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The present and future of additive manufacturing in the aerospace sector: A

review of important aspects

Article  in  Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part G Journal of Aerospace Engineering · January 2015
DOI: 10.1177/0954410014568797

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Review Article

Proc IMechE Part G:

J Aerospace Engineering
The present and future of additive 0(0) 1–16
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sector: A review of important aspects DOI: 10.1177/0954410014568797

uk.sagepub.com/jaero

Adrián Uriondo, Manuel Esperon-Miguez and

Suresh Perinpanayagam

Abstract
This paper reviews recent improvements in additive manufacturing technologies, focusing on those which have the
potential to produce and repair metal parts for the aerospace industry. Electron beam melting, selective laser melting
and other metal deposition processes, such as wire and arc additive manufacturing, are presently regarded as the best
candidates to achieve this challenge. For this purpose, it is crucial that these technologies are well characterised and
modelled to predict the resultant microstructure and mechanical properties of the part. This paper presents the state of
the art in additive manufacturing and material modelling. While these processes present many advantages to the aero-
space industry in comparison with traditional manufacturing processes, airworthiness and air transport safety must be
guaranteed. The impact of this regulatory framework on the implementation of additive manufacturing for repair and
production of parts for the aerospace industry is presented.

Keywords
Additive manufacturing, rapid prototyping, rapid manufacturing, process modelling, selective laser melting, electron beam
melting, laser cladding, microstructure, mechanical properties, certification

Date received: 22 September 2014; accepted: 21 December 2014

as ‘additive manufacturing of a design, often iterative,

Introduction for form, fit, or functional testing, or combination
During the last few decades, the manufacturing indus- thereof’.1 Other synonyms widely used for AM in
try has developed new techniques and technologies for the literature are rapid manufacturing,6 additive fab-
low-volume production of innovative, customised and rication, layer manufacturing, direct digital manufac-
sustainable products with a high level of complexity turing, free form fabrication and additive techniques,
and technical requirements. One of these emerging among others.
technologies is additive manufacturing (AM). Nowadays, many layered manufacturing techniques
According to the ASTM Standard F2729-12 a, AM have been developed, such as photo-polymerisation
can be defined as ‘the process of joining materials to (stereolithgraphy5,7 and its derivatives), ink-jet print-
make objects from 3D model data, usually layer upon ing, fused deposition modelling,8 Selective laser sinter-
layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing meth- ing (SLS),9 selective laser melting (SLM),10,11 electron
odologies, such as traditional machining’.1 For many beam melting (EBM),12,13 direct metal deposition
years, this technology has been used to manufacture (MD),14–16 amongst others. However, not all of them
prototypes, but improvements in the accuracy of the can produce metal parts. In this respect, SLS, SLM,
process and materials’ properties have allowed some laser metal deposition (LMD), EBM and wire and arc
industries to build parts for direct assembly purposes, additive manufacturing (WAAM) are presently the
such as air-cooling ducts for aircrafts2 or hearing aids most versatile processes to produce complex functional
and prosthesis.3 Rapid prototyping (RP) is a synonym
for AM that is common in the literature about AM.4 School of Aerospace, Transport and Manufacturing, Cranfield
However, some authors, including Gibson et al., sug- University, Bedfordshire, UK
gest that this term can be inadequate and does not
Corresponding author:
describe the scope of this technology because it has
Adrián Uriondo, IVHM Centre, School of Aerospace, Transport and
been involved in testing, manufacturing, tooling and Manufacturing, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire MK43
other activities outside of the ‘prototyping’ defin- 0AL, UK.
ition.5 The ASTM Standard F2729-12 a defines RP Email: a.uriondo@cranfield.as.uk

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2 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)

metallic components (pure metals, alloys and metal A good knowledge of this field will help to develop
matrix composites) to meet requirements from the new certification and quality assessment/quality man-
aerospace,2,17,18 defence19 and biomedical industries.20 agement (QA/QM) processes for these technologies in
Caffrey and Wohlers21 have shown the increasing the aerospace industry, one of the main objectives in
popularity of using this technology to produce metal the next few years.19
components for industry by tracking metal-based AM
machine sales by year. They recorded around 20 units
Classification of AM for metal parts
sold in 2000 and close to 200 units in 2012.
Levy et al.3 consider that the competitive position Each AM technology has its particular characteristics
of AM for metal components relative to other con- in terms of usable material, processing procedures and
ventional manufacturing processes depends on the capabilities. Nevertheless, most of them work using a
geometrical complexity and required production point-wise method and use metal powder as a raw
quantity. material. Companies, like Solidica in the US, use an
Holmstrom et al.22 suggest the following benefits of ultrasonic consolidation process to produce parts.24
AM methods over conventional manufacturing In this review, only SLM, EBM, LMD and WAAM
methods: are considered and described because they are pres-
ently regarded as the four AM processes most applic-
. No tooling is needed, reducing production ramp up able to the aerospace industry and because they can
time and cost. produce almost fully dense components without any
. Small production batches are feasible and econom- post-processes (close to 99.9% density11,20,25,26) with
ical. Possibility for quick design changes.22 mechanical and electrochemical properties compar-
. Product optimisation for function (for example, able to other traditional methods.
optimised cooling channels2). There are many ways to classify these technologies.
. The capability to produce complex geometries. Figure 1 shows a diagram where these technologies
. Potential for simpler supply chains, shorter lead are classified according to the mechanism of pre-
times and lower inventories. spreading the raw material. On the one hand,
powder bed fusion process technologies have one or
Frazier presented specific technical challenges in AM more thermal sources to melt the powder, a method to
to enhancing operational readiness and energy effi- control the powder fusion to a specific region in each
ciency and reducing the total ownership cost of layer and a mechanism to pre-spread a smooth
naval aircraft.19 powder layer. On the other hand, MD processes are
those that melt the material as it is being put down.
. Machine-to-machine variability must be under- Both SLM and LMD use a high-power laser.
stood and controlled. Industry specifications and However, EBM uses an electron beam and WAAM,
standards for the processing of aerospace alloy a plasma arc.
components must be developed. To achieve this Laser technology27,28 has improved in recent years
goal, he suggests giving high priority to developing in terms of small focused spots, higher laser power
integrated processes, sensing monitoring and con- and wavelengths better tuned to the absorptivity of
trol technologies. metal powder.27,29,30 Nowadays, almost all AM laser
. Alternatives to conventional qualification methods machines use fibre lasers instead of CO2 lasers or
must be found based upon validated models, prob- Nd:YAG.
abilistic methods and part similarities among The following section provides a summary of the
others. New standards and advanced non-destruc- main characteristics of SLM, EBM and LMD, and
tive techniques (NDT) capable of detecting critical which is the currently capability to obtain high-
defects with a high degree of certainty are needed. performance components according to the various
. New design guidelines with innovative structural mechanisms of beam energy–powder interaction
characteristics are needed in order to reduce (e.g. pre-spreading powder in a powder bed before
weight components. laser scanning31 or coaxial feeding of powder by
. Physics-based models are needed in order to predict nozzle with synchronous laser scanning8,16), depos-
microstructure characteristics, mechanical and elec- ition rate, processing conditions, material and scan
trochemical properties. New alloys should be devel- strategy amongst others.
oped to optimise the process and the final properties. Finally, it is important to note that the terminology
An understanding of how to achieve better fatigue for SLM, EBM and LMD technologies varies across
properties and surface finish must be developed. organisations and institutions (Table 1).

The purpose of this article is to review the state of the

art in most extended AM technologies for metal parts,
Electron beam melting
with particular emphasis on the relationship between EBM uses a high-energy electron beam to heat and
material, process and metallurgical mechanisms.23 melt the metal powder. This process uses the same

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Uriondo et al. 3

Addive Manufacturing of
metallic components

Metal Deposion processes Powder bed fusion

(MD) processes

Laser Metal Wire and Arc Addive Electro Beam Melng Selecve Laser Melng
Deposion Manufacturing (EBM) (SLM)
(LMD) (WAAM)

Figure 1. Classification of AM processes based on energy source and powder delivery system.

(2) in order to achieve the correct spot diameter and

Table 1. Nomenclature for SLM, EBM and LMD.20 electromagnetically positioned (3) with deflection coils
that control x–y motion. The building direction
Processes Synonyms from different institutions/firms
(z axis) is denoted by the arrow (B).
SLM Direct metal laser sintering (EOS GmbH, Germany)
Direct metal laser re-melting (University Selective laser melting
of Liverpool, UK)
Lasercusing (Sauer Product GmbH, Germany) SLM (Figure 2b) uses a high-energy laser beam (1) to
LMD Direct metal deposition (University of Michigan, USA) heat and melt the metal powder (layers 0.1 mm
Laser engineered net shaping (Sandia National thick5) which has been racked across the build area
Laboratory, USA) (5) using a counter-rotating powder levelling roller
Directed light fabrication (Los Alamos, USA) (4). The powder is fed from a container (6). The
Direct laser deposition (University
powder that is not used can be recycled (7).
of Manchester, UK) After finishing a layer, the build platform is lowered
Direct laser fabrication (University of Birmingham)
by one layer thickness and a new powder bed is
spread. The building process takes place in a pro-
Laser rapid forming (North-Western
Polytechnical University and Hong
tected atmosphere (normally argon or nitrogen gas)
to minimise the oxidation and degradation of the
Kong Polytechnic University, China)
material during the process. This technology uses gal-
Laser melting deposition (Beihang University, China)
vanometers (2) (mirrors) to control the position of the
EBM Electron beam melting (Arcam, Sweden) laser spot. The building direction (z axis) is denoted
EBM: electron beam melting; SLM: selective laser melting; LMD: laser by the arrow (B).
metal deposition.

Comparison of electron and laser beam melting

32
principles as electron beam welding. This technol- Both systems create a powder bed by raking or rolling
ogy is mainly commercialised by Arcam.33 As shown powder from cassettes into a compacted layer.
in Figure 2(a), the electron beam is generated and However, the inherent characteristics of the heat
then accelerated in a heated filament (1) with a voltage source in each process affect the material being pro-
difference of around 60 kV.5,34 This system is typically cessed. Whilst in SLM the energy of the photons is
more efficient than a laser beam generator because absorbed by the powder particles, in EBM the elec-
most of the energy is converted into the electron trons transfer their kinetic energy to the powder par-
beam and higher beam energies are available with ticles.30,35 This means that the powder particles
less cost. increase their negative charge. If the conductivity of
Electrons move close to the speed of light (around the raw material is not high enough to avoid the nega-
70%34) and, as in electron beam welding, the process tive charge5:
has to be carried out in a vacuum, so that electrons do
not interact with the atoms of the atmosphere and are . The electronegativity of the powder bed will create
not reflected. a more diffuse beam due to tendency of the charged
The powder is normally fed by gravity from the powder to repel the incoming electrons; and
cassettes (4) and distributed (5) onto the built plat- . if the order of magnitude of the repulsive force is
form (7). The beam is focused with a focus coiling close or superior to the order of magnitude of the

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4 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)

Figure 2. EBM (a) and SLM (b) systems schematics.

gravitational and frictional forces, there will be conduction. All these characteristics result in the cool-
an expulsion of powder particles from the ing rate of the melted pool in SLM creating smaller
powder bed. grain sizes.
As a result, the microstructure of the part changes
To avoid these problems, the conductivity of the raw significantly from EBM to SLM and thus, the mech-
material must be high. This means that EBM can only anical properties will be different.13,41,42
process materials like metals, whereas SLM can pro-
cess any material that can absorb energy from a laser
Metal Deposition processes
wavelength.
Another important issue is the energy cost. Unlike in powder bed fusion processes, in MD pro-
In EBM, most of the energy applied to the heated cesses, the raw material is melted as it is being depos-
filament to generate the beam is converted into the ited in the form of a powder43 or wire37 feedstock.
electron’s kinetic energy but in SLM, only 10–20% Most of those technologies use a laser as a heat
of the total energy input is converted into the laser source, but there are similar processes that use an
beam.5 However, fibre lasers have better energy con- electron beam or a plasma source instead of a laser
version efficiency (around 70–80% for some cases).5,27 beam as a heat source.15,37,44,45 The deposition head is
Consequently, this might not be a major advantage of usually an integrated collection of a heat source, a
EBM over SLM. powder nozzle(s) and inert gas, like in Laser
In both EBM and SLM, the powder bed is main- Cladding (LC). The powder is focused at the melting
tained at an elevated temperature. Pre-heating the pool using either co-axial feeding,46 four-nozzle feed-
powder is necessary to minimise the laser/electron ing or single-nozzle feeding. MD processes involve
beam power requirements and to prevent the part deposition, melting and solidification of raw material
form warping due to high thermal gradient (cur- in a moving melt pool. Thus, the final parts can
ling).36–39 However, there is a difference between achieve an elevated density during the process, being
both heating mechanisms and the operating tempera- the higher porosity level close to the surface of the
tures of both processes. part.5,14,43 The typical microstructure attained is simi-
lar to that in the SLM process due to the high cooling
SLM: Infrared heaters placed above the build cham- rates (from 103 C/s to as high as 104 C/s).47,48
ber maintain the temperature of the powder bed Residual stresses are one of the most significant
around 90 C.40 problems in MD processes.5 They are generated as a
EBM: Defocusing the electron beam and scanning the result of this solidification, which can lead to cracking
powder bed very quickly over the total surface during or after part construction.
heats the powder bed before placing the next This technology can repair components which have
layer to a uniform pre-set temperature (close to been considered non-repairable by conventional
the melting point).40 methods.49 European projects, including
FANTASIA50 and TurPro51, have demonstrated the
Furthermore, the inert atmosphere present in SLM potential of this technology for repair of high-valued
processes in the build chamber favours heat turbo-engine components.

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Uriondo et al. 5

Conclusions the scan strategy. The analysis of transmission elec-

There are a large number of AM technologies that tron microscopy images from the studies of Murr
can produce metal components, but not all of et al.40,52 show high dislocation density inside
them can achieve the same quality of the final part. a-phase grains in EBM processes and deformation
EBM, SLM and some MD processes look to be the twins in a-phase in the martensitic structure
most applicable technologies for high technical (see Figure 3). This deformation is a consequence of
requirement parts. The development of physics- the rapid cooling rate of both processes and indicates
based models to correlate microstructure-property- a high level of induced thermal residual stresses. Also,
processing variables to the size/type of defect is due to the high cooling rate and high conductive heat
essential in order to produce AM parts consistently transfer rate in both processes, only a small volume of
and accurately. precipitates (Ti3Al) will be formed. Thijs et al.26
observed in their studies that if more material remains
at a higher temperature for a longer time, the volume
Aerospace alloys in AM processes
of precipitates will increase and consequently, the
There are various alloys for AM technologies. micro-hardness will be higher.26 To achieve this
A majority of research efforts have focused on Ti-,52 goal, they present two alternatives: lowering the
Ni-25 and Fe-based alloys. Only Ti- and Ni-based hatch spacing or the scanning velocity.
alloys are discussed here due to their importance in Vrancken et al.57 studied the influence of mixing
aerospace applications. A review of these alloys is pre- Ti6Al4V ELI powder with 10 wt.% Mo powder.57
sented in Table 2. The mixed powder was processed by an SLM machine.
The resulting microstructure consisted of homoge-
nously dispersed Mo particles in a b-phase matrix
Titanium alloys
with a <100> cube texture in the building direction.
Facchini et al.54,55 have studied how to modify the It presented a high strength (s0.2 ¼ 858 MPa) and
mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V AM parts with excellent ductility (A ¼ 21). Table 3 summarises the
heat treatments. They improved the ductility of the mechanical properties of EBM Ti6Al4V specimens.
material by modifying the metastable martensite
into a biphasic a-phase acicular microstructure. This
Nickel alloys
suggests how to control the martensite transformation
of Ti6Al4V alloy through the variation of AM par- Nickel-based alloys are used for high-performance
ameters. Due to the cooling rate being higher for SLM components in the aerospace industry due to their
than EBM, the resultant microstructure of Ti6Al4V tensile properties, damage tolerance, ability to creep
components differ from dominant martensite to fine at high temperature and corrosion/oxidation resist-
a-phase structure, respectively.56 This means that the ance.60 Those alloys are strengthened by precipitates.
hardness and the ductility will be different for the two However, AM processes result in a high cracking ten-
processes. Murr et al.40 studied the microstructure dif- dency due to the amount of elements in the interme-
ferences for Ti6Al4V concluding that the hardness in tallic phases. With these alloys, it is difficult to
SLM (41 HRC) is greater than in EBM (32 HRC) for eliminate all the short cracks merely by adjusting
Ti6Al4V components. They do not observe any main the process parameters of the machine. A Hot
directional grain grow for both processes. However, Isostatic Pressing (HIP) process is required to
Thijs et al.26 have concluded that for SLM processes, improve the mechanical properties. Static mechanical
the orientation of the grains is highly dependent on properties of Inconel 625 processed by EBM
the scan velocity and scan strategy. They suggest con- (ARCAMTM) are presented in Table 4. Before HIP,
trolling the grain orientation during the process with the microstructure was characterised by columnar

Table 2. Alloys for various AM processes.

Based elements Alloys Powder characteristics References

Ti Ti6Al4V Particle size 25–45 mm Gu et al.20

Ti6Al4V ELI Particle size 25–45 mm Gu et al.20
Ni Inconel 625 Spherical shape (95%); particle size 20–135 mm Gu et al.20
Waspaloy Average particle size 63 mm Gu et al.20
Inconel 718 Particle size 44–150 mm Gu et al.20
Rene 88DT Particle size 44–150 mm Gu et al.20
Rene 41 Atomised with Ar Gu et al.20
HastelloyX Particles size 20 mm Brodin et al.53

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6 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)

Figure 3. (a) Ti6Al4V fabricated by EBM. (b) Ti6Al4V fabricated by SLM. (c) The TEM image for EBM-fabricated Ti6Al4V shows high
dislocation density in a-phase.40

Table 3. Static mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V without any post-process in the build direction.

Process Yield strength (YS) [GPa] Ultimate tensile strength (UTS) [GPa] % Elongation References

EBM 1.1–1.15 1.15–1.2 16–25 Murr et al. 13

0.83 0.915 – Facchini et al.55
0.735 0.775 2.3 Koike et al.58
SLM 0.865 0.972 10 SLM solutions (GmbH)
1.07 1.2 11 EOS (GmbH)
0.835 0.915 10.6 Facchini et al.54
0.99 1.095 8.1 Facchini et al.54
WAAM 803 918 – Ding and Williams59
EBM: electron beam melting; SLM: selective laser melting; WAAM: wire and arc additive manufacturing.

Table 4. Static mechanical properties of IN645 achieved by Table 5. Static mechanical properties of IN718 for SLM and
EBM. EBM.62

YS UTS AM process YS [MPa] UTS [MPa] % Elongation

Process [MPa] [MPa] % Elongation
EBM 580 910 22
EBM 410 750 44 SLM 552 904 16
EBM þ HIP 330 770 69 EBM: electron beam melting; AM: additive manufacturing;
The HIP process conditions applied were at 1393 K, 100 MPa for 4 h.25 SLM: selective laser melting.
EBM: electron beam melting.
Strondl et al.61 have studied the microstructure and
grains (up to 20 mm). Subsequently, the columnar phases of Inconel 718 with EBM (ARCAMTM) with-
grains recrystallised, and the metastable g0 -phase out any post-process. They obtained a matrix consist-
(Ni3Nb) becomes dissolved. Murr et al.,25 due to unu- ing of g-phase grains oriented in almost the same
sual microstructures achieved in their studies, sug- direction, like a single crystal. The precipitates are
gest the possibility of designing the microstructure aligned following the grow direction of each grain.
of the part modifying process parameters during the Mechanical properties of this alloy in various AM
process. technologies are reported in Table 5.

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Uriondo et al. 7

Fatigue, porosity, and roughness Modelling AM processes

Roughness and porosity are the main factors that affect Certifying AM parts for aerospace applications
fatigue behaviour directly. It is very important to iden- requires a better control of the machines as well as
tify the influence of both parameters in this failure good process-microstructural models to predict the
mechanism. Chan et al.63 investigated the effect of final properties of each part.4,19 This can be moni-
roughness on fatigue life in Ti6Al4V parts fabricated tored via process variables, such as laser power,
by EBM (ARCAM A2, ARCAMTM) and SLM scan velocity, preheating temperatures and scan strat-
(EOSINT M270, EOS GmbH). They concluded that egy, among others (Figure 4). Wide experience in
the fatigue life of SLM parts is higher than that of welding processes and other manufacturing methods
EBM. They correlated the fatigue life in cycles with has demonstrated that both the temperature distribu-
the surface finish, concluding that a high level of rough- tion as well as the temperature history have an influ-
ness results in a shorter fatigue life. Greitemeir et al.64 ence on the distortion induced by residual stresses,
showed that the surface defects had the most pro- microstructure and consequently, on the fatigue
nounced impact on reducing high cycle fatigue life.64 behaviour. Much research related to the analysis of
The porosity level is less important than the micro- temperature distribution in transient heat conduction
structure of the alloy (HIP processes to avoid porosity for welding67 have been applied to modelling AM
do not have a significant impact on fatigue life). processes.68 However, none of this research takes
Surface roughness depends on the technology, the into account all physical phenomena of the process,
scan strategy, the position of the part on the build such as non-thermal constant properties, heat of
platform, and some other process parameters, like phase transformation, natural convection in the
the hatch space or the scan velocity.26,62 Mazumder liquid pool, latent heat of fusion, vaporisation and
et al.65 showed that for laser cladding, a type of MD solidification, among others. Neglecting these effects
process, the largest roughness can be measured per- can result in important differences between the model
pendicular to the clad direction on the top surface and actual performance. For instance, Negi et al.36
(5% greater than in the parallel direction) and in the showed with a finite element analysis (FEA) that
vertical direction on the walls (3% greater than in the taking into account the effect of variable material
horizontal direction). thermal properties as well as the effect of radiation
and convection heat, prediction of the temperature
distribution is more accurate compared with the
Conclusions
experimental case. Zhang et al.69 show that neglecting
For each alloy and technology, it is possible to fix a melting and re-solidification processes, and therefore
set of process parameters in AM to achieve static the change of density, could result in important errors
mechanical properties close to those obtained by trad- in the thermal model.
itional technologies. The high cooling rates during The need to maintain proper build conditions and
AM processes produce small grain size. This increases limit residual stress is coupled with the desire to con-
the crack incubation period resulting in better fatigue trol the microstructure of the part. Process maps for
properties at low temperature. The surface finish each alloy and AM process have been developed to
dominates the fatigue behaviour rather than the understand the relationship between process variables
porosity. (laser power, scan velocity, preheating temperatures,
However, AM parts present a strong anisotropy part geometry, etc.) and relevant cooling rates to
due to the characteristics of the process itself. obtain desirable microstructural features.68 These
Normally, the building direction (Z-direction)66 is process maps are developed using non-linear
the weakest in terms of the ultimate tensile stress.62 thermo-mechanical finite element simulation and dif-
Ti6Al4V is the most widely alloy used in AM tech- ferent testing samples.
nologies. However, other materials like steel- and
Ni-based alloys, amongst others, have increased in
SLM models
popularity in the aerospace industry. Further studies
in terms of metallurgical mechanisms during AM are SLM is a complex process with multiple physical phe-
required to fit a successful AM application. The nomena. The laser beam interacts with the material,
number of powder-based alloys should be extended which at the beginning is powder, but then melts to
in order to achieve more applicable materials to dif- become liquid; heat transfer depends on the conduct-
ferent situations. ivity and it changes from powder to dense parts, both
AM offers the possibility of creating ‘designed of them being part of the interface with the molten
material’ with characteristics which do not exist.20 pool; gravity forces and temperature gradients in the
To effectively use AM in the aerospace industry, it pool produce natural and Marangoni convections.
is necessary to have models that correlate the final A good understanding of the above-mentioned phe-
part’s characteristics with process variables. nomena will allow control of the properties of the

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8 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)

Figure 4. Detailed model map for a SLM process.

parts produced, such as microstructure, porosity and They conclude that the Rosenthal results for both
residual stresses. situations, thin wall and bulky structures, are compat-
Verhaeghe et al.70 developed a model to study the ible with those obtained from the numerical model
influence of evaporation. They concluded that for (FEA) with low laser power (between 350 and
high-energy density inputs, evaporation occurs and 750 W).8
its effect in the temperature field in the pool cannot Gürtler et al.72 used the three-dimensional (3D)
be neglected. Additionally, the depth of the pool volume of fluid method to study the effect of the
taking into account the evaporation is smaller due powder-layer thickness, power, scan spacing and
to part of the input energy being used in the liquid– scan velocity on the process dynamics. In their
gas phase change. However, the size and shape of the model, they used part of the Otto and Schmidt28
cross-section did not agree with the experimental models for laser material processing. Realistic results
data. Based on the results available in the literature, for process dynamics and defects were achieved.
it can be concluded that including the Marangoni con- Models from other technologies close to SLM (like
vection in the model could help to improve the model SLS) have been used to understand the influence of
and reproduce a more realistic melt pool width and other parameters, such as the number of layers under-
depth. neath. Chen and Zhang73 concluded that the dimen-
Kobryn and co-workers8 have studied how process sionless intensity of the moving heat source in SLS
variables, such as the power or the scan velocity, can processes to achieve the desired sintering depth and
have an impact on the final microstructure of to bond the newly sintered layer to the previously
Ti6Al4V for LMD or SLM. They first use an analyt- sintered ones increases with the scanning velocity.
ical model based on the Rosenthal71 solution. This Xiao and Zhang74 have also studied the influence
approach does not take into account the nonlinear of existing sintered layers in SLS processes, but
effects of temperature-dependent properties and the including Marangoni and natural convections in
latent heat of the alloy. However, it shows the order their model. The model was validated by comparing
of magnitude of some process variables in thin wall the predicted cross-section for the liquid/solid inter-
and bulky structures. These results have been com- face during laser melting of a nonporous 6063 alumin-
pared with a numerical model based on a FEA in ium sheet with experimental results. They concluded
order to study the influence of the neglected effect. that the flow has a high influence on the temperature

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Uriondo et al. 9

field and consequently on the shape of the melt pool. Jamshidini et al.77 applied a coupled
Also, if the number of existing sintered layers under- Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)–FEA to
neath is increased, higher energy density is needed to study the heat and thermal stress distribution in
achieve the required overlap between the layers and to EBM with Ti6Al4V powder. This model takes into
avoid the negative ‘lack of fusion’ phenomena. account the fluid convection through the CFD
Several experiments have indicated that if the scan model and combines it with the FEA to determinate
velocity falls outside a specific interval, tracks become the thermal stresses. They conclude that power and
broken. This undesirable instability in the pool during the cooling rate are the more relevant factors for ther-
the process is known in the literature as the ‘balling’ mal stresses, and the negative temperature coefficient
effect. This phenomenon can be explained by the of surface tension is responsible for the formation of
Plateau–Rayleigh capillary instability for high scan an outward flow in the molten pool on the top sur-
velocities. Gusarov et al.,75 neglecting melt flow and face. This effect combined with the wetting capability
therefore the Marangoni convection, created a phys- of the solidified layer on which new material is melted
ical model taking into account radiation and heat will produce the melt ball formation.
transfer to study this effect for high scan velocities. According to Gusarov et al.,75 narrow melt pools
They concluded that this simple model can be used tend to suffer from ‘balling’ rather than solidify as a
to estimate the contact between the melted material smooth layer.
and the layer underneath, one of the factors that
avoid ‘balling’. Zhou et al.30 suggest packing different
types of metal powders with different melting points
LMD models
and different emissivities to avoid ‘balling’. Due to the nature of the process, only the powder
dissolved into the melt pool contributes to the manu-
facturing process. Systematic investigations have been
EBM models
carried out to improve the processing control and the
The literature on models for EBM is more limited final quality of the part. Due to heat generated by the
than for that for SLM or SLS. Since EBM processes laser, using sensors near the melt pool to record data
use an electron beam to melt the powder, the beam– is very difficult. Thus, using good models constitutes
powder interaction is substantially different than in the only efficient way to predict morphologies, ther-
SLM or LC. The penetration depth of the beam mal fields, etc.
into the powder is higher than for a laser with the Peyre et al. proposed a combined analytical–
same power, because electrons have their own inertia numerical model (using COMSOL Multi-physicsTM
and require a large number of collisions (elastic and software) to predict geometries and thermal fields
inelastic) until their kinetic energy is absorbed by the during LMD processes with Ti6Al4V powder. Their
material. Using Monte Carlo methods, the absorption two main assumptions are:
path of individual electrons can be tracked.76 Another
important aspect is that the maximum energy . The powder arrives at an average temperature and
absorbed by the material is at a considerable distance with a local mass rate which interacts with the
below the surface, whereas all the energy from a laser molten pool.
is absorbed at the surface. Klassen et al.35 showed the . The energy inside the pool is enough to melt the
strong influence of the electron beam absorption and incoming powder.78
the depth of penetration on the quality of the part
using a two-dimensional 2D-thermal lattice To validate their model, they recorded the local tem-
Boltzmann method (LBM). They also have developed perature history (thermocouples and pyrometers) and
a strategy to combine various semi-empirical expres- the melt pool size (fast camera). Both sets of data were
sions to compute the beam energy attenuation as a compatible with simulation data for Ti6Al4V.
function of material characteristics and the incident There is much research that has proposed transient
electron energy. models for LMD using FEM. Unlike the previous
Zäh and Lutzmann29 have used a FEA model, model, these do not use a predictive approach for wall
which solves the heat conduction equation modified dimension prior to calculations. Ye et al.79 used one of
by the implementation of an abstracted heat source, these models to predict the temperature distribution for
to study the influence of beam power and scan vel- AISI 316 steel. Alimardani et al.80 proposed a 3D-FEA
ocity on the shape of the melt pool. They validated the model with which the shape of each layer, and the tem-
model using experimental data from thermocouples perature and stress fields can be calculated at any
attached to the build platform. However, this model time. This model includes also the Marangoni phenom-
has been proven for a set of process variables that enon, power attenuation, effect of angle of incidence
ignore two of the most relevant defects in this tech- and the effect of external forces and displacements.
nology: ball formation and delamination. Therefore, They conclude that preheating the powder helps to
better models for predicting melt ball formation reduce residual stresses as well as settling time for the
during EBM processes will be necessary. formation of a steady-state molten pool, and

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10 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)

clamping the workpiece at a specific position also can co-workers8 calculated predictions of solidification
help to decrease residual stresses. microstructure in Ti6Al4V for SLM for thin wall
The material deposition in all FEA models for and bulky 3D geometries.8 This model has been suc-
LMD has been modelled following one of these two cessful in predicting the fully columnar microstructure
strategies: associated with SLM at relative small scales.

. Using quiet elements: elements are present during

Conclusions
the analysis but with very low values of thermal
conductivity and specific heat in order to reduce The prediction of the composition/microstructure and
conduction into this region. The major advantages the formation of residual stresses during the process
are that they are easy to implement in commercial are regarded as two major difficulties in AM pro-
finite element solvers and, since the number of cesses. Having good models of the process is the
elements does not change, the number of equations base to improving the process and having better qual-
is constant and solver initialisation during the ity parts. Figure 5 represents all the current different
simulation process is not needed. simulation areas and how they are interconnected.
. Using inactive elements: elements are not included There is much research that is focused on develop-
during the analysis until they have been added. ing models for AM processes. However, all these
Their major advantage is that they do not need models are incomplete due to the high complexity of
scaling factors to minimise thermal conductivity the system. Developing better models of each area will
and specific heat. However, the method cannot be result in the effective use of AM technology.
easily integrated into commercial finite elements While simulations and models of thermo-mechan-
solvers. ical processes in AM are currently being developed
(there are still many challenges ahead), their coupling
A variety of general purpose commercial codes have with fluid dynamics has not yet been well established
used one of those strategies to model MD (Ye et al.79 (e.g. in transient melt pools).
use AbaqusTM in their simulations). Michaleris81 From the point of view of FEA methods, improve-
showed that neglecting surface convection and radi- ments of the adaptive meshing strategies will have to
ation on the interface between active and inactive deal with whole parts or even structures. This will
elements results in artificial heating generation (more result in very high computational times.
than a 5% error) and proposes a hybrid inactive/quiet The influence of material characteristics and pro-
method to accelerate computer run times. cessing conditions on the metallurgical mechanism
Another important topic is the prediction of the and resultant microstructural and mechanical proper-
morphology and size of the grain in the final part. ties of AM-produced parts provide us with all the
The next section is a brief summary of mesoscopic information to control the process and to achieve all
models that can be applied to achieve this objective. the technical requirements of each spare part.25,41,42

Mesoscopic simulation Certification in the aerospace market

82,83
The LBM is a mathematical model based on the Implementing AM to produce and repair aerospace
Cellular Automaton (CA) theory that has been used components (parts and tools) requires, not only
as an alternative to ordinary fluid dynamics models, being competitive against conventional manufactur-
especially in problems with complex interface (e.g. ing methods in terms of time and cost, but also meet-
flows in porous media). Körner et al.83 developed a ing all the parts’ requirements and ensuring that each
2D-LBM model to study the influence of melting and aspect of its value chain can be certified. AM faces
solidification of a randomly packed powder bed under many technical challenges when compared to other
a Gaussian beam. Their numerical experiments have conventional manufacturing processes, such as the
demonstrated that the packing density of the powder hybrid nature of the resulting part, the complexity
bed has the most significant effect on the melt pool of the deposition system, the effect of reused
characteristics. powder, etc.
CA modelling has also been used to simulate the AM implementation in design, manufacturing and
evolution of the microstructure during the solidifica- repairing stages for aerospace components must be in
tion process as an alternative to phase-field concordance with the corresponding competent
models84–87 which have been used in other disciplines. authority to ensure aircraft airworthiness and air
For instance, Gandin et al.88 developed a 3D CA transport safety.
combined with a FEA to predict the grain structure As air traffic continues to grow, a common endeav-
in casting processes. Such models permit estimating our is needed to keep air transport safe and sustain-
which values of the thermal gradient and cooling able. The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)
rate are needed in casting to obtain a specific grain and the Federal Aviation Administration are the two
structure (equi-axed, columnar, etc.). Kobryn and organisations which are responsible for standards of

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Uriondo et al. 11

Figure 5. Review areas in AM modelling.

safety and environmental protection in civil aviation, . The maintenance planning.

not only in their region but also for those countries . The control of the records during the work.
with which they have bilateral agreements. Regulation . The quality and safety policy of the
(EC) No. 2042/2003 has four Annexes.89 organisation must follow the structure of the
Annex I (Part M) focuses on all processes that organisation.
ensure that an aircraft complies with airworthiness
requirements in effect during its operational life and Annex III (Part 66) describes training necessary to
that it can be operated safely, including acquire the license for Aircraft Maintenance
maintenance.90 Technician (AMT).92 Annex IV (Part 147) describes
Annex II (Part 145) describes the conditions have ‘how’ and ‘where’ this AMT formation should be
to be met for an organisation to be approved in taught.93
Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul (MRO).91 Each Part 21 lays down the rules governing the air-
competent authority (a competent authority is desig- worthiness and environmental certification of an air-
nated by each Member State (EASA Member States craft, related products, parts and appliances, as well
are not necessarily Member States of the European as the certification of design and production organisa-
Union (EU). For instance, Switzerland and Iceland tions. A design organisation must hold a Design
are EASA Member States but are not part of the Organisation Approval (DOA) and provide the
EU.) or the Agency if so requested by that Member design data to a production organisation, which in
State) shall establish procedures detailing how to turn must hold the corresondent Production
comply with the Part 145, Section B.91 These proced- Organisation Approval (POA). Part 21 specifies the
ures must be reviewed and amended to ensure contin- legislation on certification procedures, producing
ued compliance. Annex II specifies: parts and devices, type certificates, requirements for
noise emissions approvals parts and systems, individ-
. Requirements have to be met by the staff and the ual certificates of airworthiness, flight permits and
equipment. restricted licenses.

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12 Proc IMechE Part G: J Aerospace Engineering 0(0)

Basic Regulaon (EC)

Implementaon rules Implementaon rules

Part/21 EASA Forms Part M-Connuing Airworthiness

(AMC/GM)
Part 145-Maintenance Organizaon
Approvals (AMC/GM)
Part 66-Cerfying Staff (AMC/GM)
Part 21 Cerficaon Part 147-Training Organizaon
Requirements

Specificaon

Figure 6. EASA Regulations.

As some rules may be subject to interpretation, Maintenance Manual (GM 21.A.431 (a),94 145.B.491)
EASA issues advisory material to explain regulation (e.g. Component Maintenance Manual). An original
and, in some cases, suggests suitable procedures to equipment manufacturer (OEM) has to approve the
perform a demonstration of compliance with it. The repair solution and include it in the applicable
Acceptable Means of Compliance and the Guide Maintenance Manual (21.A.14 (b) 3.494). A repair
Material (GM) are documents that have been issued solution has to be conducted according to the applic-
with each Annex. Figure 6 shows a chart of EASA able Maintenance Manual and its amendments.
regulations. Finally, an EASA Form 1 has to be issued referencing
Finally, EASA regulations can be summarised as: all relevant data.90
Traditional manufacturing methods for metallic
An aircraft that has been designed by an organization components have well-established specifications and
approved under Part-21 may only be operated for com- procedures, and this means that protocols for certify-
mercial air transportation when an operator has hired a ing processes and suppliers are similarly well estab-
maintenance organization that has been approved under lished. Nowadays, many research efforts are being
Part-145, which uses certifying staff according with dedicated by different committees around the world
Part-66 and they have been trained according with to develop standardisation for AM processes in order
the Part-147. to establish the terminology, material and processes
and test methods. This will permit AM technology to
compete and participate in the aerospace market
under the same conditions as conventional manufac-
Implementing AM for the aerospace market
turing processes.
The idea of bringing AM into MRO requires meeting
European Commission Regulations (regulations
related with initial airworthiness, Part 21, and conti-
Development of AM standards
nuing airworthiness Part 145, Part M, Part 147 and The AM industry is starting to respond to the need for
Part 66). standardisation at a global level. As a consequence,
A repair or recreation using an AM process has to various committees with substantial European
be developed by an approved design organisation involvement have been created. The most important
(Part 21, Sub J) or an organisation with comparable ones are the ASTM F42 Committee95 and the ISO TC
capabilities. The introduction of AM as a new pro- 261. Both of them have identified priority topics for
duction and repair method has to be classified as a standardisation, in particular: qualification and certi-
major design change (GM 21.A.91)94 and a major fication methods, design guidelines, test methods for
repair (21.A.435(a)).94 The new process has to be characteristics of raw materials, material recycling
approved (for alternative procedures, see guidelines96,97 and standards protocols for round
21.A.14(b)94) by national aviation authorities follow- robin testing standard test artefact,96–98 requirements
ing point 21.A.97 and resulting in approved records for purchased AM parts, harmonisation of existing
that include all relevant data for a specific repair ISO/ASTM terminology standards1,66 and testing of
solution. finished parts. One of the main challenges of stand-
An MRO service provider with design organisation ardisation is the diversity of AM technologies and the
approval has to approve the new repair design and need to categorise them accordingly. Some standards
append a supplemental page (STC) to the applicable have been published and others are in progress, but

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Uriondo et al. 13

they still have to be fully assessed and accepted by the and QA/QM processes, which take in account the
aerospace industry and the corresponding aviation characteristics of these technologies, will permit
authority. reduce time and cost during the manufacturing or
repair operations. Although the possibilities of these
technologies in terms of cost, speed, reliability and
Conclusions
accuracy can be compared in some cases with other
Unlike other manufacturing processes, AM is neither traditional manufacturing technologies used in the
adequately understood nor characterised to establish aerospace sector, further improvements in AM pro-
a combination of fixed process parameters, accept- cess knowledge and standardisation are required to
ance testing, non-destructive inspection, and destruc- implement it in the repair and produce operations.
tive coupon testing, to confirm if it complies with all Improvements in new models for AM technologies
requirements. With the current state of this technol- will permit to achieve better surface quality, dimen-
ogy in terms of design, qualification, process specifi- sional accuracy and process control systems. Thus,
cations and standardisation, it is difficult for the the technology can be used for a much broader area
aerospace industry to develop a single specification of applications, modifying the current aerospace busi-
and associated database for AM for a given alloy. ness model.
In other words, when all variables in the AM process
are fixed and the process becomes stable and con- Funding
trolled, the resulting mechanical properties are well This work presented in this paper has received funding from
characterised and sufficiently invariable, the structural the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme
performance of AM parts is predictable using conven- (FP7/2007–2013) under grant agreement no 605779 (see
tional design tools, and the ability to accomplish post- Grant Agreement (GA), annex2, p.29). This work was
processes is demonstrated (like machining or drilling), also supported in part by the IVHM Centre at Cranfield
then only can AM be considered a viable option in the University.
aerospace industry.
From the point of view of the qualification of AM Conflict of interest
in the aerospace industry, there are significant chal- None declared.
lenges because of the following reasons:
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