Electric Circuits Revision:

Circuit Variables:

Net energy absorbed:

Circuit Elements:

Resistors: Ohm’s law: ,

Voltage Divider: A series combination of N resistors acts as a voltage divider.

Current Divider: A parallel combination of N resistors acts as a current divider.

Op-amps:

Negative Feedback loop: The connection of the output terminal back to the inverting input terminal,
with a short or with a circuit element.

 Circuit output is stable, in contrast to positive feedback which is unstable against output
fluctuations, making is difficult to control.
 The amplifier becomes programmable by using different circuit elements in the negative
feedback loop, allowing one to perform different operations on circuit signals.
 Idealized terminal equations for an ideal op-amp model:
o V2 = V1 (virtual short approximation). In case of short circuit to reference, v = 0
o I2 = I1 = 0 (open input approximation)
Steady State: v = 0 for inductor (short circuit) and i = 0 for capacitor (open circuit)

Continuity: continuity of capacitor voltage (vc(0+) = vC(0-)) and continuity of inductor current (iC(0-) =iC
(0+))

Equivalence Resistor Capacitor Inductor

In Series

In Parallel

Circuit Analysis, Shortcuts, and Theorems:

Kirchhoff’s Current Law: The algebraic sum of currents leaving a node is zero, due to the conservation of
charge (charge cannot be created or destroyed at a node).

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: The algrebraic sum of voltage drops around a loop is zero, due to the
conservation of energy (the potential energy of a particle cannot be increased by traversing a closed
loop).

Misc:

 equate two element’s current that are in series

Node Voltage Method: Useful for circuits with many elements in parallel and a few nodes

1. Choose a node as a reference node, and indicate your choice with the symbol Prefereably
the node with the most branches connected to it.
2. Label remaining nodes, grouping together nodes separated by voltage sources into super-nodes.
Identify node voltage variables (one node voltage per super-node).
3. Apply KCL at each node (except the reference), expressing each branch current using the voltage
variables defined earlier (by KVL and terminal laws of elements). In the presence of dependent
voltage sources or dependent current sources, express each controlling circuit variable in terms
of the node voltages.
4. Solve for the node voltage variables (isolation then substitution repeatedly, or Cramer’s rule)

Mesh Current Method: Useful for circuits with many elements in series arranged in a few meshes

1. Identify and label meshes. A mesh is a loop that cannot be sub-divided into smaller loops. Define
mesh current variables circulating in each mesh.
a. Combine meshes that have current sources with neighboring meshes into “super-
meshes”. Identify mesh currents, including only one mesh current variable for a “super-
mesh”. The remaining mesh currents in the super-mesh are determined by the current
sources.
2. Write KVL equations for each mesh using mesh current variables only, by intrinsically using KCL
and terminal laws (such as Ohm’s law). For the super-mesh, traverse the loop that does not pass
 through any current source. In the presence of dependent sources, express any source variables
in terms of mesh currents.
3. Solve the linear system of equations, and use the mesh currents to calculate the desired
quantity.

Thevenin’s Theorem: Any two terminal circuit composed of sources (dependent and independent) and
ideal resistors is equivalent to a series combination of an independent voltage source and an ideal
resistor, known as a Thevenin equivalent circuit:

 The voltage vOC is the open circuit voltage, the voltage that appears across the terminals AB
when there is no current iAB drawn from the circuit (the terminals AB are saidto be open).
 If the voltage source is turned off, vOC = 0V, then the circuit behaves like an ideal resistor. We
call this the Thévenin resistance, RT.Any voltage source is recovered as RT=0Ω (corresponding to
a short).

Finding a Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:

1. Does the circuit contain dependent sources?

a. Yes: Find voc. Is voc = 0?
i. Yes: Apply a known voltage (i..e vAB = 1 V), and find iAB. Then, find Rt using

ii. No: Find iSC. Then, Rt = voc/isc

b. No: Find vOC. Then find RT as the equivalent resistance with all sources turned off
i. OR use source transformations
ii. OR solve for the vab-iab equation directly.

Norton’s Theorem: any two terminal circuit composed of independent sources, dependent sources and
ideal resistors is equivalent to a parallel combination of a current source and an ideal resistor, known as
a Norton equivalent circuit. Norton’s theorem follows from Thévenin’s theorem by a source
transformation.

 The current iSC is the short circuit current, the current that flows through the terminals AB when
there is zero terminal voltage vAB = 0V (the terminals AB are said to be shorted). An ideal current
source is recovered as RT -> ∞ (open)
 If the current source is turned off, iSC = 0A, the circuit behaves like an ideal resistor with value
equal to the Thévenin resistance, RT.

Finding a Norton equivalent circuit:

1. Does the circuit contain dependent sources?

a. Yes: Find iSC. Is iSC = 0?
i. Yes: Apply a known voltage (i.e. vAB = 1 V) and find iAB. Then find RT using

ii. No: Find vOC. Then, RT= vOC/iSC

b. No: Find iSC. Find RT as the equivalent resistance with all sources turned off
i. OR use source transformations
ii. OR find the Thevenin circuit and apply a source transformation.
Source Transformation: A Thévenin circuit and a Norton circuit are actually equivalent when their iAB-
vAB diagrams are identical. We can convert between a Thévenin equivalent circuit and a

Norton equivalent circuit using the source transformation Using transformations between
Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits (working from left right), we can reduce a circuit to a single
Norton or Thevenin equivalent circuit.

Linearity and Principle of Superposition: Any current of voltage in a linear circuit that contains multiple
independent sources can be calculated as the algebraic sum of all the individual contributions due to
each independent source acting alone

Linear circuit element where terminal voltage and current are related to each other by a linear function

(or operator). Linear function . Examples include ideal resistors, dependent

sources and ideal opamps. Linear circuit composed of independent sources and linear circuit elements.
Voltage and current variables are linear functions of other voltage and current variables, but this is
generally not true for power.

1. Keep one independent source “on”, and “turn-off” all other independent sources.
a. Turning off current source to 0A = open circuit
b. Turning off voltage sources to 0V = short circuit
2. Calculate the current or voltage variable(s) of interest.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each remaining independent source.
4. Add algebraically the individual contributions for the total response.

Note: Retain all dependent sources, unchanged, through each step of the analysis.

Maximum Power Transfer: The maximum power thatcanbedeliveredby a Théveninequivalentor Norton

equivalentcircuit to a load resistance RL occurs under the condition when the loadresistanceisequalto
the Thévenin resistance: RL= RT i.e. . Design: RL = iAB/vAB and Pdel = iAB vAB

First Order Circuit Constant Input:

1. Find the initial value of the circuit variable of interest, x(0+), using circuit analysis and
continuity of capacitor voltage or inductor current.
2. Find the final value of the variable of interest, x(∞), using dc steady state models for the
capacitor or inductor.
3. Find the Thévenin equivalent resistance RT as seen from the terminals of the capacitor
or inductor. The time constant τ = RTC or τ = L/RT.

4. Construct the solution.

First Order Circuit Unit Step Response: For a piece-wise constant input:
1. Resolve the input into a summation of appropriately scaled and delayed unit step
functions,
 2. Find the response of the circuit variable to a unit step fucntion input, using the
technique for finding constant input response for an RC and RL circuit
3. Apply the principle of superposition to add the response to each unit step function at
the input.

Second Order Circuit Operator Method: We identify differentiation versus time with the symbol
s = d/dt that we manipulate as an algebraic quantity.
1) We write out circuit equations in terms of s.
2) We construct an equation so that s is only found in the numerator.
3) We replace s by d/dt.
Second Order Circuit RLC Natural Response:
step #1: Find the initial value and initial derivative of the circuit variable of interest, x(0+) and
dx/dt(0+), using circuit analysis and continuity of capacitor voltage and inductor current.
step #2: Using the operator method, or by directly writing down the equation, determine the
characteristic equation coefficients α and ω0 in terms of R, L, C. with

and

step #3: Find the roots of the characteristic equation:

step #4: Construct the solution. The coefficients can be found by using the initial conditions.

Underdamped Critically damped Overdamped

Damping rate α<w0 α= ω0 α> ω0

Solution