions.
b. Office Editing
All completed schedules and questionnaire should be thoroughly checked in the office
for completeness accuracy and uniformity.

Practical guidelines for editing

While editing care has to be taken to see that the data are as accurate and complete as
possible.
 The following points are to be noted;
i. The editor should familiarize with the copy of instructions given to the interviewers.
ii. The original entry, if found incorrect, should not be destroyed or erased. On the other
hand, it should be crossed out in such a manner that it is still eligible.
iii. Any, modification to the original entry by the editor must be specifically indicated.
iv. All completed schedules must bear signature of the editor an d the date.
v. Incorrect answer to the questions can be corrected only if the editor is absolutely sure
of the answer, otherwise leave it as such.
vi. Inconsistent, incomplete or missing answers should not be used.
vii. Sere that all numerical answers are converted to same units.

b. Coding
Coding is the process by which r response categories are summarized by numerals or
other symbols to carry out subsequent operations of data analysis. This process of
assigning numerals or symbols to the responses is called coding. It facilitates efficient
analysis of the collected data and helps in reducing several replies to a small number of
classes which contain the critical information required for analysis. In general it reduces
the huge amount of information collected in to a form that is amenable to analysis.
Steps in coding
i. Study the answers carefully.
ii. Develop a coding frame by listing the answers and by aligning codes to each of them.
iii. Prepare a coding manual with the detail of variable names, codes and instructions.
iv. If the coding manual has already been prepared before the collection of the data, make
the required additions for the open ended and partially coded questions.

Coding rules
1. Give each respondent a code number for identification.
2. Provide code number for each question.
3. All responses including ‘don’t know’, ‘no opinion’. Etc is to be coded.
4. Assign additional codes to partially coded questions.

c. Classification
Classification is the process of reducing large mass of data in to homogeneous groups
for meaningful analysis. It converts data from complex to understandable and
unintelligible to intelligible forms. It divides data in to different groups or classes
according to their similarities and dissimilarities. When the data are classified, they give
summary of whole information.

Objectives of classification
i. To organize data in to concise, logical and intelligible form.
ii. To take the similarities and dissimilarities s between various classes clear.
iii. To facilitate comparison between various classes of data.
 iv. To help the researcher in understanding the significance of various classes of
data.
v. To facilitate analysis and formulate generalizations.

Types of classification

1. Classification according to external characteristics

In this classification, data may be classified either on geographical basis or periodical
basis.
i. Classification on geographical basis
In this type of classification, the data that are collected from different places are
placed in different classes.
ii. Classification on periodical basis (chronological classification)
In this type of classification, the data belonging to a particular time or period are
put under one class. This type of classification is based on period.

2. Classification according to internal characteristics

Data may be classified either according to attributes or according to the magnitude of
variables
i. Classification according to Attributes
In this type data are classified on the basis of some attributes an characteristics.
ii. Simple Classification
If the classification is based on one particular attribute only it is called simple
classification. Eg-classification on the basis of sex
iii. Manifold Classification
If the classification is based on more than one or several attributes it is called
manifold or multiple classifications. in this data are classified in several groups.

3. Classification according variables

Here the data are classified to some characteristics that can be measured. Data are
classified on the basis of quantitative characteristics such as age, height; weight etc.
quantitative variables are grouped in to two
i. Discrete variable
If the variables can take only exact value, it is called discrete variable.
Continuous variable
ii. The variables that can take any numerical value within a specified range are
called continuous variable.

Characteristics of an ideal classification

 Un-ambiguity- Classification should be unambiguous. The various classes should be
defined properly.
 Stable- it should not change from enquiry to enquiry
  Flexibility- classification should have the capacity of adjustment to new situations and
circumstances.
 Homogeneity- each class should contain homogenous items.
 Suitability- it should be suitable to objects of any statistical enquiry.
 Exhaustiveness- there should be no item which does not find a class.

D. Transcription

When only a few schedules or questions are processed and hand tabulated, Tabulation
can directly we made from the schedules. On the other hand direct tabulation from the
edited schedule or questionnaire is difficult if the number of schedules and the number
of responses in them are large.

Suppose an Interview schedule contain 180 responses requiry tabulation and 210 simple
and cross tables are to be constructed, each schedule has to be handled at least 210 for
tabulation. This will result in mutilation of the schedule. In order to avoid this draw able
data contained in schedule or questionnaires are transferred to another material for
tabulation.
This intermediately process is called transcription. There are two methods of
transcription - Manual or mechanical

E. Tabulation
Tabulation is the next step to classification. It is an orderly arrangement of data in rows and
columns. It is defined as the “measurement of data in columns and rows”. Data presented in
tabular form is much easier to read and understand than the data presented in the text the
main purpose of tabulation is to prepare the data for final analysis. It is a stage between
classification of data and final analysis.

Objectives of Tabulation
1. To clarify the purpose of enquiry
2. To make the significance of data clear.
3. To express the data in least possible space.
4. To enable comparative study.
5. To eliminate unnecessary data
6. To help in further analysis of the data.

E. Graphic Representation

In presenting the data of frequency distinction and statistical computation it is often desirable
to use appropriate to forms of graphic representation. In addition to tabular forms graphic
representation involves the use of graphic charts and other pictorial devices reduced large
masses of statistical data to a form that can be quickly understood at a glance.
The devise of graphic representation are useful for non-technical people or general public.
Graphic representation must be planned with almost care. Graphic forms used must be simple
clear and accurate. The most commonly used graphical forms are
a. Line graph or charts
b. Bar charts
c. Segmental representations
d. Pictograph

Data Analysis

Data analysis embraces a whole range of activities of both the qualitative and quantitative type.
It is usual tendency in behavioral research that much use of quantitative analysis is made and
statistical methods and techniques are employed. The statistical methods and techniques are
employed. The statistical methods and techniques have got a special position in research
because they provide answers to the problems.

Kaul defines data analysis as, ”Studying the organized material in order to discover inherent
facts. The data are studied from as many angles as possible to explore the new facts.”

Purpose:
The following are the main purposes of data analysis:
1. Description:
It involves a set of activities that are as essential first step in the development of most
fields. A researcher must be able to identify a topic about which much was not known;
he must be able to convince others about its importance and must be able to collect
data.
2. Construction of Measurement Scale:
The researcher should construct a measurement scale. All numbers generated by
measuring instruments can be placed into one of four categories:

a. Nominal: The number serves as nothing more than labels. For example no 1 was not
less than no 2 .Similarly no 2 was neither more than no 1 and nor less than no 3.
b. Ordinal: Such numbers are used to designate an ordering along some dimensions
such as from less to more, from small to large, from sooner to later.
c. Interval: The interval provides more précised information than ordinal one. By this
type of measurement the researcher can make exact and meaningful decisions. For
example if A,B and C are of 150 cm, 145cm and 140 cm height, the researcher can
say that A is 5 cm taller than B and B is 5 cm taller than C.
d. Ratio Scale: It has two unique characteristics. The intervals between points can be
demonstrated to be precisely the same and the scale has a conceptually meaningful
zero point.

3. Generating empirical relationships:

 Another purpose of analysis of data is identification of regularities and relationships
among data. The researcher has no clear idea about the relationship which will be found
from the collected data. If the data were available in details it will be easier to
determine the relationship. The researcher can develop theories if he is able to
recognize pattern and order of data. The pattern may be showing association among
variables, which may be done by calculating correlation among variables or showing
order, precedence or priority. The derivation of empirical laws may be made in the form
of simple equations relating one interval or ratio scaled variable to a few others through
graph methods.

4. Explanation and prediction:

Generally knowledge and research are equated with the identification of causal
relationships and all research activities are directed to it. But in many fields the research
has not been developed to the level where casual explanation is possible or valid
predictions can be made. In such a situation, explanation and prediction is constructing
as enabling the values of one set of variables to be derived given the values of another.

Functions:

The following are the main functions of data analysis:

1. The researcher should analyze the available data for examining the statement of the
problem.
2. The researcher should analyze the available data for examining each hypothesis of
the problem.
3. The researcher should study the original records of the data before data analysis.
4. The researcher should analyze the data for thinking about the research problem in
lay man’s term.
5. The researcher should analyze the data by attacking it through statistical
calculations.
6. The researcher should think in terms of significant tables that the available data
permits for the analysis of data.

Statistical Calculations for analysis:

The researcher will have to use either descriptive statistics or inferential statistics for the
purpose of the analysis.
1. The descriptive statistics may be on any of the following forms:

a. Measures of Central Tendency:

These measures are mean, median, mode geometric mean and harmonic mean. In
behavioral statistics the last two measures are not used. Which of the first three will
be used in social statistics depends upon the nature of the problem.

b. Measures of variability:
 These measures are range, mean deviation, quartile deviation and standard
deviation. In social statistics the first two measures are rarely used. The use of
standard deviation is very frequently made for the purpose of analysis.
c. Measures of Relative Position:
These measures are standard scores (Z or T scores), percentiles and percentile ranks
.All of them are used in educational statistics for data analysis.
d. Measures of Relationship:
There measures are Co-efficient of Correlation, partial correlation and multiple
correlations. All of them are used in educational statistics for the analysis of data.
However the use of rank method is made more in comparison to Karl pearson
method.
2. The inferential statistics may be in any one of the following forms:

a. Significance of Difference between Means:

It is used to determine whether a true difference exists between population means of
two samples.
b. Analysis of Variance:
The Z or t tests are used to determine whether there was any significant difference
between the means of two random samples. The F test enables the researcher to
determine whether the sample means differ from one another to a greater extent then
the test scores differ from their own sample means using the F ratio.
c. Analysis of co-variance
It is an extension of analysis of variance to test the significance of difference between
means of final experimental data by taking into account the Correlation between the
dependent variable and one or more Co-variants or control variables and by adjusting
initial mean differences in the group.
d. Correlation Methods:
Either of two methods of correlation can be used for the purpose of calculating the
significance of the difference between Co-efficient of Correlation.
e. Chi Square Test:
It is used to estimate the like hood that some factor other than chance accounts to the
observed relationship. In this test the expected frequency and observed frequency are
used for evaluating Chi Square.
f. Regression Analysis:
For calculating the probability of occurrence of any phenomenon or for predicting the
phenomenon or relationship between different variables regression analysis is cone.

Interpretation of Data

According to F.L. Whitney, interpretation means an adequate exposition of the true meaning of
the material presented in terms of the purposes of the study being reported and of the chapter
and section topic involved. The following definitions can explain the meaning of interpretation.
 “The task of drawing conclusions or inferences and of explaining their significance after
a careful analysis of selected data is known as interpretation”.
  “It is an inductive process, in which you make generalizations based on the connections
and common aspects among the categories and patterns”.
 “Scientific interpretation seeks relationship between the data of a study and between
the study findings and other scientific knowledge”.
 “Interpretation in a simple way means the translation of a statistical result into an
intelligible description”.
Thus, analysis and interpretation are central steps in the research process. The purpose
of analysis is to summarize the collected data, where as interpretation is the search for
the broader meaning of research findings. In interpretation, the researcher goes
beyond the descriptive data to extract meaning and insights from the data.

WHY INTERPRETATION?
A researcher/ statistician is expected not only to collect and analyze the data but also to
interpret the results of his/ her findings. Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that
the usefulness and utility of research findings lie in proper interpretation. It is only through
interpretation that the researcher can expose relations and patterns that underlie his findings.
In case of hypothesis testing studies the researcher may arrive at generalizations. In case the
researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he would try to explain his findings on the basis of
some theory. It is only through interpretation that the researcher can appreciate why his
findings are what they are, and can make others understand the real significance of his research
findings.

Interpretation is not a mechanical process. It calls for a critical examination of the results of
one’s analysis in the light of all the limitations of data gathering.

For drawing conclusions you need a basis. Some of the common and important bases of
interpretation are: relationships, ratios, rates and percentages, averages and other measures of
comparison.

Purposes:
The following are the main purposes of interpretation of data or results;
1. To throw light on the real significance of the material in the context.
2. To understand implications of the data.
3. To provide hints of conclusions and recommendations of the researcher.
4. To show the values of greatest worth that has resulted from the research.
5. To refer important generalization.

Factors in consideration of interpretation of data:

The researcher should keep the following factors in consideration in interpretation of data;
1. Not to ignore those factors which are unstudied:
 In social / behavioral researches there are many factors which have their impact upon
the findings of the research but no researcher is in the position to study all the factors.
Naturally he does not take into account in interpretation of the results those factors
which have not been studied . It has its effect upon the search of truth. Thus the
researcher should take into consideration such factors in his interpretation.

For example if a comparison has been made between the traditional method of
counseling and nay modern method of counseling in respect of effectiveness of
counseling, the interpretation that successful attainment is the result of method of
counseling only is complete denial of the role of general mental ability, high
achievement motivation and better study habits etc.
2. Not to ignore those factors which have not been selected for study:
In social/ behavioral researches, the subjects are generally so large that the researcher
collects the data from a selected group only. The researcher should remember that
some factors which have not been included in selective group are equally important in
their impact upon findings.
For example if the researcher collects data from a particular school in a particular area
and then he concludes about all the schools/colleges.
3. Not to over –interpret the expected results:
The researcher should remember that even if he finds the findings of the research as per
his expectations he should not interpret more than what can be interpreted on the basis
of data available. The researcher should be cautious that he reports all such factors
which might be responsible for the findings.
4. Not to exercise defense mechanism in interpreting the results:
The researcher should remember that it is not necessary that the hypotheses should
always be confirmed. It is possible that the researcher may exercise defense mechanism
if the results of the study are not found as per expectations of the research. In such a
situation he should not try to find faults in tools or samples for the results against his
expectations. If any researcher tries to do so, his interpretation will not be considered
fair. The hypotheses are made in the beginning of the research when the knowledge of
the researcher about the problem is very limited. Agreement between the tentative and
the results is not necessary.

ESSENTIALS FOR INTERPRETATION

Certain points should be kept in mind before proceeding to draw conclusions from statistics. It
is essential that:
a. The data are homogeneous: It is necessary to ascertain that the data are strictly
comparable. We must be careful to compare the like with the like and not with the
unlike.
b. The data are adequate: Sometimes it happens that the data are incomplete or
insufficient and it is neither possible to analyze them scientifically nor is it possible to
draw any inference from them. Such data must be completed first.
 c. The data are suitable: Before considering the data for interpretation, the researcher
must confirm the required degree of suitability of the data. Inappropriate data are like
no data. Hence, no conclusion is possible with unsuitable data.
d. The data are properly classified and tabulated: Every care is to be taken as a pre-
requisite, to base all types of interpretations on systematically classified and properly
tabulated data and information.
e. The data are scientifically analyzed: Before drawing conclusions, it is necessary to
analyze the data by applying scientific methods. Wrong analysis can play havoc with
even the most carefully collected data. If interpretation is based on uniform, accurate,
adequate, suitable and scientifically analyzed data, there is every possibility of attaining
a better and representative result. Thus, from the above considerations we may
conclude that it is essential to have all the pre-requisites/pre-conditions of
interpretation satisfied to arrive at better conclusions.

PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION

It is important to recognize that errors can be made in interpretation if proper

precautions are not taken. The interpretation of data is a very difficult task and requires
a high degree of skill, care, judgment and objectivity. In the absence of these, there is
likelihood of data being misused to prove things that are not true.

The following precautions are required before interpreting the data.

1. The interpreter must be objective.
2. The interpreter must understand the problem in its proper perspective.
3. He / she must appreciate the relevance of various elements of the problem.
4. See that all relevant, adequate and accurate data are collected.
5. See that the data are properly classified and analyzed.
6. Find out whether the data are subject to limitations? If so what are they?
7. Guard against the sources of errors.
8. Do not make interpretations that go beyond the information / data.
9. Factual interpretation and personal interpretation should not be confused. They should
be kept apart.

If these precautions are taken at the time of interpretation, reasonably good conclusions can be
arrived at.

CONCLUDING REMARKS ON INTERPRETATION

The task of interpretation is not an easy job. It requires skill and dexterity on the part of the
researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The
researcher may seek the guidance of experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation.
The element of comparison is fundamental to all research interpretations.
Comparison of one’s findings with a criterion, or with results of other comparable investigations
or with normal (ideal) conditions, or with existing theories or with the opinions of a panel of
judges / experts forms an important aspect of interpretation.

The researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant
factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalizations. He/she should not conclude
without evidence. He/she should not draw hasty conclusions. He/she should take all possible
precautions for proper interpretation of the data.

STAGE X- REPORT WRITING AND PRESENATION OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATION

The last and final phase of the journey in research is writing of the report. After the collected
data has been analyzed and interpreted and generalizations have been drawn the report has to
be prepared. The task of research is incomplete till the report is presented.

Writing of a report is the last step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat
different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of research. This task should be
accomplished by the researcher with utmost care.

PURPOSE OF A REPORT
The report may be meant for the people in general, when the investigation has not been
carried out at the instance of any third party. Research is essentially a cooperative venture and
it is essential that every investigator should know what others have found about the
phenomena under study. The purpose of a report is thus the dissipation of knowledge,
broadcasting of generalizations so as to ensure their widest use.

A report of research has only one function, “it must inform”. It has to propagate knowledge.
Thus, the purpose of a report is to convey to the interested persons the results and findings of
the study in sufficient detail, and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data,
and to determine for himself the validity of conclusions. Research results must invariably enter
the general store of knowledge. A research report is always an addition to knowledge. All this
explains the significance of writing a report.

In a broader sense, report writing is common to both academics and organizations. However,
the purpose may be different. In academics, reports are used for comprehensive and
application-oriented learning. Whereas in organizations, report form as the basis for decision
making.

Meaning

Reporting simply means communicating or informing through reports. The researcher has
collected some facts and figures, analyzed the same and arrived at certain conclusions. He has
to inform or report the same to the parties interested. Therefore -“reporting is communicating
the facts, data and information through reports of the persons for whom such facts and data
are collected and compiled”.

A report is not a complete description of what has been done during the period of
survey/research. It is only a statement of the most significant facts that are necessary for
understanding the conclusions drawn by the investigator. Thus, “a report by definition is simply
an account”. The report thus is an account describing the procedure adopted, the findings
arrived at and the conclusions drawn by the investigator of a problem.

TYPES OF REPORTS

Broadly speaking reporting can be done in two ways:

a) Oral or Verbal Report: reporting verbally in person, for example; presenting the findings in a
conference or seminar or reporting orally to the superiors.

b) Written Report: Written reports are more formal, authentic and popular.

Written reports can be presented in different ways as follows.

1. Sentence form reports : Communicating in sentence form
2. Tabular reports : Communicating through figures in tables
3. Graphic reports : Communicating through graphs and diagrams
4. Combined reports: Communicating using all the three of the above. Generally, this is
the most popular

Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the length and
the form are largely dictated by the purpose of the study and problems at hand.

For example, business organizations generally prefer reports in letter form, that too short in
length. Banks, insurance and other financial institutions generally prefer figure form in tables.
The reports prepared by government bureaus, enquiry commissions etc., are generally very
comprehensive on the issues involved.

Similarly research theses/dissertations usually prepared by students for Ph.D. degree are also
elaborate and methodical.

It is; thus, clear that the results of a research enquiry can be presented in a number of ways.
They may be termed as a technical report, a popular report, an article, or a monograph.

A. Technical Report: A technical report is used whenever a full written report (ex: Ph.D. thesis)
of the study is required either for evaluation or for record keeping or for public dissemination.
The main emphasis in a technical report is on:
a. The methodology employed.
 b. The objectives of the study.
c. The assumptions made / hypotheses formulated in the course of the study.
d. How and from what sources the data are collected and how have the data been
analyzed.
e. The detailed presentation of the findings with evidence, and their limitations.

B. Popular Report: A popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness. Its aim is to make the general public understand the findings and implications.
Generally, it is simple. Simplicity is sought to be achieved through clear language and
minimization of technical details. Attention of the readers is sought to be achieved through
attractive layout, liberal use of graphs, charts, diagrams and pictures. In a popular report
emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy implications.

C Research Article: Sometimes the findings of a research study can be published in the form of a
short paper called an article. This is one form of dissemination. The research papers are
generally prepared either to present in seminars and conferences or to publish in research
journals. Since one of the objectives of doing research is to make a positive contribution to
knowledge, in the field, publication (publicity) of the work serves the purpose.

D Monograph: A monograph is a treatise or a long essay on a single subject. For the sake of
convenience, reports may also be classified either on the basis of approach or on the basis of
the nature of presentation such as:
1. Journalistic Report
2. Business Report
3. Project Report
4. Dissertation
5. Enquiry Report (Commission Report), and
6. Thesis
Sometimes technical report can be called monograph

Reports prepared by journalists for publication in the media may be journalistic reports. These
reports have news and information value.

A business report may be defined as report for business communication from one departmental
head to another, one functional area to another, or even from top to bottom in the
organizational structure on any specific aspect of business activity. These are observational
reports which facilitate business decisions.
A project report is the report on a project undertaken by an individual or a group of individuals
relating to any functional area or any segment of a functional area or any aspect of business,
industry or society.
A dissertation, on the other hand, is a detailed discourse or report on the subject of study.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD REPORT

Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers of the
report. A good report is one which does this task efficiently and effectively. As such it should
have the following characteristics/qualities.
1. It must be clear in informing the what, why, who, whom, when, where and how of the
research study.
2. It should be neither too short nor too long. One should keep in mind the fact that it
should be long enough to cover the subject matter but short enough to sustain the
reader’s interest.
3. It should be written in an objective style and simple language, correctness, precision and
clarity should be the watchwords of the scholar. Wordiness, indirection and pompous
language are barriers to communication.
4. A good report must combine clear thinking, logical organization and sound
interpretation.
5. It should not be dull. It should be such as to sustain the reader’s interest.
6. It must be accurate. Accuracy is one of the requirements of a report. It should be
factual with objective presentation. Exaggerations and superlatives should be avoided.
7. Clarity is another requirement of presentation. It is achieved by using familiar words
and unambiguous statements, explicitly defining new concepts and unusual terms.
8. Coherence is an essential part of clarity. There should be logical flow of ideas (i.e.
continuity of thought), sequence of sentences. Each sentence must be so linked with
other sentences so as to move the thoughts smoothly.
9. Readability is an important requirement of good communication. Even a technical
report should be easily understandable. Technicalities should be translated into
language understandable by the readers.
10. A research report should be prepared according to the best composition practices.
Ensure readability through proper paragraphing, short sentences, illustrations,
examples, and section headings, use of charts, graphs and diagrams.
11. Draw sound inferences/conclusions from the statistical tables. But don’t repeat the
tables in text (verbal) form.
12. Footnote references should be in proper form. The bibliography should be reasonably
complete and in proper form.
13. The report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean whether typed or printed.
14. The report should be free from mistakes of all types viz. language mistakes, factual
mistakes, spelling mistakes, calculation mistakes etc.,

The researcher should try to achieve these qualities in his report as far as possible.

WHY AND HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH REPORT

Once you complete your research project, you are expected to write the report. A research
report is a precise presentation of the work done by a researcher while investigating a
particular problem. Whether the study is conducted by an individual researcher or by an
institution, the findings of the study should be reported for several reasons. There reasons are:

1. People learn more about the area of study.

 2. The discipline gets enriched with new knowledge and theories.
3. Researchers and practitioners in the field can apply, test and retest the findings already
arrived at.
4. Other researchers can refer to the findings and utilize the findings for further research.
5. Findings can be utilized and implemented by the policy makers or those who had
sponsored the project.

The final report of a research exercise takes a variety of forms.

1. A research report funded by an educational institution may be in the form of a written
document.
2. A research report may also take the form of an article in a professional journal.
3. The research reports of students of M.A., M.S.W., M.Sc., M.Ed., M Phil. Or Doctoral
programs take the form of a thesis or dissertation.

Division of research report/format

The entire research report format is mainly divided into three major divisions:
1. The beginning/ the front matter or pre factory items.
2. The main body/ text of the report.
3. The end/ the back matter or terminal items.
The beginning/ the front Main body/ text of the report. End/ the back
matter or pre factory items. matter or terminal
items.
1. Blank sheet/cover 1. Introduction 1. Appendix, if
2. Title page 2. Review of Literature any
3. Approval sheet 3. Design of the Study 2. Glossary, if
4. Researcher’s 4. Analysis and any
declaration interpretation of Data 3. Bibliography
5. Dedications 5. Main Findings and 4. Index
6. preface and or/ Conclusions 5. Blank sheet
Acknowledgements 6. Summary
7. Table of Contents
8. List of Tables
9. List of figures /graphs
and list of charts
10. List of cases.
11. List of abbreviation
12. Abstracts
THE BEGINNING/ THE FRONT MATTER OR PRE FACTORY ITEMS OF REPORT

The beginning of a report is crucial to the entire work. The beginning or the preliminary section
of the research report contains the following items, more or less in the order given below:
1. Title page
2. Approval sheet
3. Researcher’s declaration
4. Dedications
5. preface and or/ Acknowledgements
6. table of Contents
7. List of Tables
8. List of figures /graphs and list of charts
9. List of abbreviations
10. List of cases.
11. Abstracts

Let us describe in brief each of the above six items of the preliminary section of a Report

1. Title page
The cover page is the beginning of the report, though different colleges, universities and
sponsoring institutions prescribe their own format for the title page of their project
report of thesis, generally, it indicates the downward vertical order:

a. title of the topic,

b. relationship of the report to a degree, course, or organizational requirement,
c. name of the researcher,
d. name of the supervisor,
e. name of the institution where the report is to be submitted, and
f. The date of submission.
The title page should carry a concise and adequately descriptive title of the research
study. The title should briefly convey what the study is about. Researchers tend to make
errors in giving the title by using too many redundant and unimportant words.
The title should be written either in bold letters or upper-lower case and be placed in
the central portion of the top of the cover page.
2. The approval sheet
If a certificate of approval is required either from the research supervisor or from the
institution which provided the research facilities, it must be given.
3. Researchers declaration:
Generally the researcher has to declare/certify that it is his/her bonafide and original
work done by him/her.
4. Dedication: If the author wants to dedicate the work to whom so ever he/she likes,
he/she may do so
 5. Preface or/and Acknowledgement
A preface includes the background and reasons for the study. This is an appropriate
place for him/her to make acknowledgements also. But if the researcher has opted to
discuss the significance, reasons of the study elsewhere in the report he/she may not
write ‘preface’. But he/she may use the page for only acknowledgements. In
acknowledgements the researcher acknowledges the assistance and support received
from individuals and organizations in conducting the research. It is intended to express
his/her gratitude to them. Acknowledgement should be non-emotional and simple.
6. Table of Contents
A table of contents indicates the logical division of the report into various sections and
subsections. In other words, the table of contents presents in itemized form, the
beginning, the main body and the end of the report. It should also indicate the page
reference for each chapter or section and sub-section on the right hand side of the
table. It facilitates easy location of topics in the report. The chapter headings may be
typed with capital letters.
7. List of Tables
The table of contents page is followed by the page containing a list of tables. The list
contains the exact title of each table, table number and the page number on which the
table has appeared.
8. List of Figures/chart/graphs
The page’ List of Figures’ comes immediately after the ‘List of Tables’ page. If there are
many graphs and charts they should also be listed with page numbers
9. List of cases/exhibits
If there are many cases/exhibits they should also be listed.
10. List of Abbreviations italics
To avoid repeating long names again and again, a researcher uses abbreviations. Since
abbreviations are not universal, it is necessary to provide the full form of the
abbreviations in the beginning.
11. Abstracts
An abstract is a synopsis. It should be as brief as possible and run about one or two
pages. It is placed at the pre factory part of the report so that a reader can get a quick
over view of the report. It contains a brief and precise statement of the purpose and a
bare summary of the findings or the results of the study

Main body/ text of the report

The main body of the report presents the actual work done by an investigator or a researcher.
It tells us precisely and clearly about the investigation/study from the beginning to the end. The
methodology section of the final report should be written in the past tense because the study
has been completed. The report categorically avoids unnecessary details and loose language–
we shall examine this point in detail in this section
The sub divisions are:
1. Introduction
 2. Review of Literature
3. Design of the Study
4. Analysis and Interpretation of Data
5. Major Findings
6. Conclusions and Discussions
7. Summary

Besides the logicality of sections/chapters in the main body there is certain other important
aspects which need our attention. They are the style of writing, the design and placement of
references and footnotes, the typing of the report, and the tables and figures.

Let us elaborate these points in the following sub-sections.

Chapters and their Functions

We will discuss the cauterization of a thesis or a research report under six heads as noted
above. Let us begin with introduction which is usually the first chapter.

1. Introduction
This is the first chapter of a research report. It introduces the topic or problem under
investigation and its importance. The introductory chapter:
1. Gives the theoretical background to the specific area of investigation,
2. States the problem under investigation with specific reference to its placement in the
broader area under study,
3. Describes the significance of the present problem,
4. Defines the important terms used in the investigation and its reporting,
5. States precisely the objective(s) of the study,
6. States precisely the important terms used in the study that would be tested through
statistical analysis of data, and
7. Defines the scope and limitations of the investigations.

Although these sub-sections are common, it is not necessary to follow the given order strictly;
there may be variation in the order of the sub-sections. Sometimes the review of literature
related to the area under investigation is also presented in the first chapter and is placed
immediately after providing the theoretical background to the problem. Many researchers use
review to argue the case for their own investigation. In experimental research it becomes
essential to review related studies to formulate the hypotheses.

4. Review of Literature

Review of literature is a collective body of works done by earlier scientists and published in the
form of books or in the form of articles in journals or published as monograph etc. Every
scientific investigation starts with a Review of Literature. In fact, working with the literature is
an essential part of the research process which helps generate ideas, helps in developing
significant questions and is regarded as instrumental in the process of research design. In this
unit we will be dealing with the review of literature, how to go about it, what its importance is
and how the review should be organized and how to relate it to the present research report.

5. Design of the Study Reporting

The design of a study is usually described in the third chapter of the report. Broadly speaking,
this chapter provides a detailed overview of “how” the study was conducted. The various sub-
sections include:
1. description of the research methodology,
2. variables: the dependent and intervening variables with their operational definitions;
3. sample: defining the population, and the sampling procedure followed to select the
sample for the present study;
4. listing and describing various tools and techniques used in the study, like
questionnaires, attitude scales, etc., whether these have been adopted or developed by
the investigator, their reliability, validity, item description, administration and scoring,
etc.;
5. Describing the statistical technique used in the analysis of data including the rationale
of the use and method of data analysis.

6. Analysis and interpretation of data

This is fourth chapter of the research report. It is the heart of the whole report, for it includes
the outcome of the research. The collected data are presented in tabular form and analyzed
with the help of statistical techniques– parametric and nonparametric. The tables are
interpreted and if necessary, the findings are also presented graphically. The figures do not
necessarily; repeat the tables, but present data visually for easy understanding and easy
comparisons. Data may be presented in parts under relevant sections. The analysis of the data
not only includes the actual calculations but also the final results. It is essential that at each
stage of analysis the objective(s) of the study and their coverage is taken care of. This chapter
also presents the details about the testing of each hypothesis and the conclusions arrived at.
This gives the reader a clear idea regarding the status of the analysis and coverage of objectives
from point to point.

7. Main findings and conclusion

This is usually the fifth chapter in a research report. The major findings of the study analyzed
and interpreted in the preceding chapter are precisely and objectively stated in this chapter.
The fourth chapter contains such presentations as only a specialist or a trained researcher can
understand because of the complexities involved; but in the fifth chapter the major findings are
presented in a non-technical language so that even a non-specialist such as a planner or an
administrator in the field can make sense out of them.

The main findings are followed by a discussion of the results/findings. The major findings are
matched against the findings of other related research works which have already been
reviewed in the second chapter of the report. Accordingly, the hypotheses formulated in the
first chapter are either confirmed or discarded. In case the null-hypotheses are rejected,
alternative hypotheses are accepted. If the findings do have any discrepancy in comparison
with those of other researches, or if the findings do not explain sufficiently the situation or
problem under study, or if they are inadequate for generalizations, explanations with proper
justification and explanation have to be provided.

The next task in this chapter is to provide implications of, the findings and their generalizations.
The implications should suggest activities for and provide some direction to the practitioners in
the field. Unless these implications are clearly and categorically noted, it becomes difficult for
the practitioners to implement them on the one hand, and on the other research findings do
not get utilized at all even if they have been recorded in a report.

The implications follow a presentation/listing of the limitations of the study on the basis of
which suggestions are made to carry out further investigation or extend the study from where
it has reached.

8. Summary
Some researchers include a summary along with the research report (as the last chapter) or as a
pull-out to the report itself, If sums up precisely the whole of the research report right from the
theoretical background to the suggestions for further study. Sometimes researchers get
tempted to report more than what the data say. It is advisable to check this tendency and be
always careful to report within the framework provided by the analysis and interpretation of
data, i.e., within the limits of the findings of the study.

THE END/TERMINAL ITEMS OF REPORT

This section follows the text. First it is the appendices section, then the bibliography and
glossary. Each section is separated by a divider page on which only the words APPENDICES,
BIBLIOGRAPHY, or GLOSSARY all in capital letters appear.

All reference section pages are numbered in Arabic numerals in continuation with the page
numbers of the text.
1. Appendices

What goes into an Appendix?

a) Supplementary or secondary references are put in the appendices section. But all primary
reference material of immediate importance to the reader is incorporated in the text. The
appendices help the author to authenticate the thesis and help the reader to check the data.

b) The material that is usually put in the appendices is indicated below:

1) Original data
2) Long tables
3) Long quotations
4) Supportive legal decisions, laws and documents
5) Illustrative material
6) Extensive computations
7) Questionnaires and letters
8) Schedules or forms used in collecting data
9) Case studies / histories
10) Transcripts of interviews

Bibliography and References

Research reports present both bibliographies and references. Although many researchers use
these terms interchangeably, the two terms have definite and distinct meanings. A bibliography
is a list of titles – books, research reports, articles, etc. that may or may not have been referred
to in the text of the research report.

References include only such studies, books or papers that have been actually referred to in the
text of the research report. Whereas research reports should present references, books meant
for larger circulation may be listed in bibliographies that should include all such titles as have
been referred to. There is a mainly one style manual detailing general form and style for
research reports in social work. It is:-
1. American Psychological Association, Publication Manual, 3rd ed. Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association, 1983.

Style of Referencing
There are mainly two types of referencing:
1. Arranging references in alphabetical order where the researcher has cited the name of
the author and year of publication/completion of the work in the text.
2. Arranging references in a sequence as they appear in the text of the research report. In
this case, related statement in the body of the text is numbered.

However, most research reports use alphabetical listing of references.

For example, entries in a reference section may look like the following:

Gannicott, K. and Throsby, D. (1994), Educational Quality and Effective Schooling, UNESCO,
(Book), Paris.

Koul, B.N., Singh, B. and Ansari, M.M. (1988), Studies in Distance Education, IGNOU & AIU, New
Delhi.

Kumar, K.L. (1995), Educational Technology, New Age Publishers, New Delhi.

Ministry of Human Resource Development, DPEP: Guidelines (1995), Department of Education

MHRD, Government of India, New Delhi.
Mukhopadhyay, M. (ed.) (1990), Educational Technology: Challenging Issues, Sterling
Publishers, (Edited Book), New Delhi.

Mukhopadyay, M. (1998), “Teacher Education and Distance Education: The Artificial

Controversy”, in Buch, Piloo M., (ed.) Contemporary Thoughts on Education, SERD, (Chapter in
Book), Baroda.

Parhar, M. (1993), Impact of Media on Student Learning, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation,

Jamia Millia Islamia, (Thesis), New Delhi.

Sachidananda, Tribal Education: New Perspectives and Challenges, Journal of Indian Education,
New Delhi: NCERT, 1994. (Article in a Journal)

Selltiz, Claire et. al. (1959), Research Methods in Social Relations, Rinehart & Winston, Holt,
New York.

Dhanarajan, Gajaraj, “Access to Learning and Asian Open Universities: In Context”in the 12th
Annual Conference of Asian Association of Open Universities, (1998) “The Distance Learner”
The Open University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China, 4-6 Nov., (Conference Paper).

You would notice the following:

- All studies are arranged in alphabetical order
- The names of the authors are recorded by title and initials (not full name).
- To indicate two or three authors, ‘and’ is used between the first and the second, ‘,’
between first and ‘and’ between second and third author.
- In case of more than three authors, only the name of the first author is mentioned
followed by et al. (et allibi) or others.
- In case of a chapter in a book, after the author and chapter title and the name of the
author or editor of the book.
- Titles of printed books, names of journals are highlighted by using ‘italics’ or by
underlining (in case of manually typed material).
- Place of publication of a book precedes the name of the publisher separated by a
‘:’(colon).
- Names of journals are following by the relevant volume and issue numbers usually in
the form 10(3) –Volume 10, Number 2 and page numbers.
- Unpublished thesis or dissertation titles are not highlighted and the word ‘unpublished’
is mentioned.

Referring Web Based Documents

Computers have brought revolution in all sectors of development including education.
Computers were conventionally used for data storage, processing and retrieval. Through
internet, information can be accessed from any part of the world. As researchers, reviewing the
relevant literature related to the problem under study is almost magnum opus. In these days
internet is a rich academic and professional resource. World Wide Web (WWW) is the easiest
and most popularly used browsing mechanism on the Internet. Here we will very briefly explain
as how to write the references when we quote from any Web Site.

Citing E-Mail
E-Mail communications should be citied as personal communications as noted in APA’s
publication Manual http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html. Personal Communications are
not cited in the reference list. The format in the text should be as:

Citing a Web Site

When you access the entire Web site (not a specific document on the site), you just give the
address of the site in the text. It is not necessary to enter in the reference section.

For example,
http://www.abc.ac.in
http://www.webct.com/ (This site provides tools for development of web based courses)

Citation of specific document on a web site has a similar format to that for print. Here, we give
few examples of how to cite documents. The Web information is given at the end of the
reference section. The date of retrieval of the site should be given because documents on the
Web can change in content or they may be removed from a site.

Example
Duchier, D. (1996), Hypertext, New York: Intelligent Software Group. [Online]
http://www.isg.sfu.ca/duchier/misc/hypertext - review/chapter4.htm ] Accessed on
25/1/99].

Flinn, S. (1996), Exploiting information structure to guide visual browsing and exploratory
search in distributed information systems [Online] http://www.cs.ubc.ca/ reading-room
[Accessed June 1998]
If you have to cite some specific parts of a web document, indicate the chapter, figure, table as
required.

3. Glossary

What is a Glossary: A glossary is a short dictionary giving definitions and examples of

terms and phrases which are technical, used in a special connotation by the author,
unfamiliar to the reader, or foreign to the language in which the book is written. It is
listed as a major section in capital letters in the table of contents.
 Positioning of a Glossary:

The glossary appears after the bibliography. It may also appear in the introductory
pages of a book after the lists of tables and illustrations.

4. Index
Index may be either subject index or author index. Author index consists of important
names of persons discussed in the report, arranged in alphabetical order. Subject index
includes a detailed reference to all important matters discussed in the report such as
places, events, definitions, concepts etc., and presented in alphabetical order. Index is
not generally included in graduate / post graduate students research reports. However,
if the report is prepared for publication or intended as a work of reference, an index is
desirable.

CHECK LIST FOR THE REPORT

When the final drafting of the report is completed and the author is satisfied about the draft,
format and all other relevant aspects and ready for going to final typing or printing, it is always
better to check various things to satisfy you that everything is satisfactory. Here we are
providing a list of questions for which a positive answer is expected.
Check List of Question
1. Is the ‘title’ of the report accurately describing the content?
2. Is the scope of the study limited?
3. Is the research problem properly defined or specified?
4. Are the objectives of the study conceived well? Have they been achieved?
5. Are hypotheses made explicit?
6. Has the plan of research been presented in detail?
7. Were appropriate methods and techniques chosen to test the hypotheses?
8. Whether all the pertinent data has been collected?
9. Have the data been classified logically and analyzed intelligently?
10. Is the presentation of arguments clear and logical?
11. Has an objective and open-minded attitude been maintained throughout the study?
12. Have the limitations of data, methods, results been spelt out?
13. Are the previous works on this problem reviewed in the report?
14. Is the chapterization logical? Were the rules of composition properly followed?
15. Are the forms of presentation — textual, tabular, graphic, properly used?
16. Does the summary really summarize?
17. Are the quotations and other references relevant?
18. Is the bibliography/reference complete and correct?
19. Are you able to convey what you mean?
20. Can’t the report be further improved? No.- That means, it is the best. Finally, it should
be remembered that report writing is an art which is learnt by practice and experience,
rather than by mere doctrinarian. The researcher, therefore, should go through some of
 the research reports submitted /published in his field and familiarize himself/herself
with the basics of report writing.

Typing Instructions:

For typing a report, the following points should be kept in mind.

1. Paper: Quarter - size (A4 size) white thick, unrolled paper is used.
2. Typing: Typing is done on only one side of the paper in double
space.
3. Margins: Left side 1.5 inches, right side 0.5 inch, top and bottom
1.0 inch. But on the first page of every major division, for
example, at the beginning of a chapter give 3 inches space at the
top.

Presentation of report

Presentation has become an important communication medium in organizations because a

report is understood better if it is accompanied by a presentation. The readers can enter into a
dialogue with the author(s) of the report to share the thinking process that the author(s) has
gone through in writing the report..
Presentation skills include the ability to mix in the right proportion various elements of
A. communication dimensions,
B. presentation package, and
C. Use of audio-visual to achieve the given purpose with an audience.

Moreover, the presenter needs to acquire the public conversation (rather than public speaking
or oratory) skills.

A. Communication dimensions

The major elements of communication dimension, which are relevant to a presentation, are:
a. Purpose
b. Audience
c. PowerPoint presentation
d. Message
e. Time
f. Place
g. Cost
While preparing for presentation, the presenter has to ask searching questions to understand
each of the above mentioned dimensions of communication and find the right mix to serve his
purpose. This process makes the presentation both a science and an art.
1. Purpose
The first step to think through the purpose of the presentation is to focus it sharply. The
presenter can try to achieve a variety of purposes. Some instances of presentation purposes are
as follows:
- Informing?
- Selling?
- Exploring?
- Decision making?
- Persuading?
- Changing attitude or behavior?
Within each of these, the focus can be sharpened by breaking them into subsets. For example,
if it is a decision making, situation, would the presenter be interested in persuading the
audience to accept a decision which has already been 'taken vole on a decision provide
feedback for decision making take a decision, or explore areas which need attention for
decision making at a later time.

Depending on the purpose, the elements of the communication mix, presentation package, and
AV aids have to be adjusted to get the right effect.

2. Audience
In a presentation, multiple audiences interact at the same time. The sender and the receivers of
the message keep changing roles through clarification queries, question and answer, dialogue,
and discussion. It is a live and dynamic situation in which the presenter shapes the message in
the open.

The audience interest can be held on if the presenter focuses on issues of their immediate
interest and allows them to participate in understanding the information. One way monologue
is a sure way to dampen the audience enthusiasm and interest.
3. PowerPoint presentation

In a presentation, sound, sight, and body language come into play. Therefore, the coordination
of all three at one shot becomes an important aspect of presentation. Moreover, a
presentation helps to broaden or open up the horizon of thought. Therefore, to treat
presentation as an extension of written medium by projecting written data on the screen and
making the audience read it is a self-defeating and expensive proposition.

4. Message
The presenter has to think of the focus of the message-its breadth and depth-as much as a
writer does. But the dimensions are different. The presenter cannot get as much depth and
complexity as a writer can achieve. Therefore, the focus of a presentation has to be different
from that of a report.
A presentation concentrating on a single theme or a few major strands of a theme is more
comprehensible to the audience and leaves a more lasting impression than the one with too
many diverse issues.
Organization of the message is as important in presentation as in writing. Confused
organization confuses the audience and leads them to focus their attention on unimportant or
unintended issues.
Next, concretization of the message in presentation is as important as in good writing.
However, the presentation, because it combines sound and sight media, helps to concretize the
message more than the written medium. One step further in concretization leads to
visualization of ideas and hearing of actual sounds: only the presentation medium helps, to
achieve this level of concretization.
Since the presentation situation is built on interaction between the presenter and the audience,
the emotional content of the message and the audience should be considered. Concretization
at the emotional level reinforces the logical concretization of the message. Even simple words
like "our company", "my company", "your company", and "the company" carry emotional and
attitudinal connotations. These phrases reflect in a way where the presenter stands in respect
to the company and the audience. In this respect, the presenter's body language also comes
into play.

5. Time
The element of time in a presentation situation depends on various factors like availability of
the room, audience, and presenter. The presenter can select the right time if he has the choice.
Presentations immediately after lunch, for instance, fail to hold the attention of the audience.
Another major aspect is how much time is given to the presenter to make the presentation.
This is a crucial dimension which decides the length and the overall communication mix.
The timing or sequencing of the message or its various parts is also significant. Is your audience
prepared for it? When can you get their maximum attention?

6. Place
The presenter may not have much choice in selecting the place. But to make the best use of the
place and the facilities available will depend on the presenter. Whether the room is square or
rectangular, whether it is large or small enough for the audience, whether the seating
arrangement is fixed or movable are some examples of the questions which bother a presenter.
On the room arrangement depend on the kind of audio-visual tools that can be used and the
type of interaction that the presenter can have with the audience.
An examination of the following elements of a room will help in finding the right mix for an
effective presentation:
 i. Room dimensions
ii. Seating
iii. Number of people expected
iv. Space available for the presenter
v. AV equipments available

9. Cost
The preparation of a good presentation is time consuming and expensive. The presenter should
ask himself a) whether he is trying to achieve through presentation what he could have easily
achieved through written communication and b) whether he could use cheaper production
methods and aids than the ones he has chosen to put across the message.

B. PRESENTATION PACKAGE

The presentation package could be as follows:

1. Pre-presentation handout if necessary to prepare the audience for understanding the

presentation,
2. Presentation.
3. Two-way feedback between the audience and the presenter and among the audience
members through question and answer or discussion.
4. Post-presentation handout if necessary to reinforce the message or help recall.

C. AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
Audio-visual aids can be broadly classified as follows:

1. Audio
 Tape recorder
 Compact disc

2. Visual
A. Non- Projected
 Blackboard
 Bulletin boards or flip charts
 Models
B. Projected
 Epidiascope
 Overhead
  Slide
 Film strip
 Slide projector with a timer
C. Audio-Visual
 Film/photographs
 Video cassette

Usefulness of AV Aids

Since AV aids help in recreating reality in a miniature form through visuals and sound, greater
CREDIBILITY and CLARITY can be achieved in presentation. Since both sound and sight senses
are activated at the same time along with the body language, CONCENTRATION, RETENTION,
and RECALL, can be obtained in presentation.

AV aids can also help in collapsing DISTANCE and TIME. They help us to present to the audience
materials and experiences from far-off places and from different times in the past to make the
message concrete and clear.
Suggestions for Preparing of Audio visuals
1. Organize the material into small modules.
2. Do not put more than seven or eight lines on a transparency.
3. Use as few words as possible. Use telegraphic style, abbreviations, and symbols which
the audience can understand.
4. Visualize or picture your ideas if possible.
5. Make the pictures and letters bright enough to be visible from a distance.
6. Make the letters big and thick enough to be read by all.
7. Use light colors, like' yellow, light blue, or pink for background. Use dark or bright colors
like red, black, orange, or green for pictures and letters to improve visibility. Note that
black or red letters on a yellow background have the highest visibility.
8. Make the sound material audible, pleasing in tone, varied and synchronized with visuals.
9. Finally, before presentation, check the audibility, visibility, and readability of your AV
materials, if possible, in the actual place of presentation.

PRESENTER'S POISE

The presenter himself is an essential part of the presentation. His poise and confidence matter
a lot in putting across the ideas.
First, the presenter's posture and movement on the digs or at the speaking place and, his hand
gestures indicate the level of confidence of the presenter. Slouching positions, leg crossing,
rubbing hands or wild gesticulation, or hands in pockets indicate lack of authority and
confidence in the presenter. Sometimes the presenter's habits may become dysfunctional
because they draw the attention of the audience away from the main theme.
Second, the presenter's ability to maintain eye contact with the audience and keep his facial
expressions suited to the subject become also important. Lack of eye contact with the total
audience, not with just one or two persons in the audience, indicate lack of confidence in the
presenter. Moreover, the presenter will not be able to get non-verbal cues from the audience
of their interest and understanding throughout the presentation.
Finally, the fluency, pace of delivery, level of the voice, and command of the language signal to
the audience the level of confidence and preparedness of the presenter.
The only way that presenters can gain confidence is to repeatedly take the opportunity to make
presentations, analyze their presentations for improvement, and observe experienced
presenters in action. Only thorough preparedness and involvement with the subject help
presenters to overcome their inhibitions and fears and gain confidence.